AP5056D

Building Maintenance and Retrofitting

MODULE 2
Investigation of Building failures, methods and maintenance

• Condition Assessment of Buildings

• Methodology of Condition Assessment
• Detailed Investigations - Partially Destructive Tests and Non-Destructive
Test
Condition Assessment of Buildings
Main objective of condition assessment are to place the building into one of the
following three categories:

• A The building has not shown any signs of distress, and It satisfies all the safety
and serviceability requirements according to relevant Codes of practice, hence no
action is needed towards retrofitting.
• B The building is seen to be deficient (or distressed), but it can be repaired and
strengthened to satisfy the Codal safety requirements or performance criteria set
by the user.
• C The building is badly damaged. It is to be demolished, and a new building may
be built, build back better.
Condition Assessment of Buildings

Main steps of condition assessment Methodology of Condition Assessment

will be
a) To record the damage if any, and Preliminary Investigation
find out the causes for distress
b) To assess the extent of distress and Detailed Investigation
to estimate the residual strengths of
structural components and the system If we get adequate information to assess the
including the foundation. safety of the building at the preliminary
investigation level, detailed investigation,
c) To plan the rehabilitation and which involves considerable cost and time,
retrofitting/strengthening of the may not be recommended.
building.
Condition Assessment of Buildings
Preliminary Investigation

Rapid Visual Investigation (RVI)

There are mainly three components and steps:

• Collection of information and details about the building design, construction,
utilization, and maintenance in the past
• Visual inspection of condition at site and recording details of distress
• Evaluation of safety against the provisions in building codes or specified
performance criteria
Condition Assessment of Buildings
Preliminary Investigation

Information needed for Rapid investigation Some nondestructive testing may be

required to check the strength of
• One needs a complete record of building design
concrete masonry etc.
details and drawings,
• architectural details,
• construction details and drawings including the If the information is not available,
specifications of materials used, detailed investigations have to be
conducted.
• geotechnical details of the area and foundation
particulars,
• details of any repair or retrofitting done from the
time of construction,
• details of usage of the building including the loads.
Condition Assessment of Buildings
Preliminary Investigation
Details about any deviations observed at
Details in visual Investigation the site from the original drawings have
also to be recorded.
The main purpose of visual investigation is to observe and note
down all the items of distress or design deficiency and their
locations, supported by sketches and drawings. It includes: Based on the data collected about the
details of the building, and visual
• Verification of the accuracy of the original drawings or observation of damage/distress in
determination of basic building information, if no drawings are
different structural components and the
available.
system, structural engineers, and experts
• Identification of major alterations not shown on the original can categorize the type and severity of
construction documents. damage and make judgments about
• Identification of visible structural damage, such as concrete further course of action.
cracking or spalling, and observations on quality of construction.
• Identification of potential non-structural falling hazards, Rapid assessment of the safety of
including ceilings, partitions, curtain Walls, parapets, fixtures, and buildings becomes necessary in the
other non-structural building elements. aftermath of natural disasters like
earthquakes to make decisions about
• Observations on the condition of soil and the foundation.
possible evacuation of unsafe buildings
• Documentation of existing conditions with photographs at key to save lives.
locations.
Condition Assessment of Buildings
Preliminary Investigation

Observation of settlement or differential settlement of buildings

Ground failures due to the following causes may be observed:
• Liquefaction of soil (under moderate to severe earthquakes)
• Landsliding, under monsoon rain or earthquakes
• Surface fault rupture under the building (remote possibility)

Diagrammatic explanation of diagonal tension crack due to differential settlement

Condition Assessment of Buildings
Detailed Investigation

Need and Action

• When the construction drawings about the building giving the layout and the structural details of the system
(including the specifications of materials used) and its foundation are not available, detailed investigations
have to be conducted about the total structural system besides of course the details on type, location, and
severity of damage or distress in various members and the system.
• Measurements may have to be made on the existing building to note the dimensions of the structural
elements.
• Properties of structural materials, namely, concrete, steel reinforcement and masonry, in the representative
structural members, will be necessary by conducting Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) in the field and by
carrying out laboratory investigations on samples collected from the field.
• Details of soil profile and its characterization have to be obtained by collecting data or by conducting
necessary geotechnical investigations.
• These details are necessary for analyzing/evaluating the safety of the building and to recommend
retrofitting/strengthening measures.
Condition Assessment of Buildings
Detailed Investigation Tests for assessment of in-situ quality of reinforced concrete

