I 4.7./DESCRIPTION OF AN· EA~THING SYSTEM ......

_,,_
A typical earthing sys:tem for a substation co~prises the following:
_ An ·earth mat (grid) formed by mild steel bars or bare
· _· ·cables placed i_n the ground at~ depth o~ about 0.5 mefre
· in a horizontal plane (Fig,. 4.3). The crossings are Welded.
The grid -covers the entire substation area an? sometimes
a few metres beyond the fencing. The earthing rods are
also run along the border of the fencing of the substation.
Earth elec-frodes (1) driven vertically into _the earth at
several locations. These electrodes (spikes) are connected
to the ea_rth mat. Large number of earth-electrodes give
lower earth resistance.
Earthing risers (3) are used for connection between the
~truc_tures, equipment bodies and the earthing mat. These
are usually clamped or welded or brazed (solder4lg is not
permitted). _ · ,
Earthing conductor between the transformer neutrals and
·the earth. ~at are usually in the form of bare .copper cabJes.
or strips. ·
. -

:: • . __ .Table 4.2. ~eference Data for a

·-. - ,. ·::~~: Typical Earthing System
..... ---.-.:::...
. .

1. Earthing Electrodes (Spikes) (vertical)

- 25 mm dia steel bars or 40 mm dia steel bars : 2 to 3 m lo~g.
2. Earthing Mat (horizontal) -~-----
- 75 x 10 mm m~ld steel flats placed. Spacing 3 to 4 m 'in mesh
form. Alternatively, bars same as (1).· .
1

- Distance between parallel strips 2 m. •

·- Depth 0.5 m below surface of ground.

- Jo~nts ~y electric arc welding welded joints, covered"by 2 nun
• thick bitumen paint.
3. Risers (vertical)
75 x 10 mm MS Flats connected to equipment structures and
welded to earth-mat.
4. Overhead Shielding .Wire (Earthed) (horizontal)
Level 30 m above ground level
· , w1'th ad equate clearances.
- 7 /9 SWG Steel Wire. -
- Shielding angle 45°.
fQUlt'IYI .... .

400 C.I. cover hinged

to C.I. frame

65 PVC
cl>
conduct
embeded
0
ll)
C\I
T-

After fixing
surface should .. 250 .., , .. 250 .. ,
covered with bitu~in 1 1
or grease
2~
I
,~q., ..
75
I

50x6 'A Homogenous

G.I. strip layer of coke
50x3 charcoal salt
4> 10 bolts and sand
G.I. strip
and nuts
Detail - A

8
G.I. pipe 100 1/D
13 thick

Fig. 4.3. Earthing electrode (spike).

 Table 4.3. Points to be Connected_to Earthing System
Apparatus Parts to be earthed Method of connection
----.....
Support of bushing Device flange or base- 1. Connect the earthing
insulators, lightning plate bolt of the device to
arrester, fuse, etc. station earthing sys-
tem. In the absence
of earthing bolt or in
case of connection to
non-cond_u cting st-
ructures, connect de-
vice fastening bolt to ·
earth.
Earth terminal of each 2._When the device is
pole of 3 phase. Surge mounted on a steel
Arrester structure, weld the
structure, mounting
the device flange ;
each supporting
structure of appara-
tus to earthing mesh
via separate conduc-
tor.
Cabinets of control and Frameworks of switch-
relay panels Weld the framework of
gear and cabinets each separately
I
:rnounted board and
cabinet minimum at
two points to the earth
conductor of earthing
system.
High-voltage circuit 9pera ting mechanism, ._ -
Connect the earthing
1

breakers frame
bolt on the frame and
to opera ting mecha-
nism of c.b. to earthing
Isolator
system.
Isolator base (frame), Weld the isolator base
-
opera ting mechanism frame, connect it to the
bedplate. . bolt on operating
mechanism base plate
Surge Arrester
Lower earth point
and station earth.
To be directly con·
nected to the ear th
-
mat.
 potential transformer Potential t
tank LV ransformer 1.·connect the trans-
wind· . neutral; LV former earthing bolt
st· \ng phase lead (if to earthing system.
ipu ated b
designers) y the 2. Connect LV neutral
of phase lead to case
with flexible copper
conductor.
Current transformer Secondary wind.1ng and
metal case Connect secondary
winding to earthing
bolt on transformer
case with a flexible
copper conductor, the
case being ·earthed in .
the same way as
support insulators.
Power transformer Transformer tank <:;onnect the earthing
. bolt on transformer
tank to station earth.
Connect the Neutral ·to
Earthing system.
Fencing; ·doors, wire- Each section Entire switchyard is
gua~ds. covered by earthed ·
fence.
I

Fencing
. The fe~cing for outdoor yard shoulq be at least 2.8 m high and
should cover the entire switchyard. A grounding rod or bare cable is
run parallel to the fence at a distance of about 1 m and at a depth of
0.5 m and each post of the fence is connected to this grounding rod.
Fencing is essential for Security and Safety.

