William Shakespeare

William Shakespeare (c. 23[a] April 1564 – 23 April 1616)[b] was an English playwright, poet and actor. He is
widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the world's pre-eminent
dramatist.[4][5][6] He is often called England's national poet and the "Bard of Avon" (or simply "the Bard").
His extant works, including collaborations, consist of some 39 plays, 154 sonnets, three long narrative poems
and a few other verses, some of uncertain authorship. His plays have been translated into every major
living language and are performed more often than those of any other playwright.[7] Shakespeare
remains arguably the most influential writer in the English language, and his works continue to be
studied and reinterpreted.

Shakespeare was born and raised in Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire. At the age of 18, he married Anne
Hathaway, with whom he had three children: Susanna, and twins Hamnet and Judith. Sometime between
1585 and 1592, he began a successful career in London as an actor, writer, and part-owner ("sharer") of a
playing company called the Lord Chamberlain's Men, later known as the King's Men after the ascension of
King James VI of Scotland to the English throne. At age 49 (around 1613), he appears to have retired to
Stratford, where he died three years later. Few records of Shakespeare's private life survive; this has
stimulated considerable speculation about such matters as his physical appearance, his sexuality, his
religious beliefs and even certain fringe theories[8] as to whether the works attributed to him were written
by others.[9][10][11]

Shakespeare produced most of his known works between 1589 and 1613.[12][13] His early plays were primarily
comedies and histories and are regarded as some of the best works produced in these genres. He then wrote
mainly tragedies until 1608, among them Hamlet, Othello, King Lear and Macbeth, all considered to be
among the finest works in English.[4][5][6] In the last phase of his life, he wrote tragicomedies (also known
as romances) such as The Winter's Tale and The Tempest, and collaborated with other playwrights.

Many of Shakespeare's plays were published in editions of varying quality and accuracy during his
lifetime. However, in 1623, John Heminges and Henry Condell, two fellow actors and friends of Shakespeare's,
published a more definitive text known as the First Folio, a posthumous collected edition of Shakespeare's
dramatic works that includes 36 of his plays. Its Preface was a prescient poem by Ben Jonson, a former
rival of Shakespeare, who hailed Shakespeare with the now famous epithet: "not of an age, but for all
time".[14]
Life William Shakespeare

Early life

John Shakespeare's house, believed to be

Shakespeare's birthplace, in Stratford-
upon-Avon

Shakespeare was the son of John Shakespeare, an

The Chandos portrait, likely depicting Shakespeare,
alderman and a successful glover (glove-maker)
c. 1611
originally from Snitterfield in Warwickshire, and
Mary Arden, the daughter of an affluent Born c. 23 April 1564[1]

landowning family.[15] He was born in Stratford- Stratford-upon-Avon,

upon-Avon, where he was baptised on 26 April 1564. Warwickshire, England

His date of birth is unknown but is traditionally Died 23 April 1616 (aged 52)
[2]
observed on 23 April, Saint George's Day. This Stratford-upon-Avon,
date, which can be traced to William Oldys and Warwickshire, England
George Steevens, has proved appealing to
Resting place Church of the Holy
biographers because Shakespeare died on the same
Trinity, Stratford-upon-
[16][17]
date in 1616. He was the third of eight Avon
[18]
children, and the eldest surviving son.
Occupations Playwright · poet ·
Although no attendance records for the period actor
survive, most biographers agree that Shakespeare
Years active c. 1585–1613
was probably educated at the King's New School
in Stratford,[19][20][21] a free school chartered in Era Elizabethan · Jacobean
1553,[22] about a quarter-mile (400 m) from his home.
Organisations Lord Chamberlain's Men
Grammar schools varied in quality during the
· King's Men
Elizabethan era, but grammar school curricula
were largely similar: the basic Latin text was Works Shakespeare
bibliography
standardised by royal decree,[23][24] and the
school would have provided an intensive Movement English Renaissance
education in grammar based upon Latin classical
Spouse Anne Hathaway ​(m. 1582)
authors.[25]
Children Susanna Hall
Hamnet Shakespeare
At the age of 18, Shakespeare married 26-year-old Judith Quiney
Anne Hathaway. The consistory court of the Diocese
Parents John Shakespeare
of Worcester issued a marriage licence on 27
Mary Arden
November 1582. The next day, two of Hathaway's
neighbours posted bonds guaranteeing that no Writing career

lawful claims impeded the marriage.[26] The Language Early Modern English
ceremony may have been arranged in some haste
Genres Play (comedy · history
since the Worcester chancellor allowed the · tragedy)
marriage banns to be read once instead of the Poetry (sonnet ·
usual three times,[27][28] and six months after the narrative poem ·
epitaph)
marriage Anne gave birth to a daughter, Susanna,
baptised 26 May 1583.[29] Twins, son Hamnet and Signature
daughter Judith, followed almost two years later
and were baptised 2 February 1585.[30] Hamnet died
of unknown causes at the age of 11 and was buried
11 August 1596.[31]

Shakespeare's coat of arms, from

the 1602 book The book of coates
and creasts. Promptuarium
armorum. It features spears as a
pun on the family name.[c]

After the birth of the twins, Shakespeare left few historical traces until he is mentioned as part of the
London theatre scene in 1592. The exception is the appearance of his name in the "complaints bill" of a law
case before the Queen's Bench court at Westminster dated Michaelmas Term 1588 and 9 October 1589.[32]
Scholars refer to the years between 1585 and 1592 as Shakespeare's "lost years".[33] Biographers attempting to
account for this period have reported many apocryphal stories. Nicholas Rowe, Shakespeare's first
biographer, recounted a Stratford legend that Shakespeare fled the town for London to escape
prosecution for deer poaching in the estate of local squire Thomas Lucy. Shakespeare is also supposed to
have taken his revenge on Lucy by writing a scurrilous ballad about him.[34][35] Another 18th-century
story has Shakespeare starting his theatrical career minding the horses of theatre patrons in London.[36]
John Aubrey reported that Shakespeare had been a country schoolmaster.[37] Some 20th-century scholars
suggested that Shakespeare may have been employed as a schoolmaster by Alexander Hoghton of
Lancashire, a Catholic landowner who named a certain "William Shakeshafte" in his will.[38][39] Little
evidence substantiates such stories other than hearsay collected after his death, and Shakeshafte was a
common name in the Lancashire area.[40][41]

