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Modeling of genetic algorithm tuned adaptive fuzzy fractional

order PID speed control of permanent magnet synchronous motor
for electric vehicle
Tolcha Lemma Sime1 · Prashant Aluvada1 · Solomon Habtamu2 · Zewde Tolosa1

Received: 8 April 2024 / Accepted: 3 September 2024

© The Author(s) 2024  OPEN

Abstract
This study presents a novel Genetic Algorithm-optimized Adaptive Fuzzy Fractional Order Proportional Integral Deriva-
tive (GA-AFFFOPID) controller for enhancing the speed control performance of permanent magnet synchronous motor
(PMSM) drives in Electric Vehicles. The proposed GA-AFFFOPID controller, which combines the advantages of genetic
algorithm optimization and adaptive fuzzy fractional-order PID control, represents a unique and innovative approach
to address the control challenges associated with PMSM drives. Permanent magnet synchronous motor technology,
known for its efficiency, compactness, reliability, and versatility in motion control applications, is increasingly adopted
in electric vehicle drive systems. However, the inherent non-linearity, dynamics, and uncertainties of permanent magnet
synchronous motors pose significant control challenges. The exceptional performance of the GA-AFFFOPID controller,
demonstrated through its superior system dynamics, precise speed tracking, and robustness against parameter variations
and sudden load disturbances, underscores the significant advancements enabled by the genetic algorithm optimization
technique in improving the control performance of PMSM drives for electric vehicle applications. Comparative analysis
with traditional control methods demonstrates the exceptional performance of the Genetic Algorithm-optimized Adap-
tive Fuzzy Fractional Order Proportional Integral Derivative controller. These findings highlight the significant perfor-
mance improvements facilitated by the genetic algorithm optimization technique in enhancing the control performance
of the adaptive fuzzy fractional order PID controller in PMSM drives for electric vehicle applications.

Article highlights
• Robust and precise control: The GA-AFFOPID controller exhibits superior system dynamics, precise speed tracking, and
robustness against parameter variations and sudden load disturbances, outperforming traditional control methods.
• Performance improvements for EV propulsion systems: The genetic algorithm optimization technique significantly
enhances the control performance of the adaptive fuzzy fractional order PID controller, leading to improved energy
efficiency and overall performance of electric vehicle propulsion systems.

Keywords Electric vehicle · Adaptive fuzzy · Permanent magnet synchronous motor

* Tolcha Lemma Sime, [Link]@[Link] | 1Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Jimma Institute of Technology,
Jimma, Ethiopia. 2Faculty of Automatic Control, Electronic and Computer Science, Silesian University of Technology, Gliwice, Poland.

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Abbreviations
AC Alternative current
DC Direct current
EV Electric vehicle
AFFOPID Adaptive fuzzy-fractional order proportional integral
FLC Fuzzy Logic Controller
FOPID Fractional Order Proportional Integral Derivative
GA Genetic algorithm
MATLAB Matrix laboratory
PD Proportional derivative
PI Proportional Integral
PID Proportional Integral Derivative
PMSM Permanent magnet synchronous motor
SPWM Sinusoidal pulse width modulation
SVPWM Space vector pulse width modulation

1 Introduction

Electric vehicles have gained significant attention in recent years due to their environmental benefits and potential to
reduce fossil fuel dependence. Permanent magnet synchronous motors (PMSMs) have become increasingly popular in
a wide range of industrial applications due to their high efficiency, high power density, and precise control capabilities.
Electric vehicles have emerged as a sustainable and efficient mode of transportation, with their propulsion systems
relying on a combination of electric motors, converters, and electronic controllers. Among the various types of electric
motors, the permanent magnet synchronous motor (PMSM) stands out as a popular choice for modern electric vehicles.
PMSMs possess a high power-to-weight ratio, exceptional efficiency, robust design, low torque ripple, and additional
reluctance torque generation capabilities, making them well-suited for electric propulsion systems [1, 2].
Efficient control of the PMSM drive motor significantly impacts a vehicle’s maneuverability, safety, and ride comfort.
However, PMSMs face challenges due to complex operational conditions, parameter variations, and external factors
that can affect control performance. Cascade control structures, featuring internal current loops and an external speed
control loop, are commonly utilized to enhance the responsiveness and disturbance handling of PMSM drives, thereby
improving overall control effectiveness [3–5].
Despite the benefits of electric vehicles, such as zero emissions and efficiency at low speeds, they encounter hurdles
related to battery charging time, high power demands for high-speed driving, and extreme temperature conditions.
Hybrid power sources, a combination of gasoline and batteries, offer extended range without relying solely on battery
power. Regenerative braking technology, another innovation, converts kinetic energy into electricity during decelera-
tion, replenishing the battery [6–9].
Recent advancements in control engineering have introduced fractional order PID (FOPID) controllers, integrating
fractional calculus with traditional PID controls to address real-world system challenges. Fractional order controllers offer
enhanced performance over integer-order models, improving the robustness and performance of closed-loop systems.
Recent research has demonstrated the effectiveness of fractional-order control strategies, such as the adaptive FOPID
controller proposed for improving the performance and resilience of power electronic systems under parameter varia-
tions and external disturbances [10–12].
Fuzzy control, an intelligent and adaptive technique, proves effective in handling nonlinear system parameter changes
encountered in electric vehicles. Fuzzy fractional order controllers have shown superiority over traditional PID algorithms,
making them suitable for vehicle applications. The GA-AFFOPID controller proposed in this study builds upon the adap-
tive FOPID control strategies explored in recent research, such as the work presented at the IEEE International Conference
on Industrial Cyber-Electromechanical Engineering [13–16].
This study focuses on the development of a Genetic Algorithm Optimized Adaptive Fuzzy Fractional Order PID (GA-
AF-FOPID) Speed Controller for PMSM Drive in Electric Vehicle applications. The proposed controller aims to address
critical control challenges in the EV industry, enhancing the resilience and dynamic response of PMSM drives. The sub-
sequent sections will provide a detailed explanation of the design and implementation of the GA-AF-FOPID controller,
including the adaptive fuzzy logic component and the fractional order PID controller. Comprehensive simulations and

