UNIT I

Writing Skills - Essential Grammar and Vocabulary - Passive Voice, Reported Speech,
Concord, Signpost words, Cohesive Devices - Paragraph writing - Technical Writing vs.
General Writing.

Writing Skills

1. Introduction to Writing Skills

 Definition: Writing skills encompass the ability to convey ideas clearly and effectively in
written form.
 Importance: Essential for academic, professional, and personal communication.

2. Components of Writing Skills

 Grammar: The set of structural rules governing the composition of sentences, phrases,
and words in a language.
 Vocabulary: The body of words used in a particular language.
 Spelling: The process of forming words from letters.
 Punctuation: The use of symbols such as periods, commas, and question marks to
clarify meaning.
 Syntax: The arrangement of words and phrases to create well-formed sentences.

3. Types of Writing

 Descriptive Writing: Describes a person, place, or thing in such a way that a picture is
formed in the reader's mind.
 Narrative Writing: Tells a story or recounts events.
 Expository Writing: Explains or informs.
 Persuasive Writing: Aims to convince the reader to accept a particular point of view or
take a specific action.
 Technical Writing: Communicates specific information about a particular subject, craft,
or occupation.

4. The Writing Process

 1. Prewriting: Brainstorming and organizing ideas.
2. Drafting: Writing the initial version of the text.
3. Revising: Reviewing and altering the content for clarity and effectiveness.
4. Editing: Correcting grammar, spelling, and punctuation errors.
5. Publishing: Finalizing and sharing the text.

5. Cohesive Devices in Writing

 Pronouns: Replace nouns to avoid repetition (e.g., he, she, it).

 Conjunctions: Connect clauses or sentences (e.g., and, but, because).
 Transitional Phrases: Guide readers through the text by showing relationships between
ideas (e.g., however, furthermore, therefore).
 Repetition of Keywords: Reinforces the main ideas.
 Consistent Terminology: Especially in technical writing, ensures clarity and precision.

6. Sentence Structure

 Simple Sentence: Contains one independent clause (e.g., The cat slept).
 Compound Sentence: Contains two independent clauses joined by a conjunction (e.g.,
The cat slept, and the dog barked).
 Complex Sentence: Contains one independent clause and one or more dependent
clauses (e.g., Although the cat slept, the dog barked).
 Compound-Complex Sentence: Contains two or more independent clauses and one or
more dependent clauses (e.g., Although the cat slept, the dog barked, and the bird
sang).

7. Paragraph Structure

 Topic Sentence: Introduces the main idea of the paragraph.

 Supporting Sentences: Provide details, examples, and explanations to support the
main idea.
 Concluding Sentence: Summarizes the main idea or transitions to the next paragraph.

8. Essential Grammar Points

  Subject-Verb Agreement: Ensuring the subject and verb in a sentence match in
number (singular or plural).
 Tense Consistency: Keeping the same tense throughout a piece of writing.
 Pronoun Antecedent Agreement: Ensuring pronouns agree with their antecedents in
number and gender.
 Active vs. Passive Voice: Active voice makes the subject perform the action (e.g., The
cat chased the mouse). Passive voice has the action performed on the subject (e.g., The
mouse was chased by the cat).

9. Punctuation Marks

 Period (.): Ends a sentence.

 Comma (,): Separates items in a list, clauses, or ideas within a sentence.
 Semicolon (;): Connects closely related independent clauses.
 Colon (:): Introduces a list, quote, explanation, or example.
 Apostrophe (’): Shows possession or forms contractions.
 Quotation Marks (“ ”): Enclose direct speech or quotations.

10. Tips for Effective Writing

 Clarity: Be clear and concise.

 Coherence: Ensure logical flow of ideas.
 Consistency: Maintain consistent tone and style.
 Precision: Use precise and accurate vocabulary.
 Revision: Always revise and edit your work.