Property under investigation Test Equipment type

Cores Mechanical
Pull-out and Pull-off Mechanical
Break-off Mechanical
Concrete Strength Internal fracture Mechanical
Penetration resistance Mechanical
Maturity Chemical/ Electrical
Temperature matched curing Electrical/ electronic
Half-cell potential Electrical
Resistivity Electrical
Corrosion of embedded steel Cover Depth Electromagnetic
Carbonation depth Chemical / Microscopic
Chloride concentration Chemical / Electrical
Condition Assessment of Buildings
Property under investigation Test Equipment type
Surface hardness Mechanical
Ultrasonic pulse velocity Electronic
Radiography Radioactive
Radiometry Radioactive
Relative humidity Chemical/Electronic
Permeability Hydraulic
Concrete quality, durability and
Absorption Hydraulic
deterioration
Petrography Microscopic
Sulphate content Chemical
Soundness Mechanical
Air content Microscopic
Cement type and content Chemical/Microscopic
Abrasion resistance Mechanical
Condition Assessment of Buildings
Detailed Investigation

Test for Concrete Strength

Test Equipment type
• Concrete strength is the most important
Cores Mechanical
parameter in assessing the safety of a structure
against loading. Pull-out Mechanical
• Due to lack of construction supervision, Pull-off Mechanical
sometimes, very low strength concrete may be Break-off Mechanical
encountered in existing structures.
Internal fracture Mechanical
• Such locations are to be identified and suitable Penetration resistance Mechanical
remedial measures to be taken.
Maturity Chemical/ Electrical
• The testing methods for concrete strength vary
from very indirect surface hardness test to the Temperature matched curing Electrical/ electronic
direct testing of concrete strength by removing
cores.
Condition Assessment of Buildings
Detailed Investigation

Core test
This is one of the very reliable tests adopted for
checking the compressive strength of the ‘In situ
concrete”.
Other physical properties such as density, water
absorption can also be measured from the core
concrete.
In addition, chemical properties of concrete
specimen for its cement content, carbonation
depth, chloride and sulphate content may be
measured.

Core Cutting Machine

Condition Assessment of Buildings
Detailed Investigation

Core test
Though this test may become partially destructive
for beams / columns, but it can be used for slabs,
walls, where partial destruction of concrete due to
core cutting do not disturb the stability of the
member.
In this method concrete cores of sizes raging from
20 mm to 150 mm in diameter and 50 mm to 500
mm long are drilled out by a diamond cutters.
The recommended diameters are 100 to 150 mm,
but if the drill depth is insufficient as in of case
slabs, then smaller diameters may be used but not
less than three times nominal aggregate size.
Reinforcement shall be avoided in the core. Core Extraction from a RCC
Chimney
Condition Assessment of Buildings
Detailed Investigation

Pull-out tests
The fundamental principle behind pull out testing is that the test equipment designed to a specific
geometry will produce results (pull-out forces) that closely correlate to the compressive strength of
concrete.
This correlation is achieved by measuring the force required to pull a steel disc or ring, embedded in
fresh concrete, against a circular counter pressure placed on the concrete surface concentric with
the disc/ring.
Depending upon the placement of disc/ring in the fresh concrete, pull out test can be divided into 2
types,
• LOK test
• CAPO test (Cut and Pull-out Test)
Condition Assessment of Buildings
Detailed Investigation

Pull-out tests – LOK test

The LOK-TEST system is used to obtain a reliable estimate of
the in-place strength of concrete in newly cast structures in
accordance with the pullout test method described in ASTM
C900, BS 1881:207, or EN 12504-3.
A steel disc, 25 mm in diameter at a depth of 25 mm, is pulled
centrally against a 55 mm diameter counter pressure ring
bearing on the surface.
The force F required to pullout the insert is measured.
The concrete in the strut between the disc and the counter
pressure ring is subjected to a compressive load. Therefore,
the pullout force F is related directly to the compressive
strength.
LOK Test Process. H indicated the highest
pullout force.
Condition Assessment of Buildings
Detailed Investigation