14.8. TECHNICAL CONSIDERATION OF STATION

- EARTHING SYSTEM
1. The current carrying paths should have enough capacity
to deal with maximum fault current. The magni~de of the earth fault
c~rrent is influenced by the total impedance of fr:te neutral to ground
circuit. · · . .
2. The resistance of earth and the current path should be low
enough so as to prevent voltage rise between the neutral '";1d earth.
3. Main station earthing system· should be separate from
earthing for lie:htning protection. ·
 4. Soil ~esistivity depends up9~ local con~ition~. Systematic
survey of oil resistivity should be Carne? _out.~ earlh electrod~s
·b d .• m· the ground to a sufficient depth so as to obt~,. .
sh ou Id e nven th f 11 · -.i..Ll
lower value of earth resistance e.g. in pne c~se, ·e O owmg values
were obtained :
Depth of test electrode,_Metr~s Earth resistance, ohms

1.3 120
2.5 60
44
4
To obtain sufficiently low earth resistance, a number of
-
earthing electrodes are .inserted in the earth,_to a s~fficient depth.
These are connected together to form a mesh. The resistance to earth
should be less than 0.5 ohm for EHV sub-station earthing. Earth
· resistance is reduced by means of substances like sodium chloride
NaCl;, i.e. (common salt), calcium chloride CaC12, sodium carbonate
(Na2 CO3), copper sulphate (CuSO4), charcoal, soft coke. By treatment
of salt solution, the soil resistivity can be reduced. In exceptional
cases, the earth pits should be specially irrigated during summer.
Earth electrodes. Earth electrode small installations is a metal
plate or metal pipe or metal conductors electrically connected to earth.
Copper, aluminium, mild steel and galvanised iron are the materials
generally used for earthing electrodes. Due to high cost of copper,
aluminium will be preferred in the coming years.
Size of Earth Electrode. the size of conductor is based on
temperature rise permissible to avoid fusing at the joints .. The
minimum diameter of. earth electrodes is 12.5 ttnn for aluminium
pipes and 6 mm for galvanised iro~ pipes. Gen~rally 40 mm dia 2.5,
m long mild steel rods .are used in India. .

Earth Mat
The grounding mat covers the entire substation area excluding
foundations of towers, structures, transformers. Steel rods or copper
clad steel pipes or bare copper cable is buried at a depth of 0.5 m
along the entire fence. Steel rods or Steel strips are laid in the form
of rectangular mesh at a sp~cing of 3 to 5 m. Grounding spikes 20
mm dia x 3 1l\ long inserted into ground. The number of groundirtg
spikes depends on the maximum earth fault current to be discharged,
A thumb rule is to have 250 A per spike if the soil resistivity is higher
than 5000 ohm-meter and 500 A per spike if soil restivity is less than
5000 ohm-meter. If earth-fault current is 10 kA, number of spikes
would be 10,000/5?0 = 2 0 to 10,000/250 = 40. The rods are connected
to earth ·m at by suitable galvanised frori strips. . .
Length of Flat Strip for the Mat
The required length is obtained from the following expression :
The soil resistivity and earth-resistcµ1ce of mat is reduced by
means of charcoal, salt and moisture in the earthing pits surrounding
the earth electrodes. an~ eart~ strips.
R = l00P lo 300L2 •.
2L g W·.D
where, ·R = earth resistance of the mat in ohms.
L = Length of earth strip buried in ground, cm
W = width of strip, cm
D = Depth of burial, cm.

· Resistance of Earthing System

The resistance of e~rthing system should . not exceed the
following-values·: .
For substations of 1000/V and above and earth fault current
exceeding 500 A, the earth .resistance · shall not exceed
0.5 ohm. ·.
Earth
' .
resistance
J.