Essential Grammar and Vocabulary

 Introduction to Grammar Grammar is the set of rules that govern the structure of
sentences in a language. Proper grammar ensures clear and effective communication,
enabling writers and speakers to convey their messages accurately.
 Parts of Speech Nouns are words that name people, places, things, or ideas, such as
"cat," "city," and "happiness." Pronouns replace nouns to avoid repetition and make
sentences smoother, examples include "he," "she," and "it." Verbs express actions,
states, or occurrences, like "run," "is," and "become." Adjectives describe or modify
nouns, providing more information, for instance, "blue," "quick," and "happy." Adverbs
 modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs, indicating how, when, where, or to what
extent, such as "quickly," "very," and "silently." Prepositions show relationships between
nouns or pronouns and other words in a sentence, examples include "in," "on," and
"between." Conjunctions connect words, phrases, or clauses, like "and," "but," and
"although." Interjections express strong emotions or sudden bursts of feeling, such as
"wow," "oh," and "ouch."
 Sentence Structure A simple sentence contains one independent clause, for example,
"The cat slept." A compound sentence contains two independent clauses joined by a
conjunction, like "The cat slept, and the dog barked." A complex sentence contains one
independent clause and one or more dependent clauses, for instance, "Although the cat
slept, the dog barked." A compound-complex sentence contains two or more
independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses, such as "Although the cat
slept, the dog barked, and the bird sang."
 Subject-Verb Agreement Subject-verb agreement means that the verb must match the
subject in number (singular or plural). For example, "The cat runs" (singular) versus "The
cats run" (plural).
 Tense Consistency Tense consistency requires that the same tense be maintained
throughout a piece of writing to avoid confusion. For example, "She walked to the store
and buys a loaf of bread" should be "She walked to the store and bought a loaf of
bread."
 Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement Pronoun-antecedent agreement means that
pronouns must agree with their antecedents in number and gender. For example, "Every
student must bring their book" should be "Every student must bring his or her book."
 Active and Passive Voice Active voice makes the subject perform the action, such as
"The cat chased the mouse." Passive voice has the action performed on the subject, for
example, "The mouse was chased by the cat."
 Common Grammar Pitfalls Subject-verb agreement errors occur when the subject and
verb do not match in number, like "The group of students are going" instead of "The
group of students is going." Run-on sentences happen when two or more independent
clauses are joined without proper punctuation or conjunction, such as "I love to write I
write every day." Sentence fragments are incomplete sentences that lack a subject or a
verb, for instance, "Running down the street." Misplaced modifiers are words or phrases
that are not placed correctly in relation to the words they modify, for example, "She
 almost drove her kids to school every day" instead of "She drove her kids to school
almost every day."
 Punctuation Periods end sentences. Commas separate items in a list, clauses, or ideas
within a sentence. Semicolons connect closely related independent clauses. Colons
introduce a list, quote, explanation, or example. Apostrophes show possession or form
contractions. Quotation marks enclose direct speech or quotations.
 Vocabulary Development Expanding your vocabulary can improve your writing and
speaking skills. Read widely to encounter new words in context. Use a dictionary and
thesaurus to learn meanings and find synonyms. Practice using new words in sentences
to reinforce your understanding. Engage in conversations and writing exercises to apply
your vocabulary actively.

Passive Voice

Definition: Passive voice is a grammatical construction where the object of an action becomes
the subject of the sentence. The focus is on the action or the receiver of the action, rather than
who or what is performing the action. Structure: The passive voice is formed by combining a
form of the verb "to be" with the past participle of the main verb (e.g., "The book was read by the
student"). Usage:

 When the performer of the action is unknown or unimportant: "The window was broken."
 To emphasize the action itself or the receiver of the action: "The cake was baked by
Sarah."
 In formal or scientific writing to maintain an objective tone.

Reported Speech

Definition: Reported speech (or indirect speech) is used to convey what someone else has said
without quoting their exact words. Structure: Typically involves a reporting verb (e.g., say, tell,
ask) followed by a clause that describes what was said. Tense Changes: When changing from
direct to reported speech, tense shifts are often required:

 Present simple to past simple: "She says, 'I am tired.'" → "She said that she was tired."
 Present continuous to past continuous: "He is saying, 'I am leaving.'" → "He said that he
was leaving."
  Modals may also change: "She will go" → "She said she would go." Pronouns and
Time Expressions: Pronouns and time expressions often change:
 Direct: "I am going now."
 Reported: "He said that he was going then."

Concord

Definition: Concord (or subject-verb agreement) is the grammatical rule that the subject and
verb in a sentence must agree in number (singular or plural). Rules:

 Singular subjects take singular verbs: "The cat runs fast."

 Plural subjects take plural verbs: "The cats run fast." Special Cases:
 Collective nouns may take singular or plural verbs depending on whether the group acts
as a unit or as individuals: "The team is winning" vs. "The team are arguing among
themselves."
 With compound subjects joined by "and," use a plural verb: "Tom and Jerry are friends."
 With compound subjects joined by "or" or "nor," the verb agrees with the nearest subject:
"Neither the teacher nor the students were present."