Pull-out tests – CAPO test

The CAPO-TEST permits
performing pullout tests on
existing structures without the
need of preinstalled inserts.
CAPO-TEST provides a pullout CAPO Test on Concrete Slab
test system similar to the LOK-
TEST system for accurate on- • When selecting the location for a CAPO-TEST, ensure that reinforcing bars are
site estimates of compressive not within the failure region.
strength. • A recess (slot) is routed in the hole to a diameter of 25 mm and at a depth of
25 mm. A split ring is expanded in the recess and pulled out using a pull
Procedures for performing
machine reacting against a 55 mm diameter counter pressure ring.
post-installed pullout tests,
such as CAPO-TEST, are • The surface at the test location is ground using a planing tool and a 18.4 mm
included in ASTM C900 and EN hole is made perpendicular to the surface using a diamond-studded core bit.
12504-3. • As in the LOKTEST, the concrete in the strut between the expanded ring and
the counter pressure ring is in compression. Hence, the ultimate pullout force
F is related directly to compressive strength.
LOK Test CAPO Test
Condition Assessment of Buildings
Detailed Investigation
Pull-off test
• Concrete pull-off testing is used to measure the direct tensile strength of
a material or bond strength of an interface. The concrete pull-off testing
equipment consists of a metal test disc, epoxy, core drill, draw bolt, and
jack.
• First, a shallow core is drilled perpendicularly into the surface leaving the
intact core still attached to the material at the area of interest. Next, a
metal test disc of the same diameter as the core is epoxied/bonded to
the surface of the attached core. Once the epoxy cures, a bolt is attached
to the metal test disc and the jack, shown in Figure 1, pulls the bolt/disc
until failure occurs.
• The load at failure as well as the location of the failure is recorded. Failure
can occur in any one of the following planes: (A) epoxy, (B) overlay (if
applicable), (C) interface, or (D) substrate, as shown in Figure 2.
• Concrete pull-off testing is used to confirm the substrate strength prior to
the installation of repair materials or as quality assurance for the
installation of overlays or fiber wrap.
Representative post-
mortem pull-off test
samples, highlighting
different failure modes.
The (C1) and (C2)
represent the cohesive
failure in the concrete
overlay and substrate,
respectively.

The (A3) indicates the

adhesive alternating
crack failure and (A1)
shows the adhesive
interfacial failure
between the epoxy
layer and overlay.
Condition Assessment of Buildings
Detailed Investigation

Break-off (BO) Test

Out of many currently available
partial NDT methods, only the
BO and the pullout tests
measure a direct strength
parameter.
The BO test consists of breaking
off an in-place cylinder concrete At the time of the BO test, remove the inserted plastic sleeve using the key supplied by
specimen at a failure plane the tester. Select the desired range setting and place the load cell in the groove on the
parallel to the finished surface top of the concrete surface so that the load is applied according to Figure.
The load should be applied to the test specimen at a rate of approximately one stroke
of the concrete element. of the hand pump per second. This rate equals about 0.5 MPa (70 psi) of hydraulic
The test specimen has a 55mm pressure per second.
After breaking off the test specimen, record the BO manometer reading.
dia and a 70mm height and This manometer reading can then be translated to the concrete strength using curves
created by means of a relating the BO reading to the desired concrete strength (i.e., flexural and/or
disposable tubular plastic compressive).
sleeve.
Condition Assessment of Buildings
Detailed Investigation

Internal Fracture Test

Internal fracture test developed in the UK in which a
6-mm diameter expanding wedge anchor bolt is
inserted to a depth of 20 mm in a predrilled hole as
shown in Figure.
A torquemeter device may in this case provide the
pulling force.
The method was developed specifically for testing
existing slender in prestressed concrete elements and
although the equipment is inexpensive and relatively
quick to use, variability is high.
Condition Assessment of Buildings
Detailed Investigation

Penetration Resistance Test

Penetration resistance test rapidly and accurately determines

the compressive strength of the concrete.
The strength is found out by firing (shooting) a probe or pin on
the surface of the concrete with the known amount of force.
Condition Assessment of Buildings
Detailed Investigation

Penetration Resistance Test

Measurements are made of the depth of penetration of a metal rod or pin that is forced into the
surface of the hardened concrete by a driver unit. This is available in two basic forms:
• Pin-penetration test in which a 3.56-mm diameter hardened steel pin is driven by a spring-loaded
device to create a hole up to 7.6-mm deep in the mortar. This is not recommended for
compressive strengths above 28 MPa.
• Probe-penetration test, commonly known as the ‘Windsor Probe’ test in which a larger rod (6.35-
mm diameter for normal weight concrete) is fired from a specially designed gun using a
smokeless powder charge producing a constant energy level.
• Penetration may be up to approximately 40 mm depending upon the strength of the concrete,
and correlations to compressive strength are known to be influenced by aggregate hardness.
Measurements are usually based on the exposed probe length.
Condition Assessment of Buildings
Detailed Investigation

Maturity Test
The maturity-strength curve
represents the relationship
between maturity index and
compressive strength for a
specific concrete mix design,
adopted in the laboratory.