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experimental results will be presented to demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed approach in comparison to
existing techniques.
The main contributions and novelty of this study are:

• Development of a GA-AF-FOPID controller that combines the benefits of genetic algorithm optimization, adaptive
fuzzy logic, and fractional order control to achieve superior speed control performance in PMSM drives for electric
vehicles.
• Automatic optimization of the GA-AF-FOPID controller parameters using a genetic algorithm, which eliminates the
need for manual tuning or trial-and-error methods, making the controller design process more efficient and system-
atic.
• Comprehensive comparative analysis of the proposed GA-AF-FOPID controller against traditional control methods,
such as PID, FOPID and AF-FOPID, to demonstrate the significant performance improvements in terms of overshoot,
rise time, steady-state error, and settling time.

2 Proposed methods

The study was conducted using a detailed mathematical model of a Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor (PMSM),
which is widely used in electric vehicle (EV) applications. The PMSM model was developed based on a set of differential
equations in the dq-reference frame. The key model parameters, including the stator resistance (Rs), d-axis inductance
(Ld), q-axis inductance (Lq), and the flux linkage of the permanent magnet (Ψm), were obtained from the literature and
are provided in Table 1.
Three different controller designs were implemented and evaluated in the study: a conventional Proportional-Integral-
Derivative (PID) controller, a Fractional Order PID (FOPID) controller and a novel Genetic Algorithm-Optimized Adaptive
Fuzzy Fractional Order PID (GA-AFFOPID) controller. The PID controller was designed using standard tuning methods,
while the FOPID controller provided enhanced flexibility and robustness compared to the conventional PID approach.
The GA-AFFOPID controller combined the benefits of Fractional Order PID control and Adaptive Fuzzy Logic, with the
controller parameters optimized using a Genetic Algorithm to achieve the best possible speed tracking performance
under varying operating conditions, including parameter uncertainties.
This article outlines a systematic approach to address the challenges associated with Permanent Magnet Synchronous
Motors to evaluate the performance of the proposed controller. Extensive simulations are carried out using MATLAB/SIM-
ULINK software. These simulations allow for a thorough assessment of the controller’s effectiveness in achieving desired
speed control, minimizing energy consumption, and enhancing overall system efficiency. Additionally, comparative
analyses are conducted with other control techniques, including fractional order PID and conventional PID controllers,
to validate the superiority of the proposed approach. The methodology outlined in this section provides a structured
framework for the development and evaluation of the proposed adaptive fuzzy fractional order PID controller for PMSM
speed control in EV applications. To enable field-oriented control of a permanent magnet synchronous motor, the static
references of the motor are transformed into a rotating reference frame [17, 18].
The transformation allows for the determination of motor parameter values over time. In field-oriented control, meas-
urements are taken in the rotor reference frame, replacing the 3-phase frame with the 2-axis rotating d-q rotor frame to
transfer observed stator currents [19, 20].

Table 1  Technical
specification of the EV [28] Acceleration due to gravity, g 9.81 kg/m2
Maximum speed, V 90 km/h
Resistance Coefficient, CR 0.02
Density 1.2 (kg/m^3)
Drag coefficient 0.335
Rotor magnetic flux 0.1252 Wb
D-axis stator resistance 0.002 m
Stator resistance 2.85 Ω

