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Critical Reasoning -I

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 CRITICAL REASONING -1

1.1 Introduction
What is critical reasoning all about? It is basically about
arguments and their validity. An argument is a group of
statements; one is supposed to follow from the others,
which are regarded as providing support or grounds for
the truth. This is called the conclusion of the argument.
The statement(s) that provide the support or reasons for
accepting the conclusion are the premises.
Conclusion: A conclusion is a claim, the main point of an
argument.
Facts or Premises: A premise is a stated reason, a piece
of evidence that supports the conclusion.
Assumption: An assumption is an unstated premise that
supports the conclusion.
Consider the following sample argument:
United Artists most recent film is based on a best-selling
novel and stars Brad Heartthrob. Therefore, the film is
expected to do well at the box office.
The first step in tackling a problem such as this is to
identify the three components.

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Fact 1: Film based on popular novel
Fact 2: Star is Brad Heartthrob
Conclusion: Film should be successful
The assumptions are always unstated (hereafter, Hidden
Assumptions, or Hidden Assumption's): they are
additional pieces of information about each fact in the
argument. For example:
Hidden Assumption for fact 1: Fans of the book are
expected to help sales of tickets.
Hidden Assumption for fact 2: Brad Heartthrob's
presence should contribute to the success of film.
These Hidden Assumption's help you see how the facts
lead to the conclusion. You can often, though not always,
distinguish fact from conclusion by spotting "signal
words" that introduce each component. The Conclusions
may be signaled by words like as, therefore (as in the
example above), so, thus, and in conclusion. Detailed
facts, which are more specific than conclusions, may be
flagged by such words as due to, because, a study
shows, and in addition.

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Once you identify the components, you must answer
questions that ask you to evaluate these components.
There are three basic question types in the Logical
Reasoning section, each focusing on one of the three
components. They are in descending order of frequency:
the Additional Fact Questions, the Conclusion Question,
and the Hidden Assumption Question.
A. Some of the questions will merely ask you to
identify the conclusion.
B. Additional Fact/ Inference questions - these ask
you to find something that is known to be true from
information presented in the argument containing
words like - infer, implicit, imply, most reasonably
and must be true. Inferences could be about a
conclusion that was not stated, or from facts
stated as premises.
C. Assumption questions – These use phrases like
depends on, relies on, assumes. Look for a gap
between the premises and the conclusion, try to
get a sense of what assumption is necessary to fill
the gap. Try to state the assumption in your own
words before seeing the answer choices.

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2. Identifying Conclusions
2.1 Identifying Conclusions Quiz
Identify the conclusion in the arguments expressed in
questions 1-11:
1. The FDA should stop all cigarette sales
immediately. After all, cigarette smoking is the
leading preventable cause of death.
2. Every law is an evil, for every law is an infraction of
liberty.
3. Wisdom is the principal thing, therefore get
wisdom.
4. Now human law is framed for a multitude of
human beings. The majority of human beings are
not perfect in virtue. Therefore human laws do not
forbid all vices.
5. ... vicious acts are contrary to acts of virtue. But
human laws does not prohibit all vices... Therefore
neither does it prescribe all acts of virtue.
6. The real and original source of inspiration for the
Muslim thinkers was the Quran and the sayings of
the Holy Prophet. It is therefore clear that the
Muslim philosophy was not a carbon copy of Greek

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 thought, as it concerned itself primarily and
specifically with those problems which originated
from and had relevance to Muslims.
7. Letting forests die is self destructive. Their role as
a filter of the world’s pollution, a sponge that
absorbs carbon dioxide and slows global warming
is crucial to the life of the earth.
8. As the government spends increasingly less on
student financial aid, many leading colleges and
universities are using a larger percentage of tuition
revenues for scholarships. Just as income tax
breaks are given for charitable contributions, this
portion of the tuition should be tax deductible.
9. If the criminal law prohibits suicide, that is not an
argument valid in the church; and besides, the
prohibition is ridiculous; for what penalty can
frighten a person who is not afraid of death itself?
10. If a right to euthanasia is grounded in self
determination, it cannot be reasonably limited to
the terminally ill. If people have a right to die, why
must they wait till they are dying before they are
permitted to exercise that right?