To do so, adequate concrete

cylindrical specimens should A certain number of concrete cylinders (i.e. at least two concrete
be cast, and then stored in specimens) should be equipped with embedded temperature
sensors for recording the hydration temperature history.
the semi-adiabatic condition
The compressive strength of concrete is measured at ages of 1, 3, 7,
for curing. 14 and 28 days.
Condition Assessment of Buildings
Detailed Investigation

Temperature Matched Curing

Temperature Matched Curing (TMC) is a

proven method for increasing the accuracy
of compressive strength prediction for
concrete structural elements.
It involves matching the temperature at
which the test cylinders are cured with the
internal temperature of the concrete slab
under investigation.
Condition Assessment of Buildings
Detailed Investigation

Property under investigation Test Equipment type

Half-cell potential Electrical
Resistivity Electrical
Corrosion of embedded steel Cover Depth Electromagnetic
Carbonation depth Chemical / Microscopic
Chloride concentration Chemical / Electrical
Condition Assessment of Buildings
Detailed Investigation

Half Cell potential Test

The Half Cell Potential Testing method
is a technique, used for assessment of
the durability of reinforced concrete
and helps in diagnosing
reinforcement corrosion.
The half cell potential readings are
indicative of the probability of The potential field can be measured with an electrode known as half
corrosion activity of the reinforcing cell. The electrical activity of the steel reinforcement and concrete
bars located beneath the copper- leads them to be considered as one half of battery cell with the steel
copper sulphate reference cell. acting as one electrode and concrete as electrolyte.
The positive terminal of the voltmeter is attached to the reinforcement
A more negative reading of potential is and the negative terminal is attached to the copper-copper sulphate
generally considered to indicate a half cell.
higher probability of corrosion. If there is any corrosion in the bars, the excess electrons in the bar
would tend to flow from the bar to the half cell.
Condition Assessment of Buildings
Detailed Investigation

Resistivity Test
Resistivity is one of the key controlling factors once corrosion
begins.
Corrosion requires a flow of ions between anodic and cathodic
sites on the reinforcement of concrete; the resistivity controls the
rate of this flow of ions and therefore directly controls the rate of
concrete corrosion.
Surface resistivity measurement provides extremely useful
information about the state of a concrete structure.
Operating on the principle of the Wenner probe, the Resipod is
designed to measure the electrical resistivity of concrete or rock.
A current is applied to the two outer probes, and the potential
difference is measured between the two inner probes. The
current is carried by ions in the pore liquid.
Condition Assessment of Buildings
Detailed Investigation

Carbonation Test
Carbonation is a process in which carbon dioxide from the atmosphere diffuses through the
porous cover concrete and may reduce the pH to 8 or 9, at which the passivating/oxide film is no
longer stable.
Carbonation process involves the following two stages:
• First, the atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) reacts with water in the concrete pores to form
carbonic acid (H2CO3).
• This is followed by reaction of the carbonic acid with calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2] to form
calcium carbonate (CaCO3). This process leads to cause a reduction in the pH value of the pore
solution from 12.5 to 13.5 to around 8 to 9, which causes depassivation of protective layer of
the reinforcement bars and initiates their corrosion.
Condition Assessment of Buildings
Detailed Investigation

Carbonation Test
• In this test, the depth of carbonation
is determined.
• The rate of carbonation depends on
the grade of concrete, permeability
of concrete, whether the concrete is
protected or not, depth of cover,
time, etc.
It has a very interesting feature. Its color
changes depending on the pH. So, to find
the carbonation depth, cut a part of
concrete, spray it with 0.2% solution of
phenolphthalein. The carbonated part
will have no color and the not-
carbonated part will be magenta in color.
Condition Assessment of Buildings
Detailed Investigation Cover Depth Test

Profometer
It is portable, battery-operated equipment used for measuring the depth of cover
concrete, location and size of the steel reinforcement embedded in concrete.
The equipment is useful for investigating the structures where drawings are not
available. The equipment consists of a data logger, diameter probe and depth
probe and calibration block.

Pachometer
It operates by producing a magnetic field and measures the reaction
between the magnetic field and the embedded reinforcement. The
intensity of the response is associated with the size and location of the
steel bars.
The main application of pachometer is to measure the thickness of the
concrete cover. So, it can be used to detect and measure protective layer
over reinforcing steel bars, prestressed or post-tensioned tendons, wire
mesh, and steel pipes.
Condition Assessment of Buildings
Detailed Investigation Cover Depth Test

NOVOTEST
It is used to measure concrete cover using magnetic method. NOVOTEST
is designed according to EN 12504-4, ASTM C597-02, ISO 1920-7:2004,
IS13311, CECS 21 standards. It measures cover thickness, determines
the diameter of fittings for a known protective layer.
Outstanding advantages of this cover meter device include high precision
measurements of concrete cover, possessing a deep search mode, ability
to compensate for the influence of parallel rods, and small size and
weight.

Micro Cover Meter

It is easy to use and lightweight cover meter equipment that not only
provides rebar location and its size but also concrete protective layer
thickness.
Micro cover meter is fast, provides clear indication of bar location, and
automatically measures bar sizes.
Condition Assessment of Buildings
Detailed Investigation

Chloride Concentration

• Corrosion of reinforcement
steel cannot