London and theatrical career

It is not known definitively when Shakespeare began writing, but contemporary allusions and records of
performances show that several of his plays were on the London stage by 1592.[42] By then, he was
sufficiently known in London to be attacked in print by the playwright Robert Greene in his Groats-Worth
of Wit from that year:

... there is an upstart Crow, beautified with our feathers, that with his
Tiger's heart wrapped in a Player's hide, supposes he is as well able to
bombast out a blank verse as the best of you: and being an absolute
Johannes factotum, is in his own conceit the only Shake-scene in a
country.[43]

Scholars differ on the exact meaning of Greene's words,[43][44] but most agree that Greene was accusing
Shakespeare of reaching above his rank in trying to match such university-educated writers as
Christopher Marlowe, Thomas Nashe, and Greene himself (the so-called "University Wits").[45] The italicised
phrase parodying the line "Oh, tiger's heart wrapped in a woman's hide" from Shakespeare's Henry VI, Part 3,
along with the pun "Shake-scene", clearly identify Shakespeare as Greene's target. As used here, Johannes
Factotum ("Jack of all trades") refers to a second-rate tinkerer with the work of others, rather than the
more common "universal genius".[43][46]

Greene's attack is the earliest surviving mention of Shakespeare's work in the theatre. Biographers suggest
that his career may have begun any time from the mid-1580s to just before Greene's remarks.[47][48][49] After
1594, Shakespeare's plays were performed at The Theatre, in Shoreditch, only by the Lord Chamberlain's Men,
a company owned by a group of players, including Shakespeare, that soon became the leading playing
company in London.[50] After the death of Queen Elizabeth in 1603, the company was awarded a royal
patent by the new King James I, and changed its name to the King's Men.[51]

In 1599, a partnership of members of the company built

All the world's a stage,
their own theatre on the south bank of the River Thames,
which they named the Globe. In 1608, the partnership also and all the men and women merely players:

took over the Blackfriars indoor theatre. Extant records they have their exits and their entrances;
and one man in his time plays many parts . .
of Shakespeare's property purchases and investments
indicate that his association with the company made —As You Like It, Act II, Scene 7, 139–142[52]
him a wealthy man,[53] and in 1597, he bought the
second-largest house in Stratford, New Place, and in 1605, invested in a share of the parish tithes in
Stratford.[54]

Some of Shakespeare's plays were published in quarto editions, beginning in 1594, and by 1598, his name
had become a selling point and began to appear on the title pages.[55][56][57] Shakespeare continued to
act in his own and other plays after his success as a playwright. The 1616 edition of Ben Jonson's Works
names him on the cast lists for Every Man in His Humour (1598) and Sejanus His Fall (1603).[58] The absence
of his name from the 1605 cast list for Jonson's Volpone is taken by some scholars as a sign that his acting
career was nearing its end.[47] The First Folio of 1623, however, lists Shakespeare as one of "the Principal
Actors in all these Plays", some of which were first staged after Volpone, although one cannot know for
certain which roles he played.[59] In 1610, John Davies of Hereford wrote that "good Will" played "kingly"
roles.[60] In 1709, Rowe passed down a tradition that Shakespeare played the ghost of Hamlet's father.[61]
Later traditions maintain that he also played Adam in As You Like It, and the Chorus in Henry V,[62][63]
though scholars doubt the sources of that information.[64]

Throughout his career, Shakespeare divided his time between London and Stratford. In 1596, the year before
he bought New Place as his family home in Stratford, Shakespeare was living in the parish of St Helen's,
Bishopsgate, north of the River Thames.[65][66] He moved across the river to Southwark by 1599, the same
year his company constructed the Globe Theatre there.[65][67] By 1604, he had moved north of the river
again, to an area north of St Paul's Cathedral with many fine houses. There, he rented rooms from a French
Huguenot named Christopher Mountjoy, a maker of women's wigs and other headgear.[68][69]
Later years and death

Shakespeare's funerary
monument in Stratford-upon-
Avon

Nicholas Rowe was the first biographer to record the tradition, repeated by Samuel Johnson, that
Shakespeare retired to Stratford "some years before his death".[70][71] He was still working as an actor in
London in 1608; in an answer to the sharers' petition in 1635, Cuthbert Burbage stated that after purchasing
the lease of the Blackfriars Theatre in 1608 from Henry Evans, the King's Men "placed men players" there,
"which were Heminges, Condell, Shakespeare, etc.".[72] However, it is perhaps relevant that the bubonic
plague raged in London throughout 1609.[73][74] The London public playhouses were repeatedly closed
during extended outbreaks of the plague (a total of over 60 months closure between May 1603 and
February 1610),[75] which meant there was often no acting work. Retirement from all work was uncommon
at that time.[76] Shakespeare continued to visit London during the years 1611–1614.[70] In 1612, he was called
as a witness in Bellott v Mountjoy, a court case concerning the marriage settlement of Mountjoy's
daughter, Mary.[77][78] In March 1613, he bought a gatehouse in the former Blackfriars priory;[79] and from
November 1614, he was in London for several weeks with his son-in-law, John Hall.[80] After 1610, Shakespeare
wrote fewer plays, and none are attributed to him after 1613.[81] His last three plays were collaborations,
probably with John Fletcher,[82] who succeeded him as the house playwright of the King's Men. He retired
in 1613, before the Globe Theatre burned down during the performance of Henry VIII on 29 June.[81]

Shakespeare died on 23 April 1616, at the age of 52.[d] He died within a month of signing his will, a
document which he begins by describing himself as being in "perfect health". No extant contemporary
source explains how or why he died. Half a century later, John Ward, the vicar of Stratford, wrote in his
notebook: "Shakespeare, Drayton, and Ben Jonson had a merry meeting and, it seems, drank too hard, for
Shakespeare died of a fever there contracted",[84][85] not an impossible scenario since Shakespeare knew
Jonson and Drayton. Of the tributes from fellow authors, one refers to his relatively sudden death: "We
wondered, Shakespeare, that thou went'st so soon / From the world's stage to the grave's tiring room."[86][e]
 Holy Trinity Church, Stratford-upon-Avon,
where Shakespeare was baptised and is
buried

He was survived by his wife and two daughters. Susanna had married a physician, John Hall, in 1607,[87]
and Judith had married Thomas Quiney, a vintner, two months before Shakespeare's death.[88] Shakespeare
signed his last will and testament on 25 March 1616; the following day, Thomas Quiney, his new son-in-law,
was found guilty of fathering an illegitimate son by Margaret Wheeler, both of whom had died during
childbirth. Thomas was ordered by the church court to do public penance, which would have caused
much shame and embarrassment for the Shakespeare family.[88]