Generator teSter Ohmmeter , I

Earth point
under test I.. X .,
Fig. 4.4A. Earth resistance measurement (voltage spike moved
betwee~ E and XT and several readings taken).

t --------------------
R
R Earth

E Distance, X .

fig. 4.4B. Graph ~f (A}.

 .
For installations of 1000 V but earth fault current less t
500 AI earth resistance shall· be less than 125/ I Qhhc\l\
However, earth resistance shall not exceed 4 to 6 0 ~ s.
For installa'tions up to 1000 V, Power 1000 kVA e s. .
, arth
resistance shall not exceed 6 ohms.

Values_of Soil Resistivity

The soil re~is.t ivities ,vary fro~ .wid~ly ~el?e~ding upon
position moisture content, season. ~yptcal sod res1stiv1ty value are
given in the table below : ·

Types of Soil Resistivity in ohm metres -

-
1. Marsheel 1-5
2. Clay
\ 3-150
3. Clay _sand and gravel moisture 10-1250
4. Chalk 60-500
5. Sand . 90-1000
6. Sand_and Gravel mixture 500-5000
7. Slate 100-500
8. Crystalline rock 500-10,000

I
'

4.9. PROCEDURE OF LAYING EARTHING-MAT

1. Earthing layout is prepar·ed -indicating the location of

trenches and foundatio~s of equipment. _ .
·2. Trenches are dug to a depth of_about 1 m.
3. The base of trenches is I,evelled and made free from stones ..
The base is filled with soft soil free of stones. ~e soil is ramed and
levelled. -
· 4. Earthing rods are laid.
5. Grounding spikes are driven in the earth S t
g rounding rocks are .
provided near surge:-arrestors t · efpara e
. , rans ormer
neutrals and coupling capacitors_. -,
6. Risers are laid between the earthing rods and· · ·
. _ structures
foundations. ·
7. The joints are welded after proper clamping.
8. Bitumen paint is applied to welded joints.
9· The trenches
.
are filled \_Vith the earth covered b
. Y crushed
stone of 5 to 8 cm size. th' . S t . .- . .. .
10. Resistance of Ear mg . ys em is measured.
Measurement of. Earthing Resistance
The resistance of earth system is me·as uredb y means of earth
Th
reSl·stance
. tester.C e earth
· resistance tester has ab
. u1•it-1n
. ohtn meter,
hand-driven D: . generator, profession of connecting voltage spikes
and current spikes. The range selector switch has 3 ranges.
0-10, 0-100, 0-1000 ohms .
The accuracy is _a~ound ± 10%. The current is flown through
the earth-mat and auxiliary earth connection. The voltage between
the earth mat and voltage electrode is used for measurement. The
voltage spike is moved over along the distance and the measurement
is carried out at each step of about 1 metre (between the earth mat
and auxiliary _ear~ing connections).
As the handle of D.C. generator is driven, the current is flown
through the earth between the earth mat and the auxiliary earth
connection, the voltage between the earth mat and the voltage
electrode is sensed by the voltage coil of the ohtn-meter. The ohm-
meter measures VII which is a measure on an earth resistance. The
v~lue of R r~~ains co~tant over a_ long le~gth (between -th~ ear~
mat and aux1hary earthmg connections). This constant value is called
the eartlt resistance to the earth mat. The earth resistivzty is calculated from
the meas~~red value of the earth resistance by using the following
expressions :
R
-. _ p . _ ohm-cm.
0 003
p = Earth resistivity, ohm-cm
R = Earth resistance, ohms.
Maintenance and inspection of earthing system is carried out
?nee in 5 years. The resistance of earthing system s~bjected to
~tensive corrosion is measured more frequently. An earthing system
18 .also checked for continuity and earthing connections for . good

electrical contact. For this check, the system under test is fed through
a rheostat of 500 v A with secondary voltage 12 V. The poor electrical
co~tact or lack of current· is indicated by oscillations of a metre-
~iinter. Arcing or heating takes place at po~nts poo~ electrical
~tacts. Portable tests sets· are used for checkmg earthing system
wi~hout disturbing services continuity. Measurement of earth
r(esistance is carried out. Value should be within acceptable limits
< 0.5 ohm). . · · <" .
 Table. Summary of Earthing-system

.Item Description
'
.
Galvanised stee1 pipes 16 to----
25 ·
Earthing spikes
mm dia 1.5 to 3 m deep.
Earthing rods of earth mat Mild steel rods, 40 mm dia.
Risers grid on fence G.I. Flats (75 x 10 mm) welded ·
to earthing mat and welded/
bolted to earthed part.
Short circuit current duration · 20 to 40 kA for l second.
Earth resistance of Grid Less than 0.5 ohm.