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11. The dreamer rejected the ordinary. Jay invited the
ordinary. Jay was no dreamer.
Questions 12-15 are excerpts from TED talks. In your
own words, write down the conclusions made by the
passage. And btw, if you loved the passage, you can watch
the TED talk by clicking on the hyperlink below 
12. I learned that it all changes in an instant. We have
this bucket list, we have these things we want to
do in life, and I thought about all the people I
wanted to reach out to that I didn't, all the fences I
wanted to mend, all the experiences I wanted to
have and I never did. As I thought about that later
on, I came up with a saying, which is, "I collect bad
wines." Because if the wine is ready and the person
is there, I'm opening it. I no longer want to
postpone anything in life. And that urgency, that
purpose, has really changed my life.
To access this TED talk by Ric Elias click on this
13. Also is the knowledge that right now we spend
about in the first 25 years of our lives learning, then
there is another 40 years that's really reserved for
working. And then tacked on at the end of it are
about 15 years for retirement. And I thought it
might be helpful to basically cut off five of those

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 retirement years and intersperse them in between
those working years. (Applause) That's clearly
enjoyable for myself. But probably even more
important is that the work that comes out of these
years flows back into the company and into society
at large, rather than just benefiting a grandchild or
two.
Excerpted from TED talk by Stefan Sagmeister
14. We are constantly trying to put accountability in
someone's hands. Who is accountable for this
process? We need somebody accountable for this
process. So in the relay race, since passing the
baton is so important, then we need somebody
clearly accountable for passing the baton. So
between each runner, now we will have a new
dedicated athlete, clearly dedicated to taking the
baton from one runner, and passing it to the next
runner. And we will have at least two like that. Well,
will we, in that case, win the race? That I don't
know, but for sure, we would have a clear interface,
a clear line of accountability. We will know who to
blame. But we'll never win the race. If you think
about it, we pay more attention to knowing who to
blame in case we fail, than to creating the

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 conditions to succeed. All the human intelligence
put in organization design -- urban structures,
processing systems -- what is the real goal? To
have somebody guilty in case they fail. We are
creating organizations able to fail, but in a
compliant way, with somebody clearly accountable
when we fail. And we are quite effective at that --
failing.
Excerpted from TED talk by Yves Morieux
15. Change has to first start in the mind. If we think
back to our pitch to Bob, in order to apply the
principles that underpin the miracle of the human
immune system, we first need to think differently
about business. Now typically, when we think
about business, we use what I call "mechanical
thinking." We set goals, we analyze problems, we
construct and we adhere to plans, and more than
anything else, we stress efficiency and short-term
performance. Now, don't get me wrong -- this is a
splendidly practical and effective way of
addressing relatively simple challenges in relatively
stable environments. It's the way that Bob -- and
probably many of us, myself included -- process
most business problems we're faced with every

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day. In fact, it was a pretty good mental model for
business -- overall -- until about the mid-1980s,
when the conjunction of globalization and a
revolution in technology and telecommunications
made business far more dynamic and
unpredictable.
Excerpted from TED talk by Martin Reeves

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 Answer and Explanation
Q. Explanations
No
1 The FDA should stop all cigarette sales immediately.
After all, cigarette smoking is the leading preventable
cause of death.
2 Every law is an evil, for every law is an infraction of
liberty.
3 Wisdom is the principal thing, therefore get wisdom.
4 Now human law is framed for a multitude of human
beings. The majority of human beings are not perfect in
virtue. Therefore human laws do not forbid all vices.
5 vicious acts are contrary to acts of virtue. But human
laws does not prohibit all vices... Therefore neither does
it prescribe all acts of virtue
6 The real and original source of inspiration for the Muslim
thinkers was the Quran and the sayings of the Holy
Prophet. It is therefore clear that the Muslim philosophy
was not a carbon copy of Greek thought, as it concerned
itself primarily and specifically with those problems
which originated from and had relevance to Muslims.
7 Letting forests die is self destructive. Their role as a filter
of the world’s pollution, a sponge that absorbs carbon
dioxide and slows global warming is crucial to the life of
the earth.
8 As the government spends increasingly less on student
financial aid, many leading colleges and universities are

