The principles of inheritance are the foundational concepts in genetics that describe how traits
are passed from parents to offspring. These principles were first outlined by Gregor Mendel
through his experiments with pea plants and form the basis of classical genetics.
1. Law of Segregation (First Law)
Definition: Each individual has two alleles (versions) for each trait, one from each
parent. These alleles segregate, or separate, during the formation of gametes (sperm or
egg), so that each gamete carries only one allele for each trait.
Key Idea: Offspring inherit one allele from each parent, and these alleles determine the
traits expressed.
Example: If a plant has one allele for purple flowers (P) and one for white flowers (p), it
can pass on either P or p to its offspring.
2. Law of Independent Assortment (Second Law)
Definition: Genes for different traits are inherited independently of one another, as long
as the genes are located on different chromosomes or far apart on the same chromosome.
Key Idea: The inheritance of one trait does not influence the inheritance of another trait.
Example: The gene for flower color (purple or white) is inherited independently of the
gene for plant height (tall or short).
3. Law of Dominance
Definition: When two different alleles for a trait are present, one is often dominant and
masks the effect of the other, which is recessive.
Key Idea: The dominant allele determines the appearance of the organism, while the
recessive allele is only expressed if both alleles are recessive.
Example: If a plant has one allele for purple flowers (P, dominant) and one for white
flowers (p, recessive), the plant will have purple flowers.
Additional Concepts:
Alleles: Variants of a gene that determine specific traits.
Homozygous: An individual with two identical alleles for a trait (e.g., PP or pp).
Heterozygous: An individual with two different alleles for a trait (e.g., Pp).
Genotype: The genetic makeup of an individual (e.g., PP, Pp, or pp).
Phenotype: The observable characteristics or traits (e.g., purple or white flowers).
Non-Mendelian Inheritance:
While Mendel's laws describe many inheritance patterns, there are exceptions, including:
Incomplete Dominance: Neither allele is fully dominant, and the offspring show a blend
of the traits (e.g., red and white flowers produce pink flowers).
Codominance: Both alleles are equally expressed (e.g., a cow with both red and white
spots).
Multiple Alleles: Some genes have more than two alleles (e.g., blood type in humans
with A, B, and O alleles).
Polygenic Inheritance: Traits controlled by multiple genes (e.g., height, skin color).