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The Park transformation, which converts the stationary α-β frame quantities into the rotating d-q frame quantities, is
represented by the following Eqs. (2):
i 𝛼 = ia
(ia + ib) (1)
i𝛽 = √
3

where ia + ib + ic = 0
Firstly, the two-axis axial reference frame is transformed into three-phase references for the observed motor currents.
This transformation is known as the α-β to a-b-c transformation [21].
id = i𝛼 cos 𝜃 + i𝛽 sin 𝜃
(2)
iq = i𝛽 cos 𝜃 − i𝛼 sin 𝜃

where θ (theta) represents the rotor position angle of the permanent magnet synchronous motor. This is a key parameter
in the Park transformation, as it defines the rotation from the stationary α-β frame to the rotating d-q frame.
The next step is to perform the d-q to α-β transformation, also known as the inverse Park transformation. This trans-
formation converts the quantities in the rotor reference frame into a two-axis symmetrical static reference frame by
applying the inverse transformation [22, 23].
v𝛼 = vd cos 𝜃 − vq sin 𝜃
(3)
v𝛽 = vq cos 𝜃 + vd sin 𝜃

• The Park angle θ used in the Park Transformation block of the control diagram Fig. 1 represents the rotor position
angle, which is a critical parameter for field-oriented control of the PMSM.
• The Park Transformation, defined by Eqs. (1) and (2), converts the 3-phase stator currents (a-b-c frame) to the 2-axis
rotating d-q frame using the rotor position angle θ.
• The inverse Clarke Transformation, represented by Eq. (4), converts the 2-phase stationary α-β frame quantities into
the 3-phase stationary a-b-c frame quantities. This is necessary for interfacing with the 3-phase PMSM stator windings.
• The inverse Clarke Transformation allows the 2-phase quantities in the α-β reference frame to be expressed in the
3-phase a-b-c reference frame, which is required for the 3-phase PMSM.

Fig. 1  Block diagram of proposed system

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So in summary, the Park angle θ is the key parameter that defines the transformation between the stationary α-β frame
and the rotating d-q frame, which is essential for field-oriented control of the PMSM. The inverse Clarke Transformation
then converts the d-q frame quantities back to the 3-phase a-b-c frame for interfacing with the motor [22, 23].
v a = v𝛼
� √ �
−v𝛼 + 3v𝛽
vb =
2
(4)
� √ �
−v𝛼 − 3v𝛽
vc =
2

2.1 PMSM model in the D‑Q frame of reference

A Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor (PMSM) is created by using a 3-phase motor and transforming it into the d-q
axes. This approach is recommended due to its simplicity, as it involves employing a single pair of windings on the stator.
The rotor, on the other hand, is made up entirely of magnets and does not have any windings. These magnets generate
flux that is concentrated along a single axis and can be referred to as either current sources or flux linkage sources. By
utilizing the concept of rotational transformation, the derivation of the electrical equations becomes easier. The voltages
in the d-q axes are obtained by calculating the flux in each winding and summing up the voltage drops.
d( )
Vq = Rs Iq + ψ +𝜔re ψd (5)
dt q

d( )
Vd = Rs Id + 𝜓 − 𝜔re 𝜓q (6)
dt d

𝜓d = Ld Id + 𝜓m , and 𝜓q = Lq Iq (7)

By substituting Eq. (7) into Equations () and (6), the derivations of Eq. (8) and Eq. (9) can be obtained respectively.
d( )
Vq = Rs Iq + 𝜓 + 𝜔re Ld Id + 𝜓m (8)
dt q

d( )
Vd = Rs Id + 𝜓 − 𝜔re Lq Iq (9)
dt d
Magnetic torque plays a crucial role in controlling the mechanical movement of the machine, including the direction
and velocity of the rotor. The electromagnetic torque can be calculated using Eq. (12), and power can be obtained by
multiplying the mechanical rotor speed by the electromagnetic torque. Equation (11) explains the process of determin-
ing ­Tem, which includes the rotor speed ωr, in radians per second (rad/s).
3 ( )
Pm = 𝜔m Tem = 𝜔 r 𝜓 d Iq + 𝜓 q Id (10)
2

3
Tem = P(𝜓m iq + (Ld − Lq )id iq ) (11)
2

Tem = 𝜓m pId = Kt Iq (12)

d
Tem = Tl + j 𝜔 + B𝜔m (13)
dt m

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As shown in the block diagram in Fig. 1, the proposed control system for PMSM speed control in an electric vehicle
employs an Adaptive Fuzzy Fractional Order PID (AFFOPID) control scheme optimized using a Genetic Algorithm (GA). The
system takes the reference speed (ω*) as the input and generates the appropriate control signals through the combined
action of the Adaptive Fuzzy Controller and the Fractional Order PID (FOPID) Controller. The Adaptive Fuzzy Controller
handles the non-linear and uncertain aspects of the PMSM plant, while the FOPID Controller provides enhanced control
performance by utilizing fractional-order control terms. Crucially, the GA Optimizer is incorporated to automatically tune
the parameters of both the Adaptive Fuzzy Controller and the FOPID Controller, optimizing the overall control system
performance and reducing the manual tuning effort. The control signals are then applied to the PMSM plant, and the
measured speed (ω) is fed back to the control system, completing the closed-loop control structure. This comprehen-
sive AFFOPID control scheme with GA optimization aims to achieve superior speed control for the PMSM in the electric
vehicle application.