Shakespeare bequeathed the bulk of his large estate to his elder daughter Susanna[89] under stipulations
that she pass it down intact to "the first son of her body".[90] The Quineys had three children, all of whom
died without marrying.[91][92] The Halls had one child, Elizabeth, who married twice but died without
children in 1670, ending Shakespeare's direct line.[93][94] Shakespeare's will scarcely mentions his wife, Anne,
who was probably entitled to one-third of his estate automatically.[f] He did make a point, however, of
leaving her "my second best bed", a bequest that has led to much speculation.[96][97][98] Some scholars see
the bequest as an insult to Anne, whereas others believe that the second-best bed would have been the
matrimonial bed and therefore rich in significance.[99]

Shakespeare's grave, next to those of Anne

Shakespeare, his wife, and Thomas Nash,
the husband of his granddaughter

Shakespeare was buried in the chancel of the Holy Trinity Church two days after his death.[100][101] The
epitaph carved into the stone slab covering his grave includes a curse against moving his bones, which
was carefully avoided during restoration of the church in 2008:[102]
 Good frend for Iesvs sake forbeare, Good friend, for Jesus' sake forbear,
To digg the dvst encloased heare. To dig the dust enclosed here.
Bleste be yͤ man yͭ spares thes stones, Blessed be the man that spares these stones,
And cvrst be he yͭ moves my bones.[103][g] And cursed be he that moves my bones.

Some time before 1623, a funerary monument was erected in his memory on the north wall, with a half-
effigy of him in the act of writing. Its plaque compares him to Nestor, Socrates, and Virgil.[104] In 1623, in
conjunction with the publication of the First Folio, the Droeshout engraving was published.[105]
Shakespeare has been commemorated in many statues and memorials around the world, including
funeral monuments in Southwark Cathedral and Poets' Corner in Westminster Abbey.[106][107]

Plays

Procession of Characters from Shakespeare's Plays by an unknown 19th-century artist

Most playwrights of the period typically collaborated with others at some point, as critics agree
Shakespeare did, mostly early and late in his career.[108]

The first recorded works of Shakespeare are Richard III and the three parts of Henry VI, written in the early
1590s during a vogue for historical drama. Shakespeare's plays are difficult to date precisely,
however,[109][110] and studies of the texts suggest that Titus Andronicus, The Comedy of Errors, The Taming of
the Shrew, and The Two Gentlemen of Verona may also belong to Shakespeare's earliest period.[111][109] His
first histories, which draw heavily on the 1587 edition of Raphael Holinshed's Chronicles of England,
Scotland, and Ireland,[112] dramatise the destructive results of weak or corrupt rule and have been
interpreted as a justification for the origins of the Tudor dynasty.[113] The early plays were influenced by
the works of other Elizabethan dramatists, especially Thomas Kyd and Christopher Marlowe, by the
traditions of medieval drama, and by the plays of Seneca.[114][115][116] The Comedy of Errors was also based
on classical models, but no source for The Taming of the Shrew has been found, though it has an identical
plot but different wording as another play with a similar name.[117][118] Like The Two Gentlemen of Verona,
in which two friends appear to approve of rape,[119][120][121] the Shrew 's story of the taming of a woman's
independent spirit by a man sometimes troubles modern critics, directors, and audiences.[122]
 Oberon, Titania and Puck with Fairies
Dancing. By William Blake, c. 1786.

Shakespeare's early classical and Italianate comedies, containing tight double plots and precise comic
sequences, give way in the mid-1590s to the romantic atmosphere of his most acclaimed comedies.[123] A
Midsummer Night's Dream is a witty mixture of romance, fairy magic, and comic lowlife scenes.[124]
Shakespeare's next comedy, the equally romantic The Merchant of Venice, contains a portrayal of the
vengeful Jewish moneylender Shylock, which reflects dominant Elizabethan views but may appear
derogatory to modern audiences.[125][126] The wit and wordplay of Much Ado About Nothing,[127] the
charming rural setting of As You Like It, and the lively merrymaking of Twelfth Night complete
Shakespeare's sequence of great comedies.[128] After the lyrical Richard II, written almost entirely in verse,
Shakespeare introduced prose comedy into the histories of the late 1590s, Henry IV, Part 1 and 2, and Henry V.
Henry IV features Falstaff, rogue, wit and friend of Prince Hal. His characters become more complex and
tender as he switches deftly between comic and serious scenes, prose and poetry, and achieves the narrative
variety of his mature work.[129][130][131] This period begins and ends with two tragedies: Romeo and Juliet,
the famous romantic tragedy of sexually charged adolescence, love, and death;[132][133] and Julius
Caesar—based on Sir Thomas North's 1579 translation of Plutarch's Parallel Lives—which introduced a
new kind of drama.[134][135] According to Shakespearean scholar James Shapiro, in Julius Caesar, "the
various strands of politics, character, inwardness, contemporary events, even Shakespeare's own reflections
on the act of writing, began to infuse each other".[136]

Hamlet, Horatio, Marcellus, and the Ghost

of Hamlet's Father. Henry Fuseli, 1780–1785.

In the early 17th century, Shakespeare wrote the so-called "problem plays" Measure for Measure, Troilus
and Cressida, and All's Well That Ends Well and a number of his best known tragedies.[137][138] Many
critics believe that Shakespeare's tragedies represent the peak of his art. Hamlet has probably been
analysed more than any other Shakespearean character, especially for his famous soliloquy which
begins "To be or not to be; that is the question".[139] Unlike the introverted Hamlet, whose fatal flaw is
hesitation, Othello and Lear are undone by hasty errors of judgement.[140] The plots of Shakespeare's
tragedies often hinge on such fatal errors or flaws, which overturn order and destroy the hero and those
he loves.[141] In Othello, Iago stokes Othello's sexual jealousy to the point where he murders the innocent
wife who loves him.[142][143] In King Lear, the old king commits the tragic error of giving up his powers,
initiating the events which lead to the torture and blinding of the Earl of Gloucester and the murder of
Lear's youngest daughter, Cordelia. According to the critic Frank Kermode, "the play.. offers neither its
good characters nor its audience any relief from its cruelty".[144][145][146] In Macbeth, the shortest and most
compressed of Shakespeare's tragedies,[147] uncontrollable ambition incites Macbeth and his wife, Lady
Macbeth, to murder the rightful king and usurp the throne until their own guilt destroys them in turn.[148]
In this play, Shakespeare adds a supernatural element to the tragic structure. His last major tragedies,
Antony and Cleopatra and Coriolanus, contain some of Shakespeare's finest poetry and were considered
his most successful tragedies by the poet and critic T. S. Eliot.[149][150][151] Eliot wrote, "Shakespeare acquired
more essential history from Plutarch than most men could from the whole British Museum."[152]