14.10. STEP POTENTIAL AND TOUCH POTENTIAL _

From safety points of view, a person standing on floor and touching

anon-current carrying metal par~ (earthed) in the installation should
not get shock by touch potential due to leakage/fault currents.
A person walking on substation floor with both feet touching
the ground should not get a shock due to step potential due to
voltage gradient along the floor.
Step potential is the voltage across the two points on the floor
level. In the substation during an earth fault. The two points being
_at a distance of one human step (0.5 m). The touch potential is
defined as the potential between finger of raised hand touching a
substation structure and the feet. Consider the earth fault of current
le from the line conductor through a substation structure. The fault
·current will flow from the structure to the earth mat. Resulting in
voltage drop IeRe, where Re is total resistance between _the fault point
':1fld the earth. This _voltage gets distributed along the current-path
be~eeh. the fault point and earth mat.
During an earth-fault in the substation the earth fault current
flows fro~ the fault-point_to earth via the metallic path having certain
tot~! resistance R,. This flow of fault current (1!). flowing through
~esistance Re ca~es a v;oltage drop Ve = I Re. This voltage drop results
m voltage-grad1~t along the substatiol floor during the earth fa~ts-
This v~ltage gl'.a~1ent should be held in safe limits by proper design
of ~taho~ ~~rthing syst_em. A opetation maintenance person is
subJe~ted .to step _potential' and ''!'.ouch Potential' during an earth-
f~ult m the substation. The 'Step-Potential' is defined as the potential
diff~rence between two steps of a person standing on the substation floor
during the flow of earth fault current. The 'Touch Potential is defined as
the potential difference between · ··
touching a substa~~on structur: J~!nand the tip of the raised hand
th
current through the latter. · g e flow .of the earth fault
The Step 'r'otential and T - .
following aspects: . . ouch Potential depend upon the
- Earth fault current J
- Duration of earth ffult
- . Whether
· · short·. .time
· . ··(loss
"" t.h. an [Link].).
- Wh~_ther . ·sustained
·. (more . th.· · an· 3 sec.)
- Fault current flowing through b0 d 11 ·
V 1 . . ' Yb
- a ues of body resistances in the path of lb.
' ' . -: :,

.tE
i.

- x ·~
Fig, 4.5. .Explaining touch potential Et and step
potential £ 5 • (during f~ul~ -~ .on .struct~re)
From the studies of Bio-electrical Engineering the safe value .
of body current lb is determined for (1) short duration shock (2) Long
duration I, shock. From these values of lb and the knOWn values of
body resistances, the safe values of 'touch potential' V5, and Step
Potential V6- are
. determined.. . · \
The earthing s}'stem should be such .that the touch potential
and step potential during flow of [Link] short-circuit current
through the structures/tanks/fences etc. via the earthing system is
Within permissible safe values. . · ·
(1) Permissible Step-Potential (V5)
V = Step potential, Volts . .
5
= Potential difference ~e~ween two 'steps of a
·· periidri stlmding ori substation floor during flow
of earth fa ult current. · .
 Vs= lb X (Rb + 2Rs) ···(l)
where Rb·= Resistance of human body = 1000 ohms
Rs= Resistance between the foot and ground= 3Ps
P5 = Soil Resistivity, Ohm-meter
lb= Tolerable . value of current through human body,
Amperes
From biological research,
lb < 0.01 ·Amp. for sustaired fault cu~rent. (10 mA)
lb < 0.05 Amp. for short-time fault current of less than < o.s
sec (50 mA)

Tolerable Step Potential V5

Vs = lb (Rb + 2Rs) _
Vs sustained= 0.01 (1000 + 6Ps) Volts .. .for several seconds
Vs short-time =0.05 (1000 + 6P~)Volts ... for< 0~05 second
The design of grounding sy'siem should be such that the
voltage gradient in volts/metre,,.on the surface of the ground should
be less than the values of Vs given in the ~\!ove equation.
• w j- \ f :