2.2 Electric vehicle dynamics

Electric vehicles (EVs) utilize electric motors as their primary source of propulsion, drawing power either from external
sources or rechargeable batteries. This mode of transportation encompasses various vehicles, including cars, trains, ships,
submarines, and electric airplanes. Despite the prevalent use of internal combustion engines (ICE) in the transportation
sector, electric power remains pivotal, particularly in applications like trains and compact cars. The torque-speed char-
acteristics of electric motors in EVs exhibit arbitrary variations over time. The principal aim of this paper is to propose a
suitable motor rating that aligns with load requirements. The vehicle’s dynamics play a pivotal role in motor selection for
traction purposes. Consequently, there exists a correlation between the motor’s size and rating. Thus, to achieve desired
traction characteristics within a compact size, the motor rating should be chosen based on load characteristics [24, 25].
In the selection of a motor for an EV, consideration should be given to the vehicle’s mechanics as shown in Fig. 2, and
encompassing factors like road force resistance and aerodynamic drag. These elements help determine the required
maximum torque. Moreover, the maximum power requirement of an electric vehicle is contingent upon factors such as
its mass, wheel radius, and surface area.

2.2.1 Rolling resistance force (FR)

The force resulting from friction between the tires and the track is commonly known as the rolling resistance force.
Properly inflating the tires with air can help minimize this force. The tractive force must surpass the resistive force [26, 27].
FR = CR × M × g × cos(𝜃) (14)
The total vehicle mass (M) is typically expressed in kilograms (kg), while acceleration due to gravity(g) is expressed
in meters per second squared (m/s2),The frictional resistance constant is denoted by Cf, and the elevation angle is rep-
resented by θ.
m
FR = 0.02 × 600 kg × 9.81 × cos 23 = 108.302 N (15)
s2
The power applied to overcome resistance can be calculated using the formula:

Fig. 2  Various forces applied

on the EV [15]

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90, 000 m
PR = FR × V = 108.3 N × = 2.7 kW (16)
3600 s

2.2.2 Hill‑climbing resistance force

When a vehicle travels uphill or downhill, the vehicle’s mass generates a resistance force in the downward direction,
which aids in ascending the hill. This resistance force is induced by the inclination of the road surface. The force gradient
causes the vehicle to tend to move backward when ascending an inclined surface [25, 29].
The resistive force of the vehicle is determined as follows [30].
m
Fg = Mg sin 𝜃 = 600 kg × 9.81 sin(23) = 2, 299.8 N (17)
s2
The power required to overcome the gradient can be calculated using the formula:
90, 000 m
Pg = Fg × V = 2, 299.8 N × = 57.5 kW (18)
3600 s

2.2.3 Aerodynamic drag force

The force exerted by the air on a vehicle’s body is referred to as drag force, and it is predominantly influenced by the
vehicle’s geometry. The equations involved in the formula for calculating aerodynamic drag are as follows and the speci-
fication electric vehicle is expressed in Table 1 [31, 32].

Fad = 0.5 × 𝜌 × cd × A × V 2 = 0.5 × 0.335 × 1.2 × 2 × (25)2 = 251.25 N (19)

Ft = 108.3 + 251.25 + 2, 299.8 = 2, 659.35 N (20)

The force required to move an object at a particular speed with a specific acceleration can be calculated using New-
ton’s second law of motion:
p = Ft × v = 2, 659.35 × 25 = 66.5 KW (21)
Using a motor with an output power rating of 66.5 kW is not recommended. Equation (23) provides the necessary
mechanical power output required to propel the vehicle.
pmax 66.5 kW
pdriving =
𝜂transmission
=
0.95
= 70 KW (22)

The overall driving power of the motor for the vehicle’s propulsion is shown in Eq. (22).
1500 m∕ min
RPM = (Gear ratio × Final drive ratio) ≈ 2587 (23)
(2 × 𝜋 × Tire radius)

2.3 Controller design of the system

The reference speed and the actual rotor speed of a motor, a speed regulator can be employed. One potential solution is
the utilization of a Genetic Algorithm (GA)-tuned Fractional Order PID (FOPID) speed controller. This controller, referred
to as GA-AFFOPID, can provide enhanced control performance and robustness compared to traditional PID controllers,
particularly in systems characterized by nonlinearity and uncertainties.