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 using a larger percentage of tuition revenues for
scholarships. Just as income tax breaks are given for
charitable contributions, this portion of the tuition should
be tax deductible.
9 If the criminal law prohibits suicide, that is not an
argument valid in the church; and besides, the
prohibition is ridiculous; for what penalty can frighten a
person who is not afraid of death itself?
10 If a right to euthanasia is grounded in self determination,
it cannot be reasonably limited to the terminally ill. If
people have a right to die, why must they wait till they are
dying before they are permitted to exercise that right?
11 The dreamer rejected the ordinary. Jay invited the
ordinary. Jay was no dreamer.
12 The future is uncertain, so do whatever you want to do it,
do it now
13 Take sabbaticals; it will benefit you and the society.
14 You cannot have accountability without responsibility.
15 Rule based organizations run well when environment is
stable, but dynamic environments require more of
innovation than rules.

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3. Fallacies
3.1 Types of Fallacies
Most often questions check the knowledge of being able
to pick holes in arguments. The various types of fallacies
are:
Ignorance

A statement is true simply because it has not been

proved false or vice versa. Appeal to Ignorance occurs
when a person mistakenly believes something to be true
that is not, because he or she does not know enough
about the subject, or has not been given enough
evidence, to know otherwise. For example, an argument
based on stereotype is an example of ignorance fallacy.

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Such an argument is persuasive because the audience
wants to believe what their prejudice tells them is true.
Since the new drug showed no adverse effects on mice,
it has no adverse effects on humans.
No one can actually prove that God exists; therefore God
does not exist.
Inappropriate Authority

All of us depend on things that other people tell us.

Children rely on their parents and teachers for basic
guidance and instruction. Scientists rely on other
scientists to report their findings accurately. Historians
depend on primary sources and other historians for

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reliable information about the past. Indeed, it is hard to
see how any stable and cohesive society could exist
without a great deal of shared trust in its members’ basic
honesty and reliability. For that reason, trust in authority
has aptly been described as “the very foundation of
civilization.” Too often, however, people rely uncritically
on the authority of others. Throughout history blind faith
in authority has bred superstition, intolerance, and
dogmatism. Consequently, it is of great importance to be
able to distinguish legitimate appeals to authority from
those that are fallacious. The fallacy of inappropriate
appeal to authority is committed when an arguer cites a
witness or authority who, there is good reason to believe,
is unreliable.
Drive a Ford Escort because the famous tennis star
Leander Paes drives one.
Oppenheimer concluding that nuclear weapons is a
wrong political decision.
Circular Reasoning

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The circular argument uses its own conclusion as one of
its stated or unstated premises. Instead of offering proof,
it simply asserts the conclusion in another form, thereby
inviting the listener to accept it as settled when, in fact, it
has not been settled. Because the premise is no different
from and therefore as questionable as its conclusion, a
circular argument violates the criterion of acceptability.
To allow every man unbounded freedom of speech must
always be, on the whole, advantageous to the state; for it
is highly conducive to the interest of the community that
each individual should enjoy a liberty, perfectly unlimited,
of expressing his sentiments.
I know what the author says is true, because he states in
the preface that he does not lie.
Ad Hominem

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An ad hominem argument is one that is used to counter
another argument; but, it is based on feelings or
prejudice, rather than facts, reason or logic. It is often a
personal attack on one’s character rather than an
attempt to address the issue at hand. This type of fallacy
can often be witnessed in usage in individual debate, in
court or in politics. Often, the attack is based on one’s
social, political, or religious views, or is based on lifestyle
choices of the person being attacked using ad hominem.
Cardinal Newman’s claims were not to be trusted,
because being a Roman Catholic priest, Newman’s first
loyalty was not to the truth.
This is a female issue. As a man, how can you have an
opinion about this?
You wouldn’t understand since you have never had to
struggle.

