Regulation – 2022(CBCS Scheme) High Voltage Engineering – BEE515A

MODULE-2

GENERATION OF HIGH VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS

2.3 GENERATION OF IMPULSE VOLTAGES

2.3.4 Multistage Impulse Generators—Marx Circuit

✓ In the above discussion, the generator capacitance C1 is to be first charged and then
discharged into the wave-shaping circuits.
✓ A single capacitor C 1 may be used for voltages up to 200 KV. Beyond this voltage, a single
capacitor and its charging unit may be too costly, and the size becomes very large.
✓ The cost and size of the impulse generator increases at a rate of the square or cube of the
voltage rating. Hence, for producing very high voltages, a bank of capacitors are charged
in parallel and then discharged in series.
✓ The arrangement for charging the capacitors in parallel and then connecting them in
series for discharging was originally proposed by Marx.
✓ Nowadays, modified Marx circuits are used for the multistage impulse generators.
✓ The schematic diagram of Marx circuit and its modification are shown in Figs 2.17a and
2.17b, respectively.
✓ Usually the charging resistance Rs is chosen to limit the charging current to about 50 to
100 mA, and the generator capacitance C is chosen such that the product CRs is about 10
s to 1 min.
✓ The gap spacing is chosen such that the breakdown voltage of the gap G is greater than
the charging voltage V.
✓ Thus, all the capacitances are charged to the voltage V in about 1 minute. When the
impulse generator is to be discharged, the gaps G are made to spark over simultaneously
by some external means.
✓ Thus, all the capacitors C get connected in series and discharge into the load capacitance
or the test object.

✓ The discharge time constant CR1/n (for n stages) will be very very small (microseconds),
compared to the charging time constant CRs which will be few seconds. Hence, no
discharge takes place through the charging resistors Rs.
✓ In the Marx circuit is of Fig. 2.17a the impulse wave-shaping circuit is connected
externally to the capacitor unit.
✓ In Fig. 2.17b, the modified Marx circuit is shown, wherein the resistances R 1 and R2 are
incorporated inside the unit.

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✓ R1 is divided into n parts equal to R1/n and put in series with the gap G.
✓ R2 is also divided into n parts and arranged across each capacitor unit after the gap G.
✓ This arrangement saves space, and also the cost is reduced.
✓ But, in case the wave shape is to be varied widely, the variation becomes difficult.
✓ The additional advantages gained by distributing R1 and R2 inside the unit are that the
control resistors are smaller in size and the efficiency (V0ZnV) is high.

Fig. 2.17a Schematic diagram of Marx circuit arrangement for multistage impulse
generator

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Fig. 2.17b Multistage impulse generator incorporating the series and wave tail
resistances within the generator

✓ Impulse generators are nominally rated by the total voltage (nominal), the number of
stages, and the gross energy stored.
✓ The nominal output voltage is the number of stages multiplied by the charging voltage.
✓ The nominal energy stored is given by C1V2. where C1 = C/n (the discharge capacitance)
and V is the nominal maximum voltage (n times charging voltage).
✓ A 16-stage impulse generator having a stage capacitance of 0.280μF and a maximum
charging voltage of 300 KV will have an energy rating of 192 KWs.
✓ The height of the generator will be about 15 m and will occupy a floor area of about
3.25 × 3.00 m.
✓ The waveform of either polarity can be obtained by suitably changing the charging unit
polarity (Plate 3).

2.3.5 Components of a Multistage Impulse Generator

A multistage impulse generator requires several components parts for flexibility and for the
production of the required wave shape. These may be grouped as follows:
(i) DC Charging Set
The charging unit should be capable of giving a variable dc voltage of either polarity to
charge the generator capacitors to the required value.

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(ii) Charging Resistors

These will be non-inductive high value resistors of about 10 to 100 kilo-ohms. Each resistor
will be designed to have a maximum voltage between 50 and 100 kV.

(iii) Generator Capacitors and Spark Gaps

These are arranged vertically one over the other with all the spark gaps aligned. The
capacitors are designed for several charging and discharging operations. On dead short circuit,
the capacitors will be capable of giving 10 kA of current. The spark gaps will be usually spheres
or hemispheres of 10 to 25 cm diameter. Sometimes spherical ended cylinders with a central
support may also be used.