2.3.1 Current controller

PI controllers are widely used in AC machine drives. However, the derivative action can be affected by measurement
distortions caused by high-frequency inverters. As a result, a separate PI module is employed, with the function

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KP + Ki, where Kp represents the proportional gain and Ki represents the integral gain. This PI module controls all
three rotor parameters: torque, flux, and speed. To develop the PI control, it is crucial to comprehend the closed-loop
transfer functions. The closed-loop function for the d-axis can be expressed as follows:
id 1
vd + pLwr iq
=
Ls + R
= pwr (Lid + lm) (24)

Thus, the closed-loop current control equation is.

id kp s + k i
= 2
idref Ls + Ti (kp + R)s + ki (25)

Similarly, the closed-loop transfer function for the q-axis current can be expressed as follows:
[ ]
kp
iq ki/L ki
s + 1
= [ ] (26)
iqref s2 + Kp + R S + ki
L L

𝜔n2
(27)
s2 + 2𝜉𝜔ns + 𝜔n2

The PI controller can be designed by comparing the denominator of Eqs. (26 and 27) for the inner loop, which
corresponds to the current loop.
[ ]
2 s 2 kp + R ki
s + 2𝜉𝜔n + 𝜔n = s + s+ (28)
L L

The presence of the PωrLiq and P ωr (Lid + m) blocks modifies the closed function, as depicted in the two block
diagrams mentioned earlier. However, for the sake of simplicity in calculating the parameters of the PI controller, the
feed-forward decoupling method disregards the PωrLiq and P ωr (Lid + λm) portion of the equation. Consequently,
the overall transfer function for the torque component and its reference can be expressed as:

iq kp s + ki
= 2
iqref Ls + (kp + R)s + ki (29)

For a surface-mounted Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor (PMSM), where Ld = Lq = L, the controller.
parameters for the d-axis current controller can be determined by examining the design of the q-axis current con-
troller. The values of the current controller gains, Kp and Ki, in terms of the motor parameters, can be found in Eqs. (30)
and (31) by comparing the behavior of the second-order closed-loop system in Eq. (26) with Eqs. (28) and (29).
kp = 2𝜉𝜔n L − R (30)

ki = 𝜔2n L (31)

1 R
𝜔n = × (32)
1−𝜉 L

PI (Proportional-Integral) controller is employed to regulate the voltage and current of the PMSM. In contrast, a
PID (Proportional-Integral-Derivative) controller is another widely used control method that generates an error signal
based on the deviation between the desired set point and the actual output. The PID controller adjusts the control
input by utilizing the proportional, integral, and derivative gains in response to the error signal. On the other hand,
a fuzzy controller is an example of a controller that utilizes fuzzy logic to transform input variables into output vari-
ables. Manipulates the stator voltage and current to regulate the torque and speed of the PMSM. achieves this by

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splitting the static current into the d-axis current and q-axis current through a coordinate transformation. The d-axis
current controls the magnetic flux, while the q-axis current governs the torque.

2.3.2 Proportional integral derivative controller

A PID (Proportional-Integral-Derivative) controller is a feedback control system that utilizes derivative, integral, and
proportional terms to continuously apply correction. It compares the measured variable with the reference value to
calculate an error. The controller then adjusts the variable using a weighted sum in an attempt to minimize the error.

UFOPID (t) = kp e(t) + kiD−𝜆 e(t) + kdD𝜇 e(t) (33)

U(s) 1
G(s) = = kp + ki 𝜆 + kds𝜇 (𝜆, 𝜇 > 0) (34)
E(S) s

The parameters Kp_FOPID, Ki_FOPID and Kd_FOPID of the fractional order PID controller are primarily set with frac-
tional values of λ and μ, typically set to 0.5 as shown in Fig. 3. Fractional calculus is a valuable tool in control systems
and a modern trend in control engineering with numerous applications in modeling and control design. Fractional
order controllers offer several advantages as they provide more accurate models of real systems and can enhance the
performance and robustness of closed-loop systems. Fractional order PID controllers can be tuned using optimization
programs or graphical techniques.

2.4 Genetic algorithm tuning fractional order PID

The Genetic Algorithm (GA) consists of three fundamental processes: selection, crossover, and mutation. These processes
allow for the creation of new individuals who have the potential to outperform their parents. This iterative process con-
tinues across multiple generations until individuals that offer the best solution to the problem are discovered. In this
study genetic algorithm optimization technique, is employed to optimize fractional order PID controllers handling the
construction of Fractional Order PID (FOPID) controllers as a multi-objective optimization problem can jeopardize the
speed, stability, and precision of system control. It is challenging to simultaneously achieve both the general adjust-
ment of fractional PID parameters and overall performance. Therefore, the use of GA for fine-tuning the parameters of
fractional PID controllers is explored. This iterative procedure continues until the best solution is found. To generate
new generations with improved solutions compared to their predecessors, a population of solutions is initially created,
and strategies such as crossover, selection, and mutation are employed. Parents, determined based on predetermined
criteria, make up the population of the subsequent generation.
∞

∫0
J= e(t)2 d(t) (35)

The fitness parameter represents an objective value that needs to be minimized. It is accompanied by the number
of variables that are to be optimized. To achieve the best possible control performance for the Permanent Magnet
Synchronous Motor (PMSM), the gains of the PID speed controller (Kp, Ki, Kd) and, in the case of a fractional order
controller, the parameters λ and µ, must be adjusted as flow chart shown Fig. 4. GA is commonly used to optimize

Fig. 3  Fractional order PID

controller plane [33]

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Fig. 4  Flow charts of genetic

algorithm

these variables, taking into consideration the Absolute Error Integral Time Weighted Criteria. This approach enables
the adjustment of the fractional order PID controller’s variables to ensure stable operation even under changing
conditions or disturbances.

