Lesson 1: History, Automotive Parts and Services

 Ten years after Karl Benz was granted a German patent for his creation of the first car
with an internal combustion engine, commercial production of vehicles started in the
United States in 1896. He established the German automaker Mercedes Benz with his
wife, Bertha.

BASIC PARTS OF A CAR

1. BATTERY
 The battery is an essential part. Car batteries supply the jolt of energy required to power
the engine as well as the electrical accessories in your car. This enables your car to turn
on in the first place. To start the engine, your battery converts chemical energy into
electrical energy and sends it to the starter.
 It will typically be under the hood of cars, and you may spot it by looking for the (-)and
(+) symbols. If you need to jumpstart your car, you must attach the jumper cable's red
clamp to the (+) symbol and its black clamp to the (-) symbol.
2. ALTERNATOR
 By using an alternating current, the alternator creates electricity by converting
mechanical energy into electrical energy (AC). It is utilized to power the car's electrical
system in conjunction with the battery. The alternator harnesses the mechanical energy
produced as the car travels to replenish the battery. Overcharging from the alternator
might cause battery issues.
3. AXLE
 When you wish to move, brake, or turn, your axles are a crucial component. Axles are an
essential part of the steering system and are attached to the wheels, supporting the
weight of your car and transferring power. The majority of contemporary cars have split
axles, which increase handling and traction while also extending tire life by connecting
each wheel on each side to an independent shaft for a smoother, more comfortable ride.
 Power is transferred from the engine to the wheels via the axle. It is a crucial component
whenever you wish to travel, brake, or turn. If your axles begin to make loud clunking
noises, they are likely in disrepair. Additionally, your automobile will vibrate terribly,
especially when you brake or turn.
4. BRAKES
 The brake system on your car is made up of many parts. The brake pedal, caliper, light
switch, pad, and rotor are all present. When there is a problem with the brakes, it
usually stems from a problem with the caliper, pad, or rotor.
 The car's brake calipers might be found either at the front or the back, but they are
always located behind a wheel. Behind a wheel, there are brake pads as well, and the
padding will eventually start to deteriorate. When you begin to hear a loud, screeching
sound every time you stop, you know a brake pad is past its prime. Your brakes need
brake fluid to function properly. The hydraulic action that intensifies friction is aided by
brake fluid.
5. RADIATOR
 The radiator is located below the hood. Since its job is to cool the engine down and keep
it from overheating, it will be placed close to the engine. To guarantee that the engine
temperature never climbs too high, it must have enough engine coolant.
 The coolant circulates throughout the car, attracting heat, and moving it from the engine
block to the radiator to avoid an overheating condition. The radiator's fins allow hot air
to pass through while cooling the liquid by passing air over it. The heat is finally released
from the car and into the atmosphere.
6. AC COMPRESSOR
 The engine compartment contains the AC compressor. The serpentine drive belt will be
hooked to it, and it will be on one of the sides. To circulate cool air throughout the
vehicle, the AC compressor cycles through Freon. The compressor must be fully
functional if you wish to utilize your car's air conditioning throughout the sweltering
summer months. When the compressor is damaged, you won't feel any cold air going
through the vents, and it will also create obtrusive, loud noises while running.
7. MUFFLER
 The muffler, which is a component of your car's exhaust system, keeps it quiet while
you're driving about town. Between the engine in the front and the tailpipe in the back
is where you'll find the actual muffler. Any muffler issues should be fixed as soon as you
become aware of them because complete catalytic converter failure might result in high
repair costs.
8. TRANSMISSION
 When looking at a car parts diagram, you should consider whether you have a front-
wheel drive or rear-wheel drive vehicle. The transmission will be located between the
transaxles behind the engine block in front-wheel drive vehicles. With rear-wheel drive,
it will be bolted directly to the engine. The transmission has a series of gears that vary
 depending on the speed desired by the driver. The driver shifts manual transmissions
from a gearing device inside the power train. The internal computer of the vehicle
controls automatic transmissions. The gear ratios of an automatic transmission are
changed automatically with the help of transmission fluid. CVT transmissions smoothly
shift gears across a wide range of gear ratios.
9. SHOCK ABSORBER
 When driving on uneven terrain, shock absorbers help keep your vehicle stable. The
shock absorbers will be mounted on the underside of your vehicle. Immediate
replacement is required to avoid further wear and tear on your vehicle's suspension
system.
[Link] CONVERTER
 The catalytic converter is a component of the emissions system that reduces
the amount of nitrous oxide, hydrocarbons, and carbon monoxide produced
during the combustion process. To remove harmful emissions, the converter is
made of stainless steel and employs a catalyst. The check engine light will
illuminate in a vehicle with a faulty catalytic converter.