Safe,values of Touch Potential ~a:·step potential are calculated

from following expressions : ·
Vs~ lb (Rb-+. 2Rs) ' ·
where V5 = Step potential, Volts
lb= Current through human body
Rb = Resistance of human body = 1000 .ohms
R5 = Resistance betweerl steps ·'
= 3 x Soil Resistivity .Ohm .Meter =·3P ' = 3 x 500
= 1500 · .. . . ·. . . s .
V5 = lb ( Rb + 2R5) = lb (Rb + 6Ps)
Example:
Assume : lb = 10 x 10-3 A = 10 mA sustained and
Rb= 1000 ohm 2RS = 6PS
Rs= 3 x 500.·ohm-meter
Sustained:
vs= 10 X 10-3 (1000 + 3000) = 40,V .
.. .for several seconds (sustained)
Short time:
vst = 50 x 10-3 (1000 + 3000) = 200 V
. · .• .for less than SO ins-
Tolerable Touch Potential Vt
Cons_ider a man standing on lhe substation floor with raised
hand touching a structure. ·
Let, Rb = Body resistance, 1000
Rs = Resistance
. of one step 3 ps
P5 = Soil resistivity, ohm-metre
Rvs
= Effective resistance of 2 steps
lb= Tolerable body current
lb -:- 0.01 A for sustained fault
lb= 0.05 for short time fault of less than 0.5 sec.
Rs =3Ps
~s/l = 3Ps/2
Tolerable Touch Potential
vt-sr,sttiined = Tb-s11stained (Rb + Rs/}.> = [Link] (1000 + 3Ps12> Volts

[Link] = 1short-time ..(Rb + Rs/1.) ·

case of touch potential the value .of tolerable Vt is given by
above equations. · · ·

The Actual Touch Potential

Let 1 =·Faul~ current.-·A
Rt1 = Total resistance between touched point and
earth ·
Vt-achuzl = l/t
vt-achuzl = <Vrtolerable
If the person touches the grounded object at point far away
from the ground mat ; the full voltage Vt-ach,al ~ould be felt by him.
If the person touches the grounded object at a point very near to the
ground mat, the magnitude of Vt-actual felt by him would be smaller.
If Rt is low, the V would be smaller. Hence, resistance of ground
t-actuaI
mat and risers shall be smaller.

I 4.1YNElITRALGROUNDING (SYSTEM GROUNDING)

All power systems .of today operate with ground neutrals. Neutral
grounding offers several advantages.'The neutral points (star points)
generator, transformer system, circuit, rotating machines, etc. is
connected to earth either directly or through a resistance or a
 . i
re~~tance. In: ·some cases the neutral poin~ is ea~the~ through ·an
ad1ustable reactor of a. reactance matching with hne to earth
~apacitance ·of a line. The neutral earthing is one of the most
important, safety features of systems-design. Neutral earthing ensure
safety against sustained overvoltages of healthy phases during earth
fault on the third . phase. Arcing gr9unds and flashovers are
eliminated'.
.Advantages; of Neutral Grounding
1. ·The voltages of healthy lines with respect to earth remain
at harmless value during single line to earth fault on third phase. They
do not_increase toJj times normal value as in the ~ase of ungrounded
system.
2. Ar,:ing grounds due to discharge of capacitive currents
through repeated sparks are eliminated operation/maintenance
personnel. ·

-------A
N
F .·
,.____ _.,._.._....._ ..... B
Distributed · ·, .~ - ,,eaaurtlth
capacitance ...,._;
(Ph. Ground)
(~,:cing_grounds)
IL = IR + ly IF = 0
,----------- R

r---1--.--v
I· .'
I
F. B
Earth
fault
/./r --
IF
Fig. 4.5. Arcing grounds in ungrounded neutral syst~m (A)
_. are [Link] by neutral g~oundi~g _(B).
· ·. (IR + ly +IF= 0 in case of B) ·
1

. ,.., ~. . . ....... "". . .

3. The life of ins~lation is enhanced,.Improved continuity of

supply and safety Qf O and M staff..
 R

y
,,, ~. ',
1..---------£F B ,;

VPH .G
·ev ="3 Vph B
~G
Fig. 4.7A.
· Voltages. during earth [Link] an unearthed
· neutral system.