• Implement GA algorithm in real-time, running concurrently with the main control system.
• At each control cycle, the GA will:

• Evaluate fitness of current controller parameters based on system performance (e.g., speed tracking error,
overshoot, settling time).
• Generate new population of candidate parameter sets using genetic operators (selection, crossover, muta-
tion).
• Evaluate fitness of new candidates and select best set to update active controller parameters.

• This iterative process allows continuous online adaptation and optimization of controller parameters to account
for changes in operating conditions and disturbances.
• Key considerations:

• GA population size
• Number of generations
• Mutation rate
• Fitness function design for balance between exploration and exploitation
∞ ∞

∫0 ∫0
ISE = (𝜔(t)∗ − 𝜔(t ))2 dt = e(t)2 dt (36)

The Integral of Squared Error (ISE) was used as the cost function for the adaptive optimal controller. This cost func-
tion helps minimize the difference between the actual and reference speeds, while also producing a small overshoot
and oscillation in the [Link] study also used a fuzzy logic rule base to provide the inference mechanism needed
for implementing the controller. Additionally, a genetic algorithm (GA) optimizer was used to find the best way to
minimize the performance [Link] combining the fuzzy logic parameter adjustments and the GA optimization, the

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authors developed an adaptive optimal controller. They applied the GA optimization to the speed control model of
the adaptive fuzzy fractional-order PID controller. Table 2 in the paper shows the fractional-order PID parameters
(Kp_FOPID, Kd_FOPID, Ki_FOPID, mu, and lambda) that were determined through the GA optimization.

2.5 Adaptive fuzzy fractional order pid controller

An Adaptive Fuzzy Fractional Order PID (GA-AFFOPID) Controller is a control system that combines fractional calculus and
fuzzy reasoning to adaptively adjust its behavior in response to changing situations in the speed control of a Permanent
Magnet Synchronous Motor (PMSM). The proposed approach integrates the resilience and stability of a Proportional-Integral-
Derivative (PID) controller with the adaptive learning and adjustment capabilities of fuzzy logic to optimize performance
under dynamic conditions. The combination of fractional order PID control and adaptive fuzzy logic represents a significant
advancement over traditional PID controllers, particularly for complex and nonlinear systems like PMSM speed control [31, 34].
Fractional order PID control offers enhanced flexibility and improved dynamic response compared to classical integer-
order PID, while the adaptive fuzzy component allows the controller to learn and adapt its parameters in real-time to address
unpredictable events and difficult-to-estimate influences inherent in the PMSM model.
In this study, the variable parameters of the fractional order PID control system are dynamically tuned using the intelligent
decision-making capabilities of a Fuzzy Logic Controller (FLC). By controlling the gain levels of the fractional order PID using
fuzzy logic, the GA-AFFOPID controller aims to enhance the overall performance of the PMSM drive automatically, adapting
to changing operating conditions and load disturbances.
The novelty of the proposed approach lies in the synergistic integration of genetic algorithm optimization, adaptive fuzzy
control, and fractional order PID control for PMSM speed regulation. This combined methodology represents a significant
advancement over traditional PID control strategies, as it leverages the complementary strengths of these techniques to
achieve superior performance in complex electric vehicle applications. The effectiveness of the GA-AFFOPID controller is
demonstrated through simulation and experimental results, which show improved transient response, reduced overshoot,
and enhanced disturbance rejection capabilities compared to conventional PID controllers.
The fuzzy logic component of the GA-AF-FOPID controller consists of a rule base and membership functions that govern
the adaptive tuning of the PID parameters. The fuzzy rules are designed to capture the nonlinear relationships between the
system’s operating conditions (speed error, rate of change in speed error) and the required adjustments to the PID gains. The
membership functions define the degree of membership of these input variables within the fuzzy sets, allowing for smooth
transitions and effective decision-making.
The integral gain (ki1) and proportional gain (kp1) of the PI control component remain fixed across a wide range of frac-
tional order PID. Fuzzy Controller 2 is then utilized to determine the Scaling Factor (SF) for kp1 and ki1 as shown in Fig. 5.
The output of Fuzzy Logic Controller 2 dynamically and adaptively modifies the result obtained from Fuzzy Logic Controller
1. This adaptive adjustment of the PI control parameters, based on the scaling factor derived from the system, ensures the
optimality of the control parameters.
With the FOPID-FLC structure, the primary objectives of the FOPD component are to effectively eliminate static errors,
minimize oscillations, and overcome overshoot while improving the system’s response time. When the system approaches
a specific stable rotational state, AFFOPID can be switched to an FOPID controller based on the speed error. This approach
reduces control costs while maintaining control performance. The expression of the control signal UFOPID as:
{
UPI−FLC + UFOPD , E > vr∕ min
UFFOPID = (37)
UFOPID , E < vr∕ min