Lesson 2: Car driving and maintenance, Road Signs

What You Should Know About Routine Vehicle Maintenance

DO IT YOURSELF
[Link] How to Use Your Owner's Manual
2. Check your tires monthly
3. Change Your Oil and Oil Filter on Schedule
4. Replace the Air Filter with Oil Changes
5. Inspect All Other Fluids
6. Examine Belts and Hoses
7. Always Listen and Feel for Brake Issues
8. Replace Wiper Blades as Needed
9. Remove Battery Corrosion
DRAFTING

 Beauty is perceived through two primary sources: nature and art.

 Nature provides a vast array of beauties, including rainbows, mountains, lakes, plants,
animals, and humans, seen as God's creative work.
 Nature is often referred to as the Mother of all arts.
 Art is a human creation, defined as anything made or done by humans that evokes
beauty or emotion.
 Art includes creations crafted by people for comfort and enjoyment.
 Art involves the use of materials, sounds, or body movements for expression.

 Fine Arts: Created primarily for personal pleasure and appreciation, including music,
painting, sculpture, architecture, literature, drama, and dance.

 Practical Arts: Also known as useful, functional, or manual arts, these are created for
everyday use. They combine functionality with aesthetics, like architecture, which serves
both practical and artistic purposes.

Practical Arts
1. Industrial Arts
2. Agricultural Arts
3. Business Arts
4. Homemaking Arts
5. Fishery Arts
6. Distributive Arts
DRAFTING AREAS
Drafting is the process of representing objects or ideas through lines of various thicknesses and
compositions. It is essential in producing economically useful items, as virtually all modern
appliances, vehicles, buildings, and spacecraft begin with drafting.

Major kinds of drafting include:

1. Furniture Drafting
2. Architectural Drafting
3. Mechanical Drafting
4. Electrical and Electronics Drafting
5. Topographical Drafting
6. Airplane Drafting
7. Ship Drafting
8. Structural Drafting
9. Sheet Metal Drafting

Drafting Occupations
 Mechanical or Machine Draftsman
 Furniture Designer
 Architectural Draftsman
 Topographical Draftsman
 Structural Draftsman
 Electrical Draftsman
 Naval Draftsman

ALLIED DRAFTING TRADES

 Commercial Artist: Creates signs, posters, advertisements, and promotional materials.
 Layout Stripper: Prepares page layouts and strips negatives or positives for printing.
 Textile Designer: Designs patterns for textiles.
  Silk-Screen Printer: Creates stencils for printing on textiles.

Objectives of Drafting as an Exploratory Practical Arts Course

1. Acquiring skills in freehand drawing, lettering, structural and decorative design, pictorial
sketching, and orthographic drawing.
2. Gaining technical knowledge related to the drafting trade.
3. Learning to read and interpret working sketches and drawings.
4. Developing observation and visualization skills.
5. Forming good work habits, such as cleanliness and accuracy.
6. Appreciating high-quality draftsmanship.

Tools and Materials Needed

 Drawing pencils (F, HB, B, and 6B) are generally used in sketching all required
 drawing plates.
 Soft rubber eraser
 Rule (metric)
 Drawing and lettering pens with a penholder (Gillott, Staedtler, Speedball) Drawing
papers, 23 cm x 30 cm, 23-kg (50-lb) book or Oslo paper and bristol
 board (cartolina)
 Sketch book, 23 cm x 30 cm (9"x12"), with cross-perpendicular lines
 Pocket knife or NT knife and sharpening pad Flexible steel measuring tape 2 m long
 Large envelope, 30 cm x 40 cm (12"x16")
 Lecture notebook
 India ink, 22 cc (3/4 oz) bottle
 Water color set with pointed sable brush (Prang or equivalent)
 Tempera colors (6 bottles to a set)
 Wax crayons (16 colors)
 Tracing paper, 1/2 m long
Freehand and Mechanical Drawing
Freehand Drawing
 Sketching done without the use of mechanical tools, often used for quick, informal
sketches or conceptual drawings.
 Includes the use of various pencil strokes and shading techniques to represent different
textures and depths.