Signpost Words

Definition: Signpost words (or transitional words) are used to guide the reader through a text by
showing relationships between ideas and indicating the direction of the argument or narrative.
Types:

 Addition: "and," "also," "furthermore," "moreover"

 Contrast: "but," "however," "on the other hand," "nevertheless"
 Cause and Effect: "because," "therefore," "thus," "consequently"
 Sequence: "first," "next," "then," "finally"
 Example: "for example," "such as," "for instance" Usage: Signpost words help clarify the
structure of the text, making it easier for readers to follow the argument or narrative.

Cohesive Devices

Definition: Cohesive devices are words or phrases that link sentences and paragraphs together
to create a coherent and unified piece of writing. Types:
  Pronouns: Replace nouns to avoid repetition (e.g., "John went to the store. He bought
some milk.")
 Conjunctions: Connect clauses or sentences (e.g., "and," "but," "because")
 Transitional Phrases: Guide readers through the text by showing relationships between
ideas (e.g., "in addition," "however," "therefore")
 Repetition of Keywords: Reinforces main ideas and creates connections (e.g., "The
experiment involved X-ray diffraction. This diffraction method...")
 Lexical Chains: Use related words to link ideas (e.g., "economy," "economic growth,"
"financial stability") Usage: Cohesive devices ensure that writing flows logically and that
ideas are clearly connected, enhancing the overall readability and comprehension of the
text.

Cohesive devices are essential tools in paragraph writing that help in linking sentences and
ideas smoothly. They ensure that a paragraph is coherent and logically connected, enhancing
the readability and clarity of the text.

Pronouns are a common cohesive device that prevents the repetition of nouns, making the text
less cumbersome. For instance, "John went to the store. He bought some milk," uses "he" to
replace "John," thereby avoiding redundancy.

Conjunctions like "and," "but," and "or" connect clauses and sentences, making the relationships
between ideas explicit. In the sentence, "She was tired, but she continued working," the
conjunction "but" links two contrasting ideas.

Transitional phrases such as "moreover," "however," and "therefore" guide the reader through
the text by indicating the relationship between different parts of the paragraph. For example,
"The project was completed on time. Moreover, it was under budget," uses "moreover" to add
additional information.

In technical writing, cohesive devices are crucial for precision and clarity. Technical documents
often use specific terms consistently and avoid unnecessary transitions to maintain focus. For
example, "The experiment involved the use of X-ray diffraction. This technique allowed for
detailed analysis of the crystal structure," uses "this technique" to refer back to "X-ray
diffraction," maintaining clarity.
In general writing, cohesive devices enhance the flow and readability of the text. Writers use
varied vocabulary and expressive transitions to engage the reader. For example, "The sunset
was breathtaking. Furthermore, the colors in the sky were like a painting," uses "furthermore" to
add emphasis and engage the reader.

While technical writing prioritizes clarity and conciseness, using fewer transitional phrases,
general writing focuses on readability and engagement, employing a wider range of cohesive
devices. Despite these differences, the importance of cohesive devices in ensuring coherence
and clarity in both types of writing cannot be overstated. They are indispensable in creating well-
structured and comprehensible paragraphs.

Paragraph Writing

Definition: A paragraph is a group of sentences that develop a single main idea. It is a

fundamental unit of writing that helps organize and structure content.

Structure of a Paragraph:

1. Topic Sentence: The topic sentence is usually the first sentence of a paragraph. It
introduces the main idea or point of the paragraph.
2. Supporting Sentences: These sentences develop the main idea presented in the topic
sentence. They provide details, examples, explanations, or evidence to support the main
point.
3. Concluding Sentence: This sentence wraps up the paragraph by summarizing the main
idea or providing a transition to the next paragraph.

Types of Paragraphs:

1. Narrative Paragraph: Tells a story or recounts events in chronological order.

2. Descriptive Paragraph: Provides details about a person, place, thing, or idea to create
a vivid picture for the reader.
3. Expository Paragraph: Explains or informs about a topic, presenting facts and logical
arguments.
4. Persuasive Paragraph: Aims to convince the reader of a particular point of view or to
take a specific action.
Characteristics of a Good Paragraph:

1. Unity: A paragraph should have a single focus and all sentences should relate to the
main idea.
2. Coherence: The ideas should flow logically from one sentence to the next. Use
transitional words and phrases to ensure smooth flow.
3. Adequate Development: The paragraph should contain enough information to fully
develop the main idea.
4. Clear Topic Sentence: The topic sentence should clearly state the main idea and set
the tone for the rest of the paragraph.
5. Relevant Supporting Details: Supporting sentences should provide concrete details,
examples, and explanations that reinforce the main idea.
6. Effective Concluding Sentence: The concluding sentence should effectively
summarize the paragraph or provide a logical transition to the next idea.