3 --r~~--r----
Earth fault

2 --~r---"- t
V23

V12
V t3

N 1 1 .l
v1· v2· v 3 = 0 v1:.=v1."3
V 1 = V 2..Ja
E- -- --
. ,
--- :ET ·

Fig. 4.7B. During earth fault on phase·3, voltages of phase 1 and 2

rise to times their normal value above earth.
Phase to phase voltages remain \lnchanged.
4. Stable neutral point.
5. The earth fault protectjon ~ecomes relatively simple.
6. The over-voltages due to lightning are discharged to earth
via earthed neutral. ·
7. By employing resistance or reactance in earth-connection,
the earth fault current can
be controlled.
8. Greater safety to pt:?rsonnel and equipment.
9. Life of equipments, machines, installation is jmproved due
to limit_ation of over-voltage. Hence overall economy.
10. Earth-faults can be located in grounded neutral system.
They are very difficult to be located in undergrounded system. .
11. S~fety Persons operating electrical equipment, working in
the plant, carrying out maintenance etc. are not subjected to shocks/
due to elimination of arcing grounds/insulation failure/stable neutral
point voltage helds at ground potential/ stable voltage of he~lthy
phases during earth fault O!l the third phase/better earth fault
protection and discharge of capacitive -currents and over Volta
.

surges through neutral earth.

I 4.12. STABLE NEUTRAL POINT DUE TO NEUTRAL

EARTH·l'NG
In three phase AC System the three phase conductors are at voltages
V h with respect:to ground and the neutral point (under balanced load
~d no fault condition). The three phase voltage (Vph) are balanced
(equal magnitude and 120° phase difference). The neutral point is
stable and at zero potential.
{A) With undergrounded neutral system, the balance of
voltages is disturbed during unbalanced loads and during phase
fault/earth fault. Thereby the neutral point does not remain stable
any more. Voltage of neutral N with respect and phase angle
disturbing the three phase v1tages. ·
During single phase to earth fault, the situation becomes bad
to worst. The voltages of tw , healthy phases with respect to earth
increase to times their nqrmal values during earth fault on the
. third phase. If phase R suffers from phase to earth fault, voltages of
phases R, Y, B above earth would be as under :
V rn = Voltage of phase R to earth = Zero
. vye = Voltage of phase y to earth= vph.

vbe = Voltage of phase B to earth= /3 vph

In ungrounded neutral system with earth fault on phase R.
These voltages are experienced over the entire voltage level.
As vo~tage of Y and B have increased to .Jj. Vph' there ca.n be
followmg consequences even though fault current in phase R .may
be negligibly small. ·
1. Flashover can occur at weakest spot in the installation due
to sustained power-frequency overvoltage by .Jj times normal value
two healthy phases. .
2. Insulation of motors/transformers m~y get punctured due
to (1) resulting in equipment failures.
_ 3. Operation and maintenance persons are exposed to
dangerous shocks and flashover due to (1) and (2).
(B~ Neutral earthing, the Neutral N remains at earth potential
even dunng fault on one phase. The voltages of two healthy phases
with respect to earth remain uncharged during earth fault on the thifd ·
iJhases.
e
The neutral remains stab! t
nee Neutral earthing adds t e j zero voltage of earth potential.
sa ety over the entire voltage level.
O

Phase conductors
R
3 B
Vph ''
, \ Vph
.J3Vph I \~

---t-----'-- y Va~/ NG \
I
.../3 Vph -./3 Vph I
3Ph. AC
generator
or .__-t--r--L----1.- R V
I
I
R. I _____ v.,_ ______\ vv \

RY
transformer Voltage vectors
--r-i----,~-~--N
Neutral conductor
;;;;;;;;;>;77;;1
Earth
Fig. 4.8. With neut~al earthing, the phase to ground voltages of two ·
healthy phases remain unchanged during earth fault on ariother phase.

I 4.13. FREEDOM FROM ARCING GROUND/REPEATED

OVERVOLTAGES

Refer Fig. 4.6. During an earth fault (F) on phase (B) the phase to
ground capacitance gets charged from supply voltage and then gets
discharged through the earth fault, resulting in arcing grounds.
Arcing Grounds are repeated flashovers· through air-gap. The current
is usually low 'due to air-gap resistance. But the process of charging/
discharging continues giving high transient overvoltage
superimposed on power frequency overvoltages. Such overvoltages
travel far and wide over entire voltage level and cause flashovers / ·
insulations failure at other weak spots and endanger human life.
Secondly, a temporary fault grows into a permanent fault due
to arcing grounds. The problems of arcing ground is solved by
[Link] the neutral through a Reactance (Arc suppression coil)
connected between neutral and earth.
IL= IR + Iy + IF = 0
. ·. The charging currents Iw ly are neutralised by Iu current
flow·mg through the neutral connection,· ·
i.e'.