Mechanical Drawing
 Technical drawing done with precision tools and instruments, providing
detailed and accurate representations of objects.
 Utilizes tools like compasses, rulers, and protractors for creating
precise lines and measurements.

Pencil Techniques
LINES AND STROKES
 Horizontal Lines: Drawn parallel to the lower edge of the drawing paper.
 Vertical Lines: Drawn from top to bottom.
 Inclined Lines: Generally sketched from left to right.
 Short Lines: Drawn with finger movement.
 Long Lines: May be drawn in segments; ensure no gaps or irregularities.

Types of Lines:
 Perpendicular Lines: Form a 90-degree angle with each other.
 Parallel Lines: Lines that never meet, even if extended.
 Curved Lines: Can be regular (circle, arc, ellipse) or irregular.

Pressure and Pencils:

 Varying Thickness: Achieved by varying pencil pressure.
  Different Grades: Using pencils of various hardness for different line
qualities.

Alphabet of Lines
 Border Line: Defines the edge of the drawing area.
 Visible Line: Represents edges and outlines visible in the drawing.
 Hidden Line: Shows edges that are not visible because they are obscured.
 Center Line: Indicates the center of symmetrical objects or components.
 Projection Line: Used to project features from one view to another.
 Dimension Line: Specifies the size of an object or distance between features.
 Leader Line: Connects notes or labels to specific parts of the drawing.
 Reference Line: Provides a reference point or baseline for measurements.
 Limiting Line: Marks the limits of a drawing or part of a drawing.
Pictorial Drawing

 Isometric Drawing: A type of pictorial drawing where the object is represented with all
three axes equally foreshortened, making it easier to visualize in three dimensions.
 Oblique Drawing: Represents the object with one face parallel to the drawing plane and
the other faces at an angle, showing a 3D view.
 Perspective Drawing: Depicts objects with converging lines that create the illusion of
depth and distance, providing a more realistic view.

ORTHOGRAPHIC DRAWING
 Derived from the Greek words "orthos" (right or correct) and "graphos" (to draw or
write). Orthographic projection refers to drawing techniques that depict a three-
dimensional object in two dimensions, maintaining true proportions and angles.
 Used to represent the exact shape and dimensions of an object from multiple views,
essential for technical design and manufacturing.
Views
 Front View: Shows the object from the front.
 Top View: Displays the object from above.
 Side View: Illustrates the object from the side.

PRINCIPLES OF ORTHOGRAPHIC DRAWING

1. The top view is directly above the front view.
2. The side views are horizontally aligned with the front view.
3. The width of the top view is equal to the width of the side views.
4. A line or edge viewed perpendicularly to a plane of projection appears as a point.
5. A line or edge parallel to the plane of projection appears in its exact length.
6. A line or edge inclined to the plane of projection appears shorter or fore shortened.
7. A surface perpendicular to the projection plane appears as a line or edge equal in length to its
nearest edge.
8. A surface parallel to the plane of projection is shown in its exact shape and size.
9. A surface inclined to the plane of projection appears smaller.
10. No line or edge of the object can be projected longer than its true length.

TWO-VIEW DRAWING
 A type of orthographic drawing that includes two views of the object, typically the front
and top views or the front and side views.
 Useful for simple objects where two views are sufficient to convey the necessary details.
It provides a clear representation of the object from two perspectives.

Three-View Drawing
 A type of orthographic drawing that includes three views of the object: the front view,
top view, and side view.
  Provides a comprehensive representation of the object from three different
perspectives, ensuring all dimensions and details are accurately portrayed.