In his final period, Shakespeare turned to romance or tragicomedy and completed three more major
plays: Cymbeline, The Winter's Tale, and The Tempest, as well as the collaboration, Pericles, Prince of Tyre.
Less bleak than the tragedies, these four plays are graver in tone than the comedies of the 1590s, but they
end with reconciliation and the forgiveness of potentially tragic errors.[153] Some commentators have seen
this change in mood as evidence of a more serene view of life on Shakespeare's part, but it may merely
reflect the theatrical fashion of the day.[154][155][156] Shakespeare collaborated on two further surviving
plays, Henry VIII and The Two Noble Kinsmen, probably with John Fletcher.[157]

Classification

The Plays of William Shakespeare, a

painting containing scenes and
characters from several plays of
Shakespeare; by Sir John Gilbert, c. 1849

Shakespeare's works include the 36 plays printed in the First Folio of 1623, listed according to their folio
classification as comedies, histories, and tragedies.[158] Two plays not included in the First Folio,[14] The
Two Noble Kinsmen and Pericles, Prince of Tyre, are now accepted as part of the canon, with today's
scholars agreeing that Shakespeare made major contributions to the writing of both.[159][160] No
Shakespearean poems were included in the First Folio.
In the late 19th century, Edward Dowden classified four of the late comedies as romances, and though
many scholars prefer to call them tragicomedies, Dowden's term is often used.[161][162] In 1896, Frederick S.
Boas coined the term "problem plays" to describe four plays: All's Well That Ends Well, Measure for
Measure, Troilus and Cressida, and Hamlet.[163] "Dramas as singular in theme and temper cannot be strictly
called comedies or tragedies", he wrote. "We may, therefore, borrow a convenient phrase from the theatre of
today and class them together as Shakespeare's problem plays."[164] The term, much debated and sometimes
applied to other plays, remains in use, though Hamlet is definitively classed as a tragedy.[165][166][167]

Performances

It is not clear for which companies Shakespeare wrote his early plays. The title page of the 1594 edition of
Titus Andronicus reveals that the play had been acted by three different troupes.[168] After the plagues of
1592–93, Shakespeare's plays were performed by his own company at The Theatre and the Curtain in
Shoreditch, north of the Thames.[169] Londoners flocked there to see the first part of Henry IV, Leonard Digges
recording, "Let but Falstaff come, Hal, Poins, the rest . . and you scarce shall have a room".[170] When the
company found themselves in dispute with their landlord, they pulled The Theatre down and used the
timbers to construct the Globe Theatre, the first playhouse built by actors for actors, on the south bank of
the Thames at Southwark.[171][172] The Globe opened in autumn 1599, with Julius Caesar one of the first plays
staged. Most of Shakespeare's greatest post-1599 plays were written for the Globe, including Hamlet, Othello,
and King Lear.[171][173][174]

The reconstructed Globe Theatre on the

south bank of the River Thames in London

After the Lord Chamberlain's Men were renamed the King's Men in 1603, they entered a special relationship
with the new King James. Although the performance records are patchy, the King's Men performed seven of
Shakespeare's plays at court between 1 November 1604, and 31 October 1605, including two performances of The
Merchant of Venice.[63] After 1608, they performed at the indoor Blackfriars Theatre during the winter and
the Globe during the summer.[175] The indoor setting, combined with the Jacobean fashion for lavishly
staged masques, allowed Shakespeare to introduce more elaborate stage devices. In Cymbeline, for
example, Jupiter descends "in thunder and lightning, sitting upon an eagle: he throws a thunderbolt. The
ghosts fall on their knees."[176][177]
The actors in Shakespeare's company included the famous Richard Burbage, William Kempe, Henry
Condell and John Heminges. Burbage played the leading role in the first performances of many of
Shakespeare's plays, including Richard III, Hamlet, Othello, and King Lear.[178] The popular comic actor
Will Kempe played the servant Peter in Romeo and Juliet and Dogberry in Much Ado About Nothing,
among other characters.[179][180] He was replaced around 1600 by Robert Armin, who played roles such as
Touchstone in As You Like It and the fool in King Lear.[181] In 1613, Sir Henry Wotton recorded that Henry VIII
"was set forth with many extraordinary circumstances of pomp and ceremony".[182] On 29 June, however, a
cannon set fire to the thatch of the Globe and burned the theatre to the ground, an event which pinpoints
the date of a Shakespeare play with rare precision.[182]

Textual sources

Title page of the First Folio, 1623.

Copper engraving of
Shakespeare by Martin
Droeshout.

In 1623, John Heminges and Henry Condell, two of Shakespeare's friends from the King's Men, published the
First Folio, a collected edition of Shakespeare's plays. It contained 36 texts, including 18 printed for the
first time.[183] The others had already appeared in quarto versions—flimsy books made from sheets of paper
folded twice to make four leaves.[184] No evidence suggests that Shakespeare approved these editions,
which the First Folio describes as "stol'n and surreptitious copies".[185]

Alfred Pollard termed some of the pre-1623 versions as "bad quartos" because of their adapted,
paraphrased or garbled texts, which may in places have been reconstructed from memory.[184][185][186]
Where several versions of a play survive, each differs from the others. The differences may stem from
copying or printing errors, from notes by actors or audience members, or from Shakespeare's own
papers.[187][188] In some cases, for example, Hamlet, Troilus and Cressida, and Othello, Shakespeare could
have revised the texts between the quarto and folio editions. In the case of King Lear, however, while most
modern editions do conflate them, the 1623 folio version is so different from the 1608 quarto that the Oxford
Shakespeare prints them both, arguing that they cannot be conflated without confusion.[189]
Poems