Table 2  GA-optimized Controller Optimized parameter Optimized value

parameters
FOPID Kp_FOPID 0.53767
Ki_FOPID 1.8335
Kd_FOPID 0.00054
Mu 0.8621
Lamda 0.978

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Fig. 5  Adaptive fuzzy fractional order PID

The control switch achieves effective speed control by choosing a suitable controller based on the speed error.
The control signal PID-FLC is composed of UPI-FLC and UPD

∫ (38)
UPI-FLC = KP-FLC E + KI-FLC Edt

⎧
∫
⎪ UPI−FLC = u1 kp1 E + U2 KI1 Edt
⎪
⎨k = U1 KP1 (39)
⎪ p−FLC
⎪ KI−FLC = U2 KI1
⎩

3 Results and discussion

The simulation results showcase the remarkable capabilities of the proposed Genetic Algorithm-optimized Adaptive
Fuzzy Fractional Order PID (GA-AFFOPID) controller in achieving precise speed control for Permanent Magnet Syn-
chronous Motors (PMSMs) in electric vehicle (EV) applications. As demonstrated in Table 3, the GA-AFFOPID control-
ler achieved an overshoot of only 0.444% and a settling time of 0.01375 s, significantly outperforming conventional
PID (21.341% overshoot, 0.1495 settling time) and Fractional Order PID (FOPID) (11.798% overshoot, 0.0155 settling
time) controllers.
These superior time-domain specifications translate to improved energy efficiency, reduced maintenance require-
ments, and enhanced driving performance in EVs, addressing the critical need for precise speed regulation in such
applications. The ability to maintain tight control over motor speed is essential for optimizing energy usage, ensuring
smooth and responsive acceleration, and minimizing wear on drive train components in EV systems.
While previous studies have explored techniques like FOPID and adaptive fuzzy control for PMSM speed control,
the proposed GA-AFFOPID controller offers a novel integrated approach that combines the benefits of both tech-
niques through genetic algorithm optimization and adaptive fuzzy logic. This integration enables the controller to
effectively handle nonlinearities and uncertainties in the system without relying on complex mathematical modeling,

Table 3  Simulation result Test Parameter performance PID FOPID AFFOPID GA_AFFOPID
performance comparison for
controller Without load Overshoot 21.341% 11.798% 2.23% 0.444%
Settling time 0.1495 0.0155 0.01495 0.01375
Rise time 0.014208 0.01408 0.0131 0.0160
Steady-state 0.685 0.358 0.016 0.01

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Fig. 6  GA-AFFOPID’s speed response

Fig. 7  AFFOPID’s SPEED RESPONSE

a significant advantage in practical EV applications where parameters may vary due to environmental conditions,
aging, and other factors.
Unexpectedly, the simulations revealed that the FOPID controller was more susceptible to resistance variations com-
pared to the adaptive fuzzy-based controllers (Adaptive Fuzzy FOPID and GA-AFFOPID), highlighting the robustness
of the proposed approach in handling parameter uncertainties. This finding is particularly relevant for EV applications,
where motor parameters can fluctuate due to temperature changes, mechanical loading, and other operating conditions.
These findings have significant implications for enhancing the overall performance and driving experience of EVs. The
GA-AFFOPID controller’s ability to achieve tight speed regulation while maintaining robustness to parameter variations
suggests that it could be a valuable tool for improving the efficiency, responsiveness, and reliability of EV powertrain
systems.

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Fig. 8  Electromagnetic develop torque

Fig. 9  Controller performance comparison

In the simulation phase of this study, two different controllers, namely the GA-optimized AFFOPID and AFFOPID
shown in Figs. 6 and 7 respectively were employed to analyze the speed responses of a PMSM. The analysis focused on
the speed response at a reference speed of 250 rad/sec. The results of the GA-optimized FFOPID controller are depicted
in Fig. 6, while Fig. 7 illustrates the results obtained with the AFFOPID controllers.
Figure 8 displays the electromagnetic torque generated by the motor. The initial spike in torque, reaching approxi-
mately 100 Nm within the first 0.01 s, is primarily attributed to the acceleration of the rotor as it approaches its steady
speed of 250 rad/s. Initially, the torque is higher than the torque at a constant state due to the need to overcome both
frictional resistance and rotor acceleration. Within 0.01 s, the torque gradually decreases to nearly 0 Nm, supporting
minimal frictional resistance.

3.1 The performance comparison of the controller

Figure 9 displays the speed controllers GA_AFFOPID, FFOPID, and FOPID. By comparing the overlapping speed responses,
the driving behavior under GA_AFFOPID, FFOPID, and FOPID controllers can be analyzed.