Geometric Solids and Figures

Quadrilaterals:
 Parallelogram: A quadrilateral with two pairs of parallel sides.
 Rectangle: A parallelogram with four right angles.
 Square: A rectangle with all sides equal.
 Rhombus: A quadrilateral with all sides equal but not necessarily with
right angles.
 Trapezoid: A quadrilateral with one pair of parallel sides.
 Trapezium: A quadrilateral with no sides parallel.
triangles:
 Right Triangle: A triangle with one angle of 90 degrees.
 Equilateral Triangle: A triangle with all sides and angles equal.
 Isosceles Triangle: A triangle with two sides and two angles equal.
 Scalene Triangle: A triangle with all sides and angles different.
 Angle Sum: The sum of the angles in any triangle is 180 degrees.

CIRCLES
 A plane figure bounded by a uniformly curved line, with all points on the circumference
equidistant from the center.
 Major Parts: Radius, diameter, circumference, chord, and sector.
 Concentric Circles: Circles with a common center.
 Eccentric Circles: Circles without a common center.

ELLIPSE
  A plane figure bounded by a curved line with no common center, characterized by a
major and minor diameter. The sum of the distances from any point on its curve to its
two foci is constant.

Cone:
 A geometrical solid with a circular base and sides tapering to a point (vertex). Can be cut
to form a frustum or truncated cone.
Pyramid:
 A solid figure with a base that can be square, triangular, rectangular, or polygonal. Can
also be cut to form a frustum or truncated pyramid.
Prism:
  A solid figure with two parallel bases that are polygonal in shape. A square prism with a
square base is called a cube.
Cylinder:
 A solid with a circular base. An upright cylinder has vertical sides, while an oblique
cylinder has inclined sides. A cylinder may be truncated.
Sphere:
 A solid bounded by a uniformly curved surface with all points equally distant from a
common center.
Regular Polygon:
 A plane figure with all sides and angles equal, such as a pentagon (5 sides), hexagon (6
sides), and decagon (10 sides).

DESCRIPTION OF TOOLS
LUMBER Sawn Tumber
Lumber serves a variety of
purposes, primarily in
construction and
manufacturing

 Building Materials
 Furniture Making

CEMENT
a powdered substance
which when mixed with

water acts as
binder of aggregate

SAND
Sand-fine gritty, substance found in the shore and desert
PLYWOOD
GRAVEL

TOOLS
PULL-PUSH – RULE
CLAW HAMMER
used for driving and pulling out nails
CROSS CUT SAW
Cross-cut-saw-tool used for cutting across the grain
RIPSAW
used for cutting along the grain

THE DIFFERENT OF RIPSAW AND CROSS CUT SAW

PLUMP BOB
Used for vertical alignment
TRY SQUARE
square used to test the squareness of a stock
HACK SAW
fine toothed saw used to cut metals and pipes
LEVER BAR
tool used in checking vertical and horizontal position

THE HISTORY OF MASONRY:

MASONRY
Is an ancient craft that has been with us for centuries, dating back to early
civilizations. From the Middle East to Europe and across Asia, masonry—and
masons—helped build some of the world’s most impressive structures.
Through time, stone and brick masonry have evolved and transformed,
adding new techniques, tools, and materials to what’s possible to use.

THE EARLY DAYS OF MASONRY

Some of the oldest examples of stonework are connected to what many consider sacred, burial
or magical sites, AND the pyramids of Egypt.
Masonry is an ancient craft that has been practiced for centuries, contributing to the
construction of impressive structures worldwide.
In western Asia, between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, clay deposits were abundant, so the
masonry structures of the Assyrian and Persian empires were built from sun-dried bricks, kiln-
burned and finished with glazed faces.
Mortars of early masonry structures, much like stone materials, were connected to local
substances such as lime and natural sand. Mortar techniques and traditions evolved through
time, mostly reflecting environmental changes.

THE MIDDLE AGES

Masonry's broad nature changed during the Middle Ages, as masons became more specialized,
with craftsmen dedicating themselves exclusively to the trade.
Stone and brick masonry have evolved over time, incorporating new techniques, tools, and
materials.
Masons began to use new tools, such as the compass and square, which helped to create more
precise designs. The use of mortar, that mixture of sand and lime, became more essential to
building a stable and complex structure.

THE RENAISSANCE
The Renaissance Period (14th Century to the 17th Century) saw a renewed
interest in classical architecture, with masons studying the works of the
ancient Greeks and Romans.
The Renaissance period brought a renewed interest in classical architecture, leading to the
development of new techniques and the use of keystones and brick.
The masonry, and shift in construction roles, during the Renaissance led to the development of
new techniques, such as the use of keystones, which helped to distribute weight more
evenly in arches. Masons also began to experiment with new materials, such as brick and terra
cotta, which allowed for more intricate designs and patterns.