In 1593 and 1594, when the theatres were closed because of plague, Shakespeare published two narrative
poems on sexual themes, Venus and Adonis and The Rape of Lucrece. He dedicated them to Henry
Wriothesley, Earl of Southampton. In Venus and Adonis, an innocent Adonis rejects the sexual advances of
Venus; while in The Rape of Lucrece, the virtuous wife Lucrece is raped by the lustful Tarquin.[190] Influenced
by Ovid's Metamorphoses,[191] the poems show the guilt and moral confusion that result from uncontrolled
lust.[192] Both proved popular and were often reprinted during Shakespeare's lifetime. A third narrative
poem, A Lover's Complaint, in which a young woman laments her seduction by a persuasive suitor, was
printed in the first edition of the Sonnets in 1609. Most scholars now accept that Shakespeare wrote A Lover's
Complaint. Critics consider that its fine qualities are marred by leaden effects.[193][194][195] The Phoenix and
the Turtle, printed in Robert Chester's 1601 Love's Martyr, mourns the deaths of the legendary phoenix and his
lover, the faithful turtle dove. In 1599, two early drafts of sonnets 138 and 144 appeared in The Passionate
Pilgrim, published under Shakespeare's name but without his permission.[193][195][196]

Sonnets

Title page from 1609 edition of

Shake-Speares Sonnets

Published in 1609, the Sonnets were the last of Shakespeare's non-dramatic works to be printed. Scholars are
not certain when each of the 154 sonnets was composed, but evidence suggests that Shakespeare wrote
sonnets throughout his career for a private readership.[197][198] Even before the two unauthorised sonnets
appeared in The Passionate Pilgrim in 1599, Francis Meres had referred in 1598 to Shakespeare's "sugred
Sonnets among his private friends".[199] Few analysts believe that the published collection follows
Shakespeare's intended sequence.[200] He seems to have planned two contrasting series: one about
uncontrollable lust for a married woman of dark complexion (the "dark lady"), and one about
conflicted love for a fair young man (the "fair youth"). It remains unclear if these figures represent real
individuals, or if the authorial "I" who addresses them represents Shakespeare himself, though
Wordsworth believed that with the sonnets "Shakespeare unlocked his heart".[199][198]

The 1609 edition was dedicated to a "Mr. W.H.",

credited as "the only begetter" of the poems. It is not Shall I compare thee to a summer's day?
Thou art more lovely and more temperate . .
known whether this was written by Shakespeare
himself or by the publisher, Thomas Thorpe, whose —Opening lines from Shakespeare's Sonnet 18.[201]
initials appear at the foot of the dedication page;
nor is it known who Mr. W.H. was, despite numerous
theories, or whether Shakespeare even authorised the publication.[202] Critics praise the Sonnets as a
profound meditation on the nature of love, sexual passion, procreation, death, and time.[203]

Style

Shakespeare's first plays were written in the conventional style of the day. He wrote them in a stylised
language that does not always spring naturally from the needs of the characters or the drama.[204] The
poetry depends on extended, sometimes elaborate metaphors and conceits, and the language is often
rhetorical—written for actors to declaim rather than speak. The grand speeches in Titus Andronicus, in the
view of some critics, often hold up the action, for example; and the verse in The Two Gentlemen of Verona
has been described as stilted.[205][206]

Pity by William Blake, 1795, is an

illustration of two similes in Macbeth:

"And pity, like a naked new-born

babe,
Striding the blast, or heaven's
cherubim, hors'd
Upon the sightless couriers of the
air."[207]

However, Shakespeare soon began to adapt the traditional styles to his own purposes. The opening
soliloquy of Richard III has its roots in the self-declaration of Vice in medieval drama. At the same time,
Richard's vivid self-awareness looks forward to the soliloquies of Shakespeare's mature plays.[208][209] No
single play marks a change from the traditional to the freer style. Shakespeare combined the two
throughout his career, with Romeo and Juliet perhaps the best example of the mixing of the styles.[210] By
the time of Romeo and Juliet, Richard II, and A Midsummer Night's Dream in the mid-1590s, Shakespeare
had begun to write a more natural poetry. He increasingly tuned his metaphors and images to the needs
of the drama itself.

Shakespeare's standard poetic form was blank verse, composed in iambic pentameter. In practice, this meant
that his verse was usually unrhymed and consisted of ten syllables to a line, spoken with a stress on every
second syllable. The blank verse of his early plays is quite different from that of his later ones. It is often
beautiful, but its sentences tend to start, pause, and finish at the end of lines, with the risk of monotony.[211]
Once Shakespeare mastered traditional blank verse, he began to interrupt and vary its flow. This technique
releases the new power and flexibility of the poetry in plays such as Julius Caesar and Hamlet.
Shakespeare uses it, for example, to convey the turmoil in Hamlet's mind:[212]

Sir, in my heart there was a kind of fighting

That would not let me sleep. Methought I lay
Worse than the mutines in the bilboes. Rashly—
And prais'd be rashness for it—let us know
Our indiscretion sometimes serves us well ...

— Hamlet, Act 5, Scene 2, 4–8[212]

After Hamlet, Shakespeare varied his poetic style further, particularly in the more emotional passages of
the late tragedies. The literary critic A. C. Bradley described this style as "more concentrated, rapid, varied,
and, in construction, less regular, not seldom twisted or elliptical".[213] In the last phase of his career,
Shakespeare adopted many techniques to achieve these effects. These included run-on lines, irregular
pauses and stops, and extreme variations in sentence structure and length.[214] In Macbeth, for example, the
language darts from one unrelated metaphor or simile to another: "was the hope drunk/ Wherein you
dressed yourself?" (1.7.35–38); ".. pity, like a naked new-born babe/ Striding the blast, or heaven's cherubim,
hors'd/ Upon the sightless couriers of the air . ." (1.7.21–25). The listener is challenged to complete the sense.[214]
The late romances, with their shifts in time and surprising turns of plot, inspired a last poetic style in
which long and short sentences are set against one another, clauses are piled up, subject and object are
reversed, and words are omitted, creating an effect of spontaneity.[215]

Shakespeare combined poetic genius with a practical sense of the theatre.[216] Like all playwrights of the
time, he dramatised stories from sources such as Plutarch and Holinshed.[217] He reshaped each plot to
create several centres of interest and to show as many sides of a narrative to the audience as possible. This
strength of design ensures that a Shakespeare play can survive translation, cutting, and wide
interpretation without loss to its core drama.[218] As Shakespeare's mastery grew, he gave his characters
clearer and more varied motivations and distinctive patterns of speech. He preserved aspects of his earlier
style in the later plays, however. In Shakespeare's late romances, he deliberately returned to a more
artificial style, which emphasised the illusion of theatre.[219][220]

Legacy

Influence

Macbeth Consulting the Vision

of the Armed Head. By Henry
Fuseli, 1793–1794.