Steps in Writing a Paragraph:

1. Prewriting: Brainstorm ideas and gather information related to the main idea. Organize
your thoughts and plan the structure of your paragraph.
2. Writing: Start with a strong topic sentence. Develop your paragraph with supporting
details, ensuring coherence and unity. End with a concluding sentence.
3. Revising: Review your paragraph for clarity, coherence, and unity. Ensure that all
sentences support the main idea and that the paragraph is adequately developed.
4. Editing: Check for grammatical errors, punctuation, and spelling mistakes. Make sure
the paragraph follows proper sentence structure and formatting.

Transitional Words and Phrases:

 Addition: also, in addition, furthermore, moreover

 Contrast: however, on the other hand, nevertheless, although
 Cause and Effect: therefore, consequently, thus, as a result
 Sequence: first, next, then, finally, after
 Example: for example, for instance, such as, namely
 Conclusion: in conclusion, to sum up, in summary, finally

Example of a Paragraph:
Topic Sentence: Learning a new language can be challenging yet rewarding.

Supporting Sentences: To begin with, mastering a new language requires time and dedication.
Daily practice and immersion are essential for language acquisition. Additionally, understanding
the cultural context of the language can enhance the learning experience. For instance,
studying Spanish while living in a Spanish-speaking country allows for practical application of
the language skills. Moreover, knowing a second language can open up new career
opportunities and enable better communication in a globalized world.

Concluding Sentence: Despite the difficulties, the benefits of learning a new language make
the effort worthwhile.

Technical Writing vs. General Writing

Purpose and Audience:

 Technical Writing: Aimed at providing clear, concise, and objective information to help
the reader understand complex information or perform specific tasks. The audience is
usually professionals, technicians, or people who need detailed and precise instructions.
 General Writing: Aimed at entertaining, informing, or persuading a general audience.
The audience can vary widely, including the general public, students, or casual readers.

Style and Tone:

 Technical Writing: Utilizes a formal, impersonal, and objective tone. The style is clear,
concise, and straightforward, avoiding any ambiguity or emotional language.
 General Writing: Can vary from formal to informal and often includes personal opinions
or emotions. The style may be more creative, descriptive, and engaging to capture the
reader's interest.

Content and Structure:

 Technical Writing: Focuses on factual and detailed information. It often includes data,
statistics, diagrams, and charts to support the text. The structure is logical and
systematic, with headings, subheadings, bullet points, and numbered lists to organize
information clearly.
  General Writing: Content can be varied and may include stories, anecdotes, personal
reflections, or persuasive arguments. The structure is more flexible and can be narrative,
descriptive, expository, or argumentative.

Language and Vocabulary:

 Technical Writing: Uses precise and specialized vocabulary specific to a particular field
or industry. Jargon and technical terms are common but should be explained if the
audience might not be familiar with them.
 General Writing: Uses everyday language that is accessible to a broad audience. While
it may include some specialized terms depending on the context, it generally avoids
jargon.

Examples:

 Technical Writing: Instruction manuals, user guides, technical reports, scientific papers,
software documentation, and standard operating procedures (SOPs).
 General Writing: Novels, short stories, magazine articles, blog posts, essays, and
personal letters.

Approach to Information:

 Technical Writing: Emphasizes accuracy, clarity, and completeness. It often follows

strict guidelines or standards to ensure consistency and reliability.
 General Writing: Emphasizes creativity, engagement, and readability. It allows for more
flexibility in how information is presented and can prioritize narrative flow and audience
connection.

Visual Elements:

 Technical Writing: Frequently uses diagrams, charts, tables, and graphs to

complement and clarify the text. Visual elements are used to make complex information
more accessible.
 General Writing: May use images, illustrations, and decorative elements primarily to
enhance aesthetic appeal or support the narrative rather than to provide critical
information.
Revision and Editing:

 Technical Writing: Requires rigorous revision and editing to ensure technical accuracy,
clarity, and adherence to specific guidelines or standards.
 General Writing: Focuses on refining the voice, style, and overall flow of the piece.
Editing may involve significant reworking of content to improve engagement and
readability.

Ethical Considerations:

 Technical Writing: Must adhere to ethical standards related to honesty, integrity, and
accuracy. Misrepresentation of data or information can have serious consequences.
 General Writing: While also adhering to ethical standards, it has more leeway in
presenting subjective viewpoints and creative interpretations.