The Industrial Revolution

Coined by the English economic historian Arnold Toynbee to describe Britain’s economic
development from 1760 to 1840, brought about significant changes in the field of masonry.

The Industrial Revolution revolutionized masonry with the introduction of steam-

powered machinery, the production of uniform bricks, and the invention of
cement, enabling the construction of taller and more elaborate buildings.

MASONRY TODAY
Today, masonry continues to be an essential part of the construction industry. While many
traditional techniques are still used, new materials and technologies have been introduced to
the field. Masons now use power tools, such as saws and drills, to shape and cut stones, while
computer-aided design (CAD) software has revolutionized the way designs are created and
executed.

SUSTAINABLE MASONRY
Sustainable masonry has become an important trend in recent years, with a focus on using
environmentally friendly materials and practices. Masons now use recycled materials, such as
crushed glass and fly ash, in their projects, while new construction methods, such as passive
solar design, help to reduce energy consumption.

MASONRY RESTORATION
Restoration is another important aspect of modern masonry, including Notre Dame s vaulted
ceilings. Many historic buildings require maintenance and repair to ensure their longevity, and
masons use traditional techniques and materials to preserve the original character of these
structures.

 Masonry restoration preserves historic buildings using traditional techniques and

materials.

EVOLVE STONE
Despite the history of stone and brick masonry and its aesthetic appeal and durability, part of
the future of masonry lies with stone veneers. Even those professionals who ’ve worked—and
loved—real stone see the advantages of stone veneer.
Advances in stone veneer, such as the ability to keep it lightweight and easily installed with a
nail gun, are specific to Evolve Stone, although other brands have benefits, too.
COMMON MASONRY TOOLS USED INMASONRY CONSTRUCTION
Masonry work requires tools for various purposes, i.e. for handling of mortar, for the dressing of
stone, for cutting of bricks to get required shape etc. As it goes with traditions in existence since
the days of the AncientIndian and Egypt, masonry deals with some common elements as
crushed stones from the earth and simple metal tools.

These tools are also known by their regional names depending upon local customs of the region
for example, spades are known asphavadas , mortar pan is known as ghamela and so on.

01. Trowel
The basic masonry trowel is made up of stainless steel
with a plastic/ wooden handle. The ends of trowel may
be bull nosed or pointed.
02. Corner Trowel
It is one of the common modifications of the basic [Link] is
used for shaping corners of the wall. They are two types of
Corner Trowel.
03. Setting Out Square or Mason Square
It is used to set out right angles at the corner of masonry wall. This is very important and basic
tool used in masonry work. This tool has “L” shape. It is made of flat steel having each arm
about 0.5 m long
04. Plumb Rule and Bobs Green
This basic masonry tool is used to check the verticality of walls. It consists of a string tied to a
weight at bottom called bob and straight wood board with uniform edges called plumb rule. On
its center a groove is provided in which plumb bob is placed.
05. Spirit Level
Te spirit level is placed on surface of masonry wall and bubble is checked. The surface
is called leveled when the bubble in the tube settles at middle of tube.
06. Water Level It is used to transfer and check level. It is a simple tool to measure
the level at two different points.
 07. Spades (phavadas)
They are used to mix mortar and also used to place cement, mortar, concrete in head
pan.
08. Mortar Pan / ghamela
Mortar pan is commonly used in construction sites and is made of iron or plastic. It is a vessel
made of rigid plastic or steel used to hold or carry sand, cement, mortar and concrete.
9. Pick Axe
It is employed for rough dressing of stones and to split the stones in the quarry. It has a long
head pointed a both ends.
10. Drafting Chisel It is a chisel especially used for cutting a border or line at the edge of a
stone. They come in different types of size.
11. Hand Saw It is used to cut soft stones. It is a saw with wide cross-cut toothed steel
blade and wooden/plastic handle at one end. It is used by one hand Brick Hammer It
has one flat traditional face and a short or long chisel-shaped blade. It is also used to
push the bricks if they come out from the course line.