Shakespeare's work has made a significant and lasting impression on later theatre and literature. In
particular, he expanded the dramatic potential of characterisation, plot, language, and genre.[221] Until
Romeo and Juliet, for example, romance had not been viewed as a worthy topic for tragedy.[222]
Soliloquies had been used mainly to convey information about characters or events, but Shakespeare
used them to explore characters' minds.[223] His work heavily influenced later poetry. The Romantic poets
attempted to revive Shakespearean verse drama, though with little success. Critic George Steiner described
all English verse dramas from Coleridge to Tennyson as "feeble variations on Shakespearean themes."[224]
John Milton, considered by many to be the most important English poet after Shakespeare, wrote in
tribute: "Thou in our wonder and astonishment/ Hast built thyself a live-long monument."[225]

Shakespeare influenced novelists such as Thomas Hardy, William Faulkner, and Charles Dickens. The
American novelist Herman Melville's soliloquies owe much to Shakespeare; his Captain Ahab in Moby-Dick
is a classic tragic hero, inspired by King Lear.[226] Scholars have identified 20,000 pieces of music linked to
Shakespeare's works, including Felix Mendelssohn's overture and incidental music for A Midsummer
Night's Dream and Sergei Prokofiev's ballet Romeo and Juliet. His work has inspired several operas, among
them Giuseppe Verdi's Macbeth, Otello and Falstaff, whose critical standing compares with that of the
source plays.[227] Shakespeare has also inspired many painters, including the Romantics and the Pre-
Raphaelites, while William Hogarth's 1745 painting of actor David Garrick playing Richard III was
decisive in establishing the genre of theatrical portraiture in Britain.[228] The Swiss Romantic artist Henry
Fuseli, a friend of William Blake, even translated Macbeth into German.[229] The psychoanalyst Sigmund
Freud drew on Shakespearean psychology, in particular, that of Hamlet, for his theories of human
nature.[230] Shakespeare has been a rich source for filmmakers; Akira Kurosawa adapted Macbeth and
King Lear as Throne of Blood and Ran, respectively. Other examples of Shakespeare on film include Max
Reinhardt's A Midsummer Night's Dream, Laurence Olivier's Hamlet and Al Pacino's documentary Looking
For Richard.[231] Orson Welles, a lifelong lover of Shakespeare, directed and starred in Macbeth, Othello
and Chimes at Midnight, in which he plays John Falstaff, which Welles himself called his best work.[232]

In Shakespeare's day, English grammar, spelling, and pronunciation were less standardised than they are
now,[233] and his use of language helped shape modern English.[234] Samuel Johnson quoted him more
often than any other author in his A Dictionary of the English Language, the first serious work of its
type.[235] Expressions such as "with bated breath" (Merchant of Venice) and "a foregone conclusion"
(Othello) have found their way into everyday English speech.[236][237]

Shakespeare's influence extends far beyond his native England and the English language. His reception in
Germany was particularly significant; as early as the 18th century Shakespeare was widely translated
and popularised in Germany, and gradually became a "classic of the German Weimar era;" Christoph
Martin Wieland was the first to produce complete translations of Shakespeare's plays in any
language.[238][239] Actor and theatre director Simon Callow writes, "this master, this titan, this genius, so
profoundly British and so effortlessly universal, each different culture – German, Italian, Russian – was
obliged to respond to the Shakespearean example; for the most part, they embraced it, and him, with
joyous abandon, as the possibilities of language and character in action that he celebrated liberated
writers across the continent. Some of the most deeply affecting productions of Shakespeare have been non-
English, and non-European. He is that unique writer: he has something for everyone."[240]

According to Guinness World Records, Shakespeare remains the world's best-selling playwright, with sales
of his plays and poetry believed to have achieved in excess of four billion copies in the almost 400 years
since his death. He is also the third most translated author in history.[241]

Critical reputation

Shakespeare was not revered in his lifetime, but he received a

He was not of an age, but for all time.
large amount of praise.[243][244] In 1598, the cleric and author
Francis Meres singled him out from a group of English —Ben Jonson[242]
playwrights as "the most excellent" in both comedy and
tragedy.[245][246] The authors of the Parnassus plays at St John's College, Cambridge, numbered him with
Chaucer, Gower, and Spenser.[247] In the First Folio, Ben Jonson called Shakespeare the "Soul of the age, the
applause, delight, the wonder of our stage", although he had remarked elsewhere that "Shakespeare
wanted art" (lacked skill).[242]

Between the Restoration of the monarchy in 1660 and the end of the 17th century, classical ideas were in
vogue. As a result, critics of the time mostly rated Shakespeare below John Fletcher and Ben Jonson.[248]
Thomas Rymer, for example, condemned Shakespeare for mixing the comic with the tragic. Nevertheless,
poet and critic John Dryden rated Shakespeare highly, saying of Jonson, "I admire him, but I love
Shakespeare".[249] He also famously remarked that Shakespeare "was naturally learned; he needed not the
spectacles of books to read nature; he looked inwards, and found her there."[250] For several decades,
Rymer's view held sway. But during the 18th century, critics began to respond to Shakespeare on his own
terms and, like Dryden, to acclaim what they termed his natural genius. A series of scholarly editions of
his work, notably those of Samuel Johnson in 1765 and Edmond Malone in 1790, added to his growing
reputation.[251][252] By 1800, he was firmly enshrined as the national poet,[253] and described as the "Bard of
Avon" (or simply "the Bard").[254][h] In the 18th and 19th centuries, his reputation also spread abroad. Among
those who championed him were the writers Voltaire, Goethe, Stendhal, and Victor Hugo.[256][i]

William Ordway Partridge's

garlanded statue of William
Shakespeare in Lincoln Park,
Chicago, typical of many
created in the 19th and early
20th centuries