(iv) Wave-shaping Resistors and Capacitors

✓ Resistors will be non-inductive wound type and should be capable of discharging impulse
currents of 1000 A or more.
✓ Each resistor will be designed for a maximum voltage of 50 to 100 kV The resistances are
bifilar wound on non-inductive thin flat insulating sheets.
✓ In some cases, they are wound on thin cylindrical formers and are completely enclosed.
✓ The load capacitor may be of compressed gas or oil filled with a capacitance of 1 to 10 nF.
✓ Modern impulse generators have their wave-shaping resistors included internally with a
flexibility to add additional resistors outside, when the generator capacitance is changed
(with series parallel connection to get the desired energy rating at a given test voltage).
Such generators optimize the set of resistors.
✓ A commercial impulse voltage generator uses six sets of resistors ranging from 1.0 ohm to
about 160 ohms with different combinations (with a maximum of two resistors at a time)
such that a resistance value varying from 0.7 ohm to 235 ohms per stage is obtained,
covering a very large range of energy and test voltages.
✓ The resistors used are usually resin cast with voltage and energy ratings of 200 to 250 kV
and 2.0 to 5.0 kWs. The entire range of lightning and switching impulse voltages can be
covered using these resistors either in series or in parallel combination.

(v) Triggering System

This consists of trigger spark gaps to cause spark breakdown of the gaps (see section 2.5)

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(vi) Voltage Dividers

Voltage dividers of either damped capacitor or resistor type and an oscilloscope with
recording arrangement are provided for measurement of the voltages across the test object.
Sometimes a sphere gap is also provided for calibration purposes.

(vii) Gas Insulated Impulse Generators

Impulse generators rated for 4 MV or above will be very tall and require large space. As such
they are usually located in open space and are housed in an insulated enclosure. The height
of a 4.8 MV unit may be around 30 m. To make the unit compact, a compressed gas, such as
N2 or SF6 may be used as the insulation. Impulse generators are needed to generate very fast
transients having time duration of 0.5/5 or 0.1/1.0 μs waves for testing Gas Insulated Systems
(GIS) that are coming up nowadays. The energy needed for testing of this type of equipment is
small (less than 30 kJ) and the load capacitance is usually less than 500 pF.

Generation of Very Fast Transients

IEC specifies that the standard wave form of the fast transients can be either 0.2/2 or 0.3/3.0
μ second wave with front-time tolerance of about 60% and tail-time tolerance of 30%. When
testing motor or generator coils, the test specimen is a ‘R-L’ load where as with GIS the load
is capacitive. Hence, generation of exact wave form without oscillations or distortions is
extremely difficult. The impulse generator used to generate such wave forms consists of a
capacitor of 0.01 to 0.1 μF discharging into a load capacitor in parallel with the test object
(either ‘R-L’ like motor coils or capacitive like GIS) through a few sections of ‘L-C’ unit pulse-
shaping network (Fig. 2.21).

2.3.6 Generation of Switching Surges

✓ Nowadays, in extra-high-voltage transmission lines and power systems, switching surge

is an important factor that affects the design of insulation.
✓ All transmission lines rated for 220 kV and above, incorporate switching surge spark
overvoltage for their insulation levels.
✓ A switching surge is a short duration transient voltage produced in the system due to a
sudden opening or closing of a switch or circuit breaker or due to an arcing at a fault in
the system.
✓ The waveform is not unique.

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✓ The transient voltage may be an oscillatory wave or a damped oscillatory wave of