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3.2 Effect of motor parameter variations

The study investigates the impact of resistance variations on the speed control performance of Permanent Magnet Synchro-
nous Motors (PMSMs) using different controllers. Through detailed analysis and the presentation of Figs. 10, 11, and 12, the
research highlights the responsiveness of PMSM speed under resistance variations for the Adaptive Fuzzy Fractional Order
PID (AFFOPID), GA-optimized AFFOPID (GA-AFFOPID) and Fractional Order PID (FOPID) controllers, respectively. These find-
ings provide valuable insights into the influence of resistance changes on the effectiveness of different control strategies,
offering guidance for optimizing PMSM control systems in the presence of parameter variations.
Figure 13 illustrates the speed responses of the AFFOPID and GAFFOPID control systems under variations in load torque.
Figures 14 represent speed error, in response to changes in load torque. The FOPD controller exhibits significant speed error
for each torque variation event related to the load. Conversely, both the AFFOPID and GAFFOPID controllers appear capable
of tolerating torque variations. Overall, the findings suggest that the AFFOPID and GAFFOPID control systems demonstrate
better performance and robustness in the face of load torque changes compared to the FOPD and PID control systems.

Fig. 10  PMSM speed responsiveness with Rs variation in AFFOPID

Fig. 11  PMSM speed responsiveness with Rs variation using GA-AFFOPID

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Fig. 12  Speed response of PMSM with Rs variation for FOPID

Fig. 13  PMSM’s speed responsiveness to changes in load

Fig. 14  GA-AFFOPID steady state error

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4 Conclusions

This study presents a novel Genetic Algorithm-optimized Adaptive Fuzzy Fractional Order PID (GA-AFFOPID) controller
for enhancing the speed control of Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motors (PMSMs) in Electric Vehicle (EV) applica-
tions. The GA-AFFOPID controller integrates the advantages of genetic algorithm optimization, adaptive fuzzy logic,
and fractional order control, addressing critical control challenges in the EV industry and improving the resilience
and dynamic response of PMSM drives.
The key contributions and developments of this work include the development of the GA-AFFOPID controller,
which combines genetic algorithm optimization, adaptive fuzzy logic, and fractional order control to achieve supe-
rior speed control performance in PMSM drives for electric vehicles. The use of a genetic algorithm to optimize the
controller parameters eliminates the need for manual tuning or trial-and-error methods, making the controller design
process more efficient and systematic.
The simulation results validate the effectiveness of the GA-AFFOPID controller in enhancing the speed control
performance of PMSM drives in electric vehicle applications. The controller exhibits superior system dynamics, precise
speed tracking, and robustness against parameter variations and sudden load disturbances. Comparative analysis
with traditional control methods, such as PID, FOPID, and Adaptive Fuzzy FOPID, demonstrates significant perfor-
mance improvements in terms of overshoot, rise time, settling time, and steady-state error. The GA-AFFOPID con-
troller achieves a 1.796% lower overshoot, 0.97% faster rise time, 4.25% lower steady-state error, and 0.35% faster
settling time compared to the adaptive fuzzy fractional order PID controller. These results highlight the significant
performance improvements facilitated by the genetic algorithm optimization technique in enhancing the control
performance of the GA-AFFOPID controller.
The proposed GA-AFFOPID controller’s ability to adaptively respond to parameter variations and external distur-
bances, while maintaining excellent dynamic behavior, makes it a promising solution for the EV industry. However, it
is important to acknowledge potential limitations or challenges in the practical implementation of the GA-AFFOPID
controller, such as computational complexity and real-time execution requirements.
Future research efforts should focus on validating the controller’s performance in real-world EV systems, explor-
ing its integration with advanced optimization algorithms and adaptive learning techniques, and investigating its
robustness under various operating conditions. Additionally, research on hardware implementation aspects and
computational efficiency optimizations could facilitate the seamless integration of the GA-AFFOPID controller into
existing EV control systems.
In summary, the proposed GA-AFFOPID controller represents a significant advancement in the field of PMSM speed
control for electric vehicles, offering a promising solution for enhancing the overall performance and driving experi-
ence of EVs. The research findings provide a solid foundation for further exploration and development of advanced
control strategies for EV propulsion systems.

Acknowledgements The authors gratefully acknowledge partial support from the Jimma Institute of Technology Center of Excellence. All
authors contributed to the design of the study, data analysis, and the writing and editing of the manuscript. All authors have read and
approved the final version of the manuscript.

Author contributions In the study titled "Modeling of Genetic Algorithm Tuned Adaptive Fuzzy Fractional Order PID Speed Control of PMSM
for Electric Vehicle," TL contributed by designing the study, analyzing the data, and preparing the first draft of the original papers. PA assisted
in preparing, reviewing, and editing the manuscript. SH contributed by reviewing and editing the paper, and ZT contributed by reviewing and
editing the paper. All authors, TL, PA, SH and ZT have read and approved the final manuscript. All authors prepare tables and figures in well.

Data availability Data and Material Availability: The data used in this study is confidential. However, upon request, the authors may consider
sharing the data for further research purposes. Interested researchers can contact the corresponding author for inquiries regarding data
availability.’

Declarations
Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests.

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adapta-
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