During the Romantic era, Shakespeare was praised by the poet and literary philosopher Samuel Taylor
Coleridge, and the critic August Wilhelm Schlegel translated his plays in the spirit of German
Romanticism.[258] In the 19th century, critical admiration for Shakespeare's genius often bordered on
adulation.[259] "This King Shakespeare," the essayist Thomas Carlyle wrote in 1840, "does not he shine, in
crowned sovereignty, over us all, as the noblest, gentlest, yet strongest of rallying signs; indestructible".[260]
The Victorians produced his plays as lavish spectacles on a grand scale.[261] The playwright and critic
George Bernard Shaw mocked the cult of Shakespeare worship as "bardolatry", claiming that the new
naturalism of Ibsen's plays had made Shakespeare obsolete.[262]

The modernist revolution in the arts during the early 20th century, far from discarding Shakespeare,
eagerly enlisted his work in the service of the avant-garde. The Expressionists in Germany and the Futurists
in Moscow mounted productions of his plays. Marxist playwright and director Bertolt Brecht devised an
epic theatre under the influence of Shakespeare. The poet and critic T. S. Eliot argued against Shaw that
Shakespeare's "primitiveness" in fact made him truly modern.[263] Eliot, along with G. Wilson Knight and
the school of New Criticism, led a movement towards a closer reading of Shakespeare's imagery. In the 1950s,
a wave of new critical approaches replaced modernism and paved the way for post-modern studies of
Shakespeare.[264] Comparing Shakespeare's accomplishments to those of leading figures in philosophy and
theology, Harold Bloom wrote, "Shakespeare was larger than Plato and than St. Augustine. He encloses us
because we see with his fundamental perceptions."[265]

Speculation

Authorship

Around 230 years after Shakespeare's death, doubts began to be expressed about the authorship of the
works attributed to him.[266] Proposed alternative candidates include Francis Bacon, Christopher
Marlowe, and Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford.[267] Several "group theories" have also been
proposed.[268] All but a few Shakespeare scholars and literary historians consider it a fringe theory, with
only a small minority of academics who believe that there is reason to question the traditional
attribution,[269] but interest in the subject, particularly the Oxfordian theory of Shakespeare authorship,
continues into the 21st century.[270][271][272]

Religion

Shakespeare conformed to the official state religion,[j] but his private views on religion have been the
subject of debate. Shakespeare's will uses a Protestant formula, and he was a confirmed member of the
Church of England, where he was married, his children were baptised, and where he is buried.

Some scholars are of the view that members of Shakespeare's family were Catholics, at a time when
practising Catholicism in England was against the law.[274] Shakespeare's mother, Mary Arden, certainly
came from a pious Catholic family. The strongest evidence might be a Catholic statement of faith signed
by his father, John Shakespeare, found in 1757 in the rafters of his former house in Henley Street. However, the
document is now lost and scholars differ as to its authenticity.[275][276] In 1591, the authorities reported
that John Shakespeare had missed church "for fear of process for debt", a common Catholic
excuse.[277][278][279] In 1606, the name of William's daughter Susanna appears on a list of those who failed
to attend Easter communion in Stratford.[277][278][279]

Other authors argue that there is a lack of evidence about Shakespeare's religious beliefs. Scholars find
evidence both for and against Shakespeare's Catholicism, Protestantism, or lack of belief in his plays, but
the truth may be impossible to prove.[280][281]
Sexuality

Artistic depiction of the Shakespeare

family, late 19th century

Few details of Shakespeare's sexuality are known. At 18, he married 26-year-old Anne Hathaway, who was
pregnant. Susanna, the first of their three children, was born six months later on 26 May 1583. Over the
centuries, some readers have posited that Shakespeare's sonnets are autobiographical,[282] and point to
them as evidence of his love for a young man. Others read the same passages as the expression of intense
friendship rather than romantic love.[283][284][285] The 26 so-called "Dark Lady" sonnets, addressed to a
married woman, are taken as evidence of heterosexual liaisons.[286]

Portraiture

No written contemporary description of Shakespeare's physical appearance survives, and no evidence

suggests that he ever commissioned a portrait. From the 18th century, the desire for authentic Shakespeare
portraits fuelled claims that various surviving pictures depicted Shakespeare.[287] That demand also led
to the production of several fake portraits, as well as misattributions, re-paintings, and relabelling of
portraits of other people.[288][289]

Some scholars suggest that the Droeshout portrait, which Ben Jonson approved of as a good likeness,[290]
and his Stratford monument provide perhaps the best evidence of his appearance.[291] Of the claimed
paintings, art historian Tarnya Cooper concluded that the Chandos portrait (shown at the top of this
article) had "the strongest claim of any of the known contenders to be a true portrait of Shakespeare". After
a three-year study supported by the National Portrait Gallery, London, the portrait's owners, Cooper
contended that its composition date, contemporary with Shakespeare, its subsequent provenance, and the
sitter's attire, all supported the attribution.[292]

See also

Outline of William Shakespeare

English Renaissance theatre

Spelling of Shakespeare's name

 World Shakespeare Bibliography

Shakespeare's Politics

References

Notes

a. The belief that Shakespeare was born on 23 April is a tradition and not a verified fact;[2] see § Early
life below. He was baptised 26 April.

b. Dates follow the Julian calendar, used in England throughout Shakespeare's lifespan, but with the
start of the year adjusted to 1 January (see Old Style and New Style dates). Under the Gregorian
calendar, adopted in Catholic countries in 1582, Shakespeare died on 3 May.[3]

c. The crest is a silver falcon supporting a spear, while the motto is Non Sanz Droict (French for "not
without right"). This motto is still used by Warwickshire County Council, in reference to Shakespeare.

d. Inscribed in Latin on his funerary monument: AETATIS 53 DIE 23 APR (In his 53rd year he died 23
April).[83]

e. Verse by James Mabbe printed in the First Folio.[86]

f. Charles Knight, 1842, in his notes on Twelfth Night.[95]

g. In the scribal abbreviations ye for the (3rd line) and yt for that (3rd and 4th lines) the letter y
represents th: see thorn.

h. The "national cult" of Shakespeare, and the "bard" identification, dates from September 1769, when the
actor David Garrick organised a week-long carnival at Stratford to mark the town council
awarding him the freedom of the town. In addition to presenting the town with a statue of
Shakespeare, Garrick composed a doggerel verse, lampooned in the London newspapers, naming the
banks of the Avon as the birthplace of the "matchless Bard".[255]

i. Grady cites Voltaire's Philosophical Letters (1733); Goethe's Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship (1795);
Stendhal's two-part pamphlet Racine et Shakespeare (1823–25); and Victor Hugo's prefaces to
Cromwell (1827) and William Shakespeare (1864).[257]

j. For example, A.L. Rowse, the 20th-century Shakespeare scholar, was emphatic: "He died, as he had
lived, a conforming member of the Church of England. His will made that perfectly clear—in facts,
puts it beyond dispute, for it uses the Protestant formula."[273]
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y5p6) . New York: W.W. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-31562-2. OCLC 36867040 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/368
67040) .