frequency ranging from few hundred hertz to few kilo-hertz.
✓ It may also be considered as a slow rising impulse having a wave front time of
0.1 to10 μs, and a tail time of one to several μs.
✓ Thus, switching surges contain larger energy than the lightning impulse voltages.
Several circuits have been adopted for producing switching surges.
✓ They are grouped as
(i) impulse generator circuit modified to give longer duration wave shapes,
(ii) power transformers or testing transformers excited by dc voltages giving
oscillatory waves and these include Tesla coils.
✓ Standard switching impulse voltage is defined, both by the Indian Standards and the IEC,
as 250/2500 μs wave, with the same tolerances for time-to-front and time-to-tail as those
for the lightning impulse voltage wave, i.e., time-to-front of (250 ± 50) μs and time-to-half
value of (2500 ± 500) μs.
✓ Other switching impulse voltage waves commonly used for testing the lightning arresters
are 250/1500 μs with a tolerance of ± 500 μs in time-to-half value.
✓ Figure 2.18 shows the impulse generator circuits modified to give switching surges.
✓ The arrangement is the same as that of an impulse generator.
✓ The values of R1 and R2 for producing wave shapes of long duration, such as 100/1000
μs or 400/4000 μs, will range from 1 to 5 kilo-ohms and 5 to 20 kilo-ohms respectively.
Thus, R1 is about 20 to 30% of R2.
✓ The efficiency of the generator gets considerably reduced to about 50% or even less.
Moreover, the values of the charging resistors R1 are to be increased to very high values
as these come in parallel with R2 in the discharge circuit.

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Fig. 2.18 Circuits for producing switching surge voltages. Also, shown are the output
wave shapes across the load Cx.

✓ The circuit given in Fig. 2.18b produces unidirectional damped oscillations.

✓ With the use of an inductor L, the value of R1 is considerably reduced, and the efficiency
of the generator increases.
✓ The damped oscillations may have a frequency of 1 to 10 kHz depending on the circuit
parameters.
✓ Usually, the maximum value of the switching surge obtained is 250 to 300 kV with an
impulse generator having a nominal rating of 1000 kV and 25 KWs.
✓ Bellaschi et al. used only an inductor L of low resistance to produce switching impulse
up to 500 kV.
✓ A sphere gap was included in parallel with the test object for voltage measurement and
also for producing chopped waves.
✓ Switching surges of very high peaks and long duration can be obtained by using the
circuit shown in Fig.2.19.
✓ An impulse generator condenser C1 charged to a low voltage dc (20 to 25 kV) is
discharged into the low-voltage winding of a power or testing transformer.
✓ The high-voltage winding is connected in parallel to a load capacitance C 2, a potential
divider R2, a sphere gap S, and test object.

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✓ Through an autotransformer action, switching surge of proper wave shape can be

generated across the test object.
✓ The efficiency obtained by this method is high but the transformer should be capable of
withstanding very high voltages.

Fig. 2.19 Circuit for producing switching surges using a transformer

Multi-Test Sets for High-Voltage Testing

✓ In many small laboratories like in the teaching institutions, small industries and utility
organizations, the requirements of high voltages may be less than about 200 kV, 50 Hz, ac,
400 kV dc and 400 kV standard lightning and switching impulse voltages.
✓ The power requirements will be around 5 KΩ or KVA and the energy requirement will be
less than 1.5 kJ.
✓ For such applications, flexible and universally interchangeable modular systems of the
above voltage and energy ratings are available under different trade names.

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These systems mainly consist of the following:

(i) AC Testing Transformers With continuous power ratings of 3 to 5 KVA with a short time
rating about 150%. The unit can be one single transformer of up to 100 kV (rms), or 2 to 3
units connected in cascade with voltage ratings up to 300 kV (rms).

(ii) DC Units Ac transformer with the addition of a rectifier unit and a filter capacitor, with
ripple factor at rated current less than 5% and a voltage drop or regulation less than 10%, for
a single stage output of about 100 kV (half-wave rectifier) constitute a dc set. dc sets are
available as multi-stage voltage doubler units with one pulse output, or as a quadruple unit of
up to 400 kV rating with the same specifications. In either case, the power ratings will be about
3 to 5 KΩ continuous. The rectifier stacks used are the selenium diode type.

(iii) Impulse Voltage Units Marx circuit of 2 to 4 stages can be assumed using the transformer
and dc rectifier unit described earlier for an output voltage of about 400 kV (peak) using a one
stage rectifier unit. The necessary wave front and wave tail resistors and load capacitances
are normally provided. The units are assembled with modular components mounted on
suitable insulating columns. The units normally have voltage efficiency of about 90%.

All the basic units are clearly and compactly arranged. By having increased number of units
the system can be expanded to obtain higher and desired type of voltage. Control
cubicles/boxes are provided for the control and measurement of voltages. The units can be
mounted on wheels or located permanently in a test hall of size 4 m × 3 m × 3 m. Multi-test
sets are currently being manufactured and assembled in India by some leading manufacturers
of high-voltage test equipments.

2.4 GENERATION OF IMPULSE CURRENTS

✓ Lightning discharges involve both high voltage impulses and high current impulses on
transmission lines.
✓ Protective gear like surge diverters have to discharge the lightning currents without
damage.

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✓ Therefore, generation of impulse current waveforms of high magnitude (= 100 kA peak)

find application in test work as well as in basic research on non-linear resistors, electric
arc studies, and studies relating to electric plasmas in high current discharges.

2.4.1 Definition of Impulse Current Waveforms

✓ The wave shapes used in testing surge diverters are 4/10 and 8/20 μs, the figures
respectively representing the nominal wave-front and wave-tail times (see Fig. 2.14).
✓ The tolerances allowed on these are ±10% only.
✓ Apart from the standard impulse current waves, rectangular waves of long duration are
also used for testing.
✓ The wave shape should be nominally rectangular in shape.
✓ The rectangular waves generally have durations of the order of 0.5 to 5 μs, with rise and
fall times of the waves being less than ±10% of their total duration.
✓ The tolerance allowed on the peak value is +20% and -0% (the peak value may be more
than the specified value but not less).
✓ The duration of the wave is defined as the total time of the wave during which the
current is at least 10% of its peak value.

2.4.2 Circuit for Producing Impulse Current Waves

✓ For producing impulse currents of large value, a bank of capacitors connected in parallel
are charged to a specified voltage and are discharged through a series R-L circuit as shown
in Fig. 2.20.
✓ C represents a bank of capacitors connected in parallel which are charged from a dc
source to a voltage up to 200 kV.
✓ R represents the dynamic resistance of the test object and the resistance of the circuit and
the shunt. L is an air cored high current inductor, usually a spiral.
✓ If the capacitor is charged to a voltage V and discharged when the spark gap is triggered,
the current im will be given by the equation

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Fig.2.20 Impulse current generator circuit and its waveform

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The circuit is usually under damped, so that

Hence im is given by

The time taken for the current im to rise from zero to the first peak value is

The duration for one half cycle of the damped oscillatory wave t2 is

✓ It can be shown that the maximum value of im is normally independent of the value of V
and C for a given energy W= (1/2) CV2, and the effective inductance L.
✓ It is also clear from Eq. (2.25) that a low inductance is needed in order to get high
current magnitudes for a given charging voltage V.
✓ The present practice as per IEC standards is to adopt waveform II shown in Fig.2.20,
and to define the waveform and wave tail times similar to the definition given for
impulsevoltage waves.

Thus, the current im is expressed as follows.

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with this definition, time to front t1 = tf = 1/β tanh−1 (β/α) and the time to tail t2 is a
complex function of both β and α.

For a 8/20 μS wave, the values of t1, t2 and peak value of Im are deduced as

α = 0.0535 × 106, β = 0.113 × 106and Im=VC/14 with LC = 65.

Values of R, L and C are expressed in ohms, Hernies and Farads and V, I are expressed in KV
and KA.

2.4.3 Generation of High Impulse Currents

✓ For producing large values of impulse currents, a number of capacitors are charged in
parallel and discharged in parallel into the circuit.
✓ The arrangement of capacitors is shown in Fig. 2.20c.
✓ In order to minimize the effective inductance, the capacitors are subdivided into smaller
units.
✓ If there are n1 groups of capacitors, each consisting of n2 units and if L0 is the inductance
of the common discharge path,L1 is that of each group andL2 is that of each unit, then the
effective inductance L is given by

𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟏
𝑳 = 𝑳𝟎 + +
𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐

Also, the arrangement of capacitors into a horse-shoe shaped layout minimizes the effective
load inductance (Plate 4).

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The essential parts of an impulse current generator are

(i) a dc charging unit giving a variable voltage to the capacitor bank,
(ii) capacitors of high value (0.5 to 5 μF) each with very low self-inductance, capable of
giving high short circuit currents,
(iii) an additional air cored inductor of high current value,
(iv) proper shunts and oscillograph for measurement purposes, and
(v) a triggering unit and spark gap for the initiation of the current generator..

2.4.4 Generation of Rectangular Current Pulses

✓ Generation of rectangular current pulses of high magnitudes (few hundred amperes and
duration up to 5 ms) can be done by discharging a pulse network or cable previously
charged.
✓ The basic circuit for producing rectangular pulses is given in Fig. 2.21. The length of a
cable or an equivalent pulse forming network is charged to a specified dc voltage.
✓ When the spark gap is short-circuited, the cable or pulse network discharges through the
test object.
✓ To produce a rectangular pulse, a coaxial cable of surge impedance (where L 0 is the
inductance and C0 is the capacitance per unit length) is used.
✓ If the cable is charged to a voltage V and discharged through the test object of resistance
R, the current pulse I is given by I = V/(Z0 + R).
✓ A pulse voltage RV/(R + Z0) is developed across the test object R, and the pulse current
is sustained by a voltage wave (V-IR).
✓ For R = Z0, the reflected wave from the open end of the cable terminates the pulse current
into the test object, and the pulse voltage becomes equal to V/2.

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Fig. 2.21 Basic circuit and schematic set-up for producing rectangular current pulses

✓ In practice, it is difficult to get a coaxial cable of sufficient capacitance and length. Often
artificial transmission lines with lumped L and C as shown in Fig. 2.21b are used.
✓ Usually, 6 to 9 L-C sections will be sufficient to give good rectangular waves.
✓ The duration of the pulse time in seconds (t) is given by

𝒕 = 𝟐(𝒏 − 𝟏)√𝑳𝑪
where n is the number of sections used, C is the capacitance per stage or section, and L is
the inductance per stage or section.
✓ The current waveforms produced by an artificial line or pulse network and a coaxial
cable are shown in Figs 2.22a and b.

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Fig. 2.22 Current waveforms produced by rectangular current generators

2.5 TRIPPING AND CONTROL OF IMPULSE GENERATORS

✓ In large impulse generators, the spark gaps are generally sphere gaps or gaps formed by
hemispherical electrodes.
✓ The gaps are arranged such that sparking of one gap results in automatic sparking of other
gaps as overvoltage is impressed on the other.
✓ In order to have consistency in sparking, irradiation from an ultra-violet lamp is provided
from the bottom to all the gaps.
✓ To trip the generator at a predetermined time, the spark gaps may be mounted on a
movable frame, and the gap distance is reduced by moving the movable electrodes closer.
✓ This method is difficult and does not assure consistent and controlled tripping.
✓ A simple method of controlled tripping consists of making the first gap a three electrode
gap and firing it from a controlled source.
✓ Figure 6.23 gives the schematic arrangement of a three-electrode gap.
✓ The first stage of the impulse generator is fitted with a three-electrode gap, and the central
electrode is maintained at a potential in between that of the top and the bottom electrodes
with the resistors R1 and R1.
✓ The tripping is initiated by applying a pulse to the thyratron G by closing the switch S.
✓ The capacitor C produces an exponentially decaying pulse of positive polarity.
✓ The pulse goes and initiates the oscilloscope time base.

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✓ The thyratron conducts on receiving the pulse from the switch S and produces a
negative pulse through the capacitance C1 at the central electrode of the three electrode
gap.
✓ Hence, the voltage between the central electrode and the top electrode of the three
electrode gap goes above its sparking potential and thus the gap conducts.
✓ The time lag required for the thyratron firing and breakdown of the three electrode gap
ensures that the sweep circuit of the oscilloscope begins before the start of the impulse
generator voltage.
✓ The resistance R2 ensures decoupling of voltage oscillations produced at the spark gap
entering the oscilloscope through the common trip circuit.

Fig. 2.23 Tripping of an impulse generator with a three electrode gap

✓ The three-electrode gap requires larger space and an elaborate construction.

✓ Nowadays a trigatron gap shown in Fig. 2.24 is used, and this requires much smaller
voltage for operation compared to the three-electrode gap.
✓ A trigatron gap consists of a high-voltage spherical electrode of suitable size, an earthed
main electrode of spherical shape, and a trigger electrode through the main electrode.
✓ The trigger electrode is a metal rod with an annular clearance of about 1 mm fitted into
the main electrode through a bushing.

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✓ The trigatron is connected to a pulse circuit as shown in Fig. 2.24b.

✓ Tripping of the impulse generator is effected by a trip pulse which produces a spark
between the trigger electrode and the earthed sphere.
✓ Due to space charge effects and distortion of the field in the main gap, spark over of the
main gap occurs.
✓ The trigatron gap is polarity sensitive and a proper polarity pulse should be applied for
correct operation.

Fig. 2.24a Trigatron gap

Fig. 2.24b Trigatron gap and tripping circuit

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PROBLEMS:

1. A Cockcroft-Walton type voltage multiplier has eight stages with capacities, all equal to
0.05 μF. The supply transformer secondary voltage is 125 KV at a frequency of 150 Hz. If
the load current to be supplied is 5 mA, find i) the percentage ripple ii) the regulation
iii) the optimum number of stages for minimum regulation or voltage drop.

Solution:

(i) Calculation of Percentage Ripple

I = 5 mA, f = 150 Hz, C = 0.05 μF, number of stages = 8. Hence n = 16 (number of

capacitors)

(ii) Calculation of Regulation

(iii) Calculation of Optimum Number of Stages (n optimum)

Since n > 5,

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2. A 100 KVA, 400 V/250 KV testing transformer has 8% leakage reactance and 2% resistance
on 100 KVA base. A cable has to be tested at 500 KV using the above transformer as a
resonant transformer at 50 Hz. If the charging current of the cable at 500 KV is 0.4 A, calculate
the series inductance required. Assume 2% resistance for the inductor to be used and the
connecting leads. Neglect dielectric loss of the cable. What will be the input voltage to the
transformer?

Solution:

The maximum current that can be supplied by the testing transformer is

100 × 103
= 0.4𝐴
250 × 103
𝑉𝐶 500 × 103
𝑋𝐶 = 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐶𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑠 = = 1250𝐾𝛺
𝐼 0.4

%𝑋 𝑉 8 250 × 103
𝑋𝐿 = 𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑠 × = × = 50𝐾𝛺
100 𝐼 100 0.4
𝐴𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑋𝐶 = 𝑋𝐿
Hence, additional reactance needed = 1250 − 50 = 1200 KΩ
Inductance of additional reactance (at 50 Hz frequency)
1200 × 103
= 3820𝐻
2𝜋 × 50

R = Total resistance in the circuit on 100 KVA base is 2% + 2% = 4%. Hence, the ohmic
value of the
Resistance
4 250 × 103
= × = 25𝐾𝛺
100 0.4

Therefore, the excitation voltage E2 on the secondary of the transformer

= 𝐼 × 𝑅 = 0.4 × 25 × 103 = 10 × 103𝑉 (𝑜𝑟) 10𝐾𝑉
The primary voltage or the supply voltage, E1

10 × 103 × 400
= = 16𝑉
250 × 103

16
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐾𝑊 = × 100 = 4.0𝐾𝑊
400
The magnetizing current and the core losses of the transformer are neglected.

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3. A 12 stage impulse generator has 0.126 µF capacitors. The wave front and the wave tail
resistances connected are 800 ohms and 5000 ohms respectively. If the load capacitor is
1000 pF, Calculate the front and tail times of the impulse wave produced.
Solution:

0.126
The generator capacitance, 𝐶1 = = 0.0105 µF
12

The load capacitance, C2 = 0.001μF

Resistances, R1 = 800 ohms and R2 = 5000 ohms

𝐶1𝐶2 0.0105 × 10−6 × 0.001 × 10−6

∴ 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡, 𝑡1 = 3𝑅1 ( ) = 3 × 800 × ( (0.0105 + 0.001) × 10−6 ) = 2.19𝜇𝑠
𝐶1 + 𝐶2

∴ 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑙, 𝑡2 = 0.7(𝑅1 + 𝑅2)(𝐶1 + 𝐶2) = 0.7 × (800 + 5000) × (0.0105 + 0.001) × 10−6
= 46.7µ𝑠

Prepared by: Prof. Raghavendra R.M Sri Sairam College of Engineering, Anekal. Page | 21