IR+Iy+IL=O.
. . Thereby the arc is extinguished. Neutral Earthing helps in
nununising Arcing Grounds and thereby solves the problems of over
Voltage, and adds to safety of personnel over the entire voltage level.
I 4.1jt TYPES OF GROU_NDING
. I·

' .

1. Ungrounded system. It is use_d no more (e~cept in

continuous process ·industry) connected to earth..Also called insulated
neutral system. · ·_ .· ·
2. Solid Grounded or Effective Gr~~ndin~. Th~ neutral is _
directly connected to ground without_ ~ny,mtentlo~al ~mpedance
between neutral and ground. The coefficient o.f earthing 1s less than
80% for such systems. ii· ·
3. Resonant Grounding. As adjustable rea_c tor _of correctly-
selected value to compensate the capacitive earth _current 1s connected
between neutral and earth. The coil-is caUe·~ Peterson Coil or Arc
suppression coil or Earth-fault neutralizer. : . ,_
Note: ·rhe resistance/reactor is connected between neutral -and
ground to limit in the Earth, fault current. In case Qf solid grounding, earth-
. fault current is relatively high. ry
• 4.1~METHODS OF EARTHING G~N~RATORS ")'
NEUTRALS . . r -,
, , ' I ' • •

Generator neu~ral is e~rthed by one of the foHoWing methods. -

1. Direct solid grounding by connecting neutral point directly
to earth. ·- ·
)-"; · ·
. 2. Earthing voltage transformer primary. The earth fault Relay
1s connected across the secondary of the VT. Reactance of [Link]
the earth fault current flowing -through neutral.
~- Earth!ng via current transformer p.t imary in series with
grounding Resistor or grounding reactor. The earth fault-relay is
connected to secondary of CT Grounding Re: s· t G d' g
Rea t r ·t th hf · 1s or or roun m
c o~ im1 s e eart ault currents flowing th h th I to
earth connection. - · .. roug e neutra
I• .

I 4.16. CIRCUIT PROTECTION DEVICES

Circuit protection devices I' . · .: · --
automatically in the event of a imit or stop ' the. flow of curre~t
in the wiring system. Well-kn ground fault, over load, or short circuit
circuit breakers, ground-fault:';1' ~;~pies of these devices are fuse~,
interrupters. : · . rcui interrupters, and arc-fault circuit
Fuses and circuit bre k · .
automatically when too much a ers open or break the circuit
happens, fuses melt and circu~~~:::~flows _through them. When that
ers trip the circuit open. fuses
 and circuit br~akei:s are designed to rotect .
f}ley prevent wires and other comp~n t ~0nductors an~ equipment.
the circuit when there is a risk of a gr~~d ~::~verheatmg and [Link]
Ground-fault circuit interrupters ·(GFCIS) .
• t . t' · - are used 1n wet
locations, cons rue 10n sites, and other high- . k Th .
. . . ris areas. ese devices
interrupt th e fl ow~f e1ectncity wihtm as little as 1/ 40 of a second to
Prevent. electro~uhon.
. , ,. - GFCis
. . compare ·the amoun t of current going
.
into electri~ eq~pµtent with the am?unt of current returning from it
along the circuit c~nductors. If the difference exceeds ·11·
.. t ·t· II h mi 1amperes,
s·

the device au .o ma ica y. s uts off the electric power.

.· Arc-fault devices provide protection from the effects of arc-
fault~ by recognizin~ charac~eristics unique to arcing and by
funct1on1ng to deenergize the circuit when an arc-fault is detected.

14.17. PROTECTION AGAINST ENERGI_SED METAL

· PARTS · ·

A break in an electric tool's or machine's insulation can cause its metal

parts to -[Link] "hot" or energized, meaning that they conduct
electricity. Touching these energized parts can result in an electrical
sho~k, bum, or electrocution. The best way to protect. yourself when
using electrical tools or machines is to establish a low-resistance path
from the device's metallic case to the ground. This requir_es an
, equipment grounding conductor, a low-resistance wire that directs
unwanted current directly to the ground. A properly installed
grounding conductor has a low resistance to ground and greatly
reduces the amount of current that passes through the body.

. . . SUMMARY
Equipment Grounding ensures safety. ~very non-current
carrying metallic part should be earthed. Earthing Sys~em should
have low, resistance to earth to ensure low touch potential and low
step potential.