Wells, Stanley (2006). Shakespeare & Co: Christopher Marlowe, Thomas Dekker, Ben Jonson, Thomas
Middleton, John Fletcher and the Other Players in His Story (https://archive.org/details/shakespearecoc
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76820663) .

Wells, Stanley; Orlin, Lena Cowen, eds. (2003). Shakespeare: An Oxford Guide. Oxford: Oxford University
Press. ISBN 978-0-19-924522-2. OCLC 50920674 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/50920674) .
Gross, John (2003). "Shakespeare's Influence". In Wells, Stanley; Orlin, Lena Cowen (eds.). Shakespeare: An
Oxford Guide. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-924522-2. OCLC 50920674 (https://search.wor
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Kathman, David (2003). "The Question of Authorship". In Wells, Stanley; Orlin, Lena Cowen (eds.).
Shakespeare: an Oxford Guide. Oxford Guides. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 620–632. ISBN 978-
0-19-924522-2. OCLC 50920674 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/50920674) .

Thomson, Peter (2003). "Conventions of Playwriting". In Wells, Stanley; Orlin, Lena Cowen (eds.).
Shakespeare: An Oxford Guide. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-924522-2. OCLC 50920674
(https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/50920674) .

Werner, Sarah (2001). Shakespeare and Feminist Performance. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-22729-2.
OCLC 45791390 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/45791390) .

Wilson, Richard (2004). Secret Shakespeare: Studies in Theatre, Religion and Resistance (https://archive.or
g/details/secretshakespear00wils) . Manchester: Manchester University Press. ISBN 978-0-7190-7024-2.
OCLC 55523047 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/55523047) .

Wood, Manley, ed. (1806). The Plays of William Shakespeare with Notes of Various Commentators. Vol. I.
London: George Kearsley. OCLC 38442678 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/38442678) .

Wood, Michael (2003). Shakespeare (https://archive.org/details/shakespeare00wood) . New York: Basic

Books. ISBN 978-0-465-09264-2. OCLC 1043430614 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1043430614) .

Wright, George T. (2004). "The Play of Phrase and Line". In McDonald, Russ (ed.). Shakespeare: An
Anthology of Criticism and Theory, 1945–2000 (https://archive.org/details/shakespeareantho0000unse_z9v
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Articles and online

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um1904lond#page/400/mode/2up) . The Athenaeum. No. 3987. London: John C. Francis. pp. 401–402.

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Retrieved 23 April 2010.

"Did He or Didn't He? That Is the Question" (https://www.nytimes.com/2007/04/22/education/edlife/22shakes

peare-survey.html) . The New York Times. 22 April 2007. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20210323100407/
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"Visiting the Abbey" (https://web.archive.org/web/20160403162702/http://www.westminster-abbey.org/archive/

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External links

Library resources about

William Shakespeare

Online books (https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=William+Shakespeare&library=OLBP)

Resources in your library (https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=William+Shakespeare)
Resources in other libraries (https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=William+Shakespeare&library=0CHOOSE0)
 By William Shakespeare
Online books (https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?at=wp&au=William+Shakespeare&library=OLBP)
Resources in your library (https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?at=wp&au=William+Shakespeare)
Resources in other libraries (https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?at=wp&au=William+Shakespeare&library=0CHOOSE
0)

Digital editions

William Shakespeare's plays on Bookwise (https://bookwise.io/author/william-shakespeare)

Internet Shakespeare Editions (https://internetshakespeare.uvic.ca/)

The Folger Shakespeare (https://shakespeare.folger.edu/)

Open Source Shakespeare (http://www.opensourceshakespeare.org/) complete works, with search engine

and concordance

The Shakespeare Quartos Archive (https://wayback.archive-it.org/org-467/20191016094633/http://quartos.or

g/)

Works by William Shakespeare in eBook form (https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/william-shakespear

e) at Standard Ebooks

Works by William Shakespeare (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/65) at Project Gutenberg

Works by or about William Shakespeare (https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Shak

espeare%2C%20William%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22William%20Shakespeare%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Shakes
peare%2C%20William%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22William%20Shakespeare%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Shakespe
are%2C%20W%2E%22%20OR%20title%3A%22William%20Shakespeare%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Shakespeare%
2C%20William%22%20OR%20description%3A%22William%20Shakespeare%22%29%20OR%20%28%221564-1616%22%20AN
D%20Shakespeare%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29) at the Internet Archive

Works by William Shakespeare (https://librivox.org/author/37) at LibriVox (public domain

audiobooks)
Exhibitions

Shakespeare Documented (https://shakespearedocumented.folger.edu/) an online exhibition

documenting Shakespeare in his own time

Shakespeare's Will (https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/ukgwa/+/https://www.nationalarchives.g

ov.uk/dol/images/examples/pdfs/shakespeare.pdf) from The National Archives

The Shakespeare Birthplace Trust (https://www.shakespeare.org.uk/)

William Shakespeare (https://www.bl.uk/people/william-shakespeare) Archived (https://web.archive.or

g/web/20210923070227/https://www.bl.uk/people/william-shakespeare) 23 September 2021 at the Wayback
Machine at the British Library
Music
 Works by William Shakespeare set to music: free scores in the Choral Public Domain Library
(ChoralWiki)

Works by William Shakespeare set to music: Scores at the International Music Score Library Project

Education

Shakespeare at Home (https://shakespeareathome.org/) an online resource providing free educational

resources on William Shakespeare and the Renaissance world. Activities are dyslexia friendly and
suitable for all ages.
Legacy and criticism

Records on Shakespeare's Theatre Legacy from the UK Parliamentary Collections (https://www.parliame

nt.uk/about/living-heritage/transformingsociety/towncountry/towns/collections/collections-shakespe
are/)

Winston Churchill & Shakespeare – UK Parliament Living Heritage (https://www.parliament.uk/about/l

iving-heritage/transformingsociety/private-lives/yourcountry/collections/churchillexhibition/churchi
ll-death/herbert-samuel/)

Portals: Biography England History Literature Theatre