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Sampling

Wrong to make a generalization - or make a specific

conclusion from a generalization. Eating deep fried foods
has a generally adverse impact on one’s cholesterol level,
but that bad outcome may not arise in some persons, so
can we claim that eating fried foods is not bad? It is
a broad claim based on too-limited evidence. It is
unethical to assert a broad claim when you have
only anecdotal or isolated evidence or instances.
It rained yesterday and today. Therefore it will rain
tomorrow
An environmental group illegally blocked loggers and
workers at a nuclear plant. Therefore, environmentalists
are radicals who take the law into their own hands.

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Part-Whole

The error of assuming that what is true of a member of a

group is true for the group as a whole.
Since every part of the machine is light in weight, the
machine is light weight.
The atomic bombs dropped during WWII did more
damage than did the ordinary bombs that were dropped.
(individually or collectively?)

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Bad Syllogism

Use Venn Diagram approach to decide if a syllogism

follows.
False Analogy

Analogies and metaphors can be very useful

to explain things to people and often play an important
part in learning. A false analogy is a logical fallacy that
occurs when someone applies facts from one situation
to another situation but the situations are substantially
different and the same conclusions cannot logically be
drawn.

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The universe is like a watch. A watch must have a
watchmaker. The universe, being like a watch, must have
a designer.
Correlation not Cause

That "correlation proves causation," is considered

questionable when two events occurring together are
taken to have established a cause-and-effect
relationship.
In a series of experiments from 1924-1932, researchers
studied the worker productivity effects associated with
altering the Illinois factory's environment, including
changing light levels, tidying up the place and moving
workstations around. Just when they thought they were
on to something, they noticed a problem: The observed
increases in productivity flagged almost as soon as the
researchers left the works, indicating that the workers'
knowledge of the experiment, not the researchers'
changes, had fueled the boost. Researchers still call this
phenomenon the Hawthorne Effect.

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Ambiguity
These are fallacies that occur because of the ambiguous
or unclear use of language.
An elephant is an animal, so a small elephant is a small
animal. “definition of small is relative”. Why do white
sheep eat more than black sheep? “because there are
more of them” ( sheep was plural)
Complex Question
Asking the question in such a way as to presuppose the
truth of some conclusion in that question.
Why is the private development of resources so much
more efficient than any government owned enterprise?
Or asking two questions at one go and expecting an
answer in the negative or affirmative at one go.
Were you at home at 9 p.m.? Did you come home early on
the day that the murder was committed?

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3.2 Identifying Fallacies quiz
Identify the type of fallacy expressed in the 15 cartoons
below:

1.

2.

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3.

4.

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5.

6.

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7.

8.

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9.

10.

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11.

12.

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Answers to the Fallacy Quiz
Types of Fallacy
1. Appeal to inappropriate authority
2. Circular Reasoning
3. Complex question
4. Ignorance
5. Correlation not cause:
6. Ad Hominem – Against the person
7. Of sampling
8. Equivocation
9. Ambiguity
10. Composition
11. Syllogism
12. Complex question

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CR Technique
4.1 Technique for Critical Reasoning
The general algorithm to be used in answering any
critical reasoning questions is:
1. Identify the conclusion. In some cases, the
question can take the forms of a fill-in-the-blank, in
which case the conclusion would be part of the
option.
2. Ask yourself this question. What is evidence in the
argument itself, which is supporting the
conclusion? This would be explicitly stated in the
argument.
3. The next question that you will need to address. Is
the conclusion dependent upon some conditions
that have not been stated explicitly in the passage?
If that is the case, try to list down such
assumptions.
4. Look at the question and try to frame an answer to
the question, as far as possible without looking at
the options.

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The best possible suggestion for doing well on Critical
Reasoning is to understand how the problems are
constructed, what the test is asking you to do, and then
to practice. Keep in mind the following steps when
tackling this section in the test.
Read each paragraph carefully.
A. Distinguish conclusion from fact and consider the
hidden assumptions based on given facts.
B. Read the question carefully.
C. For additional fact questions, make sure of your
task (strengthen or weaken) before proceeding.
Choose the statement that directly addresses a
given fact, Hidden Assumption, or conclusion.
D. For conclusion questions, think in a linear fashion:
Where are the facts headed? Choose a statement
that goes one logical step further from the given
facts.
E. For Hidden Assumption questions, remember to
choose a statement that supports the argument
with more information about given issues. Try the
“negation test.”

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