Computer Architecture
Central processing unit
The CPU or microprocessor is referred to as the brain of the Computer. It is a VLSI chip
plugged into the mother board. The functions of CPU are as follows,
Carrying out arithmetic and logic function.
Controlling the use of main storage.
Controlling the sequence of operations.
Controlling all the parts of the computer system.
CPU contains these subsystems: Arithmetic / logic unit , registers and control unit.
1) Arithmetic / logic unit: It executes all arithmetic and logical operations. It contains
two units:
i) Arithmetic unit: Contains circuitry responsible for performing actual
computation such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.
ii) Logic Unit: Performs logical operations. It tests three conditions
a) Equal to condition
b) Less than condition
c) Greater than condition
2) Registers: These are special purpose, high speed temporary memory unit that holds
data, instruction, addresses and intermediate results. They hold information that CPU is
currently working on. Registers work under the direction of control unit. There are
different types of registers
They are,
a) Program counter (PC) : Keeps track of next instruction to be executed.
b) Instruction Register (IR): Holds the instruction to be de-coded by control unit.
c) Memory Address Register(MAR): Holds the address of next location in
memory to be accessed.
d) Memory buffer register (MBR): Used for storing data either coming to CPU or
being transferred to CPU.
e) Accumulator (ACC): General purpose register used for storing data and
intermediate results.
f) Data Register (DR): Used for storing operands and other data.
3) Control Unit: It is the heart of computer. Controls I/O devices and data transfer to and
from memory. It itself is controlled by instructions in programs. It performs four basic
operations:
i) Fetching: Obtains program instruction or data from the memory.
ii) Decoding: Translates the instruction into commands that computer can
understand.
iii) Executing: Carries out commands.
iv) Storing: Writes the results to memory.
Main Memory: It holds data and instructions. It is a separate part placed on the
computer’s mother board. There are two types of primary memory:
Random Access memory: It provides a required information to CPU. It is directly
accessed by CPU. It is volatile in nature, that is the data in it remains as long as the
power is switched on. They are further classified into two categories
a) Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM): This type of RAM holds data in dynamic
manner, with the help of refresh circuit. The contents of cell are read at regular intervals
and this action refreshes the contents of memory. They are made of capacitors which
hold charge for a short period.
b) Static RAM (SRAM): It is a fast RAM compared to DRAM. The presence of SRAM
allows processor to avoid accessing slower DRAM. SRAM is included in the computer
by the name of cache.
Read Only Memory (ROM): It can only be read but not written. The ROM stores
initially start up instructions in BIOS (Basic Input Output System) which can be read by
the CPU when the computer is switched on. When the instructions in ROM is built into
electronic circuits of the chip. This is firmware.
There are several types of ROM
PROM- Programmable read only memory
EPROM- Erasable programmable read only memory
EEPROM- Electrically erasable programmable read only memory.
System bus:
A bus is a set of connection between two or more components, which is
designed to transfer several bits of word from source to destination. A bus consists of
multiple paths. To transmit 8 bits simultaneously over a bus, 8 lines are required.
A bus that connects to all three components namely CPU, memory and I/O devices are
called as system bus. A system bus consists of 50-100 separate lines. They can be
categorized into:
1. Data lines: They provide path for moving data between system modules. Data
bus consists of 8, 16 or 32 lines.
2. Address lines: Used to designate the source of data bus. It supplies address from
CPU to various locations. The width of address bus specifies the maximum
possible memory supported by a system.
For E.g.: If address bus has 16 lines it can support 216 = 16536 bytes of memory.
3. Control lines: Used to control the access to data and address bus . These lines
are used to transmit commands and timing signals between system modules.
The control lines are also required for reading/ writing to I/O devices or
memory.
Cache Memory:
A cache is a very high speed memory placed between processor and RAM. It
increases the accessing speed. It is fast memory made from high speed Static
RAM that reduces time of accessing data. It is very expensive and usually
incorporated in the processor. The cache enables processor to access data
quickly whenever it is needed. The cache frequently used data that is found in
DRAM and buffers.
Cache can be categorized into 3 levels
Level 1Cache: Also known as primary cache. It is built into processor chip. It works
together with Level2 Cache to provide processor fast access to often used data.
Level2 Cache: Known as secondary cache. It is built into motherboard. It is larger and
slower than level1 cache but faster than main memory.
Level 3 Cache: It is an enhanced form of main memory present in the motherboard,
between processor and main memory to speed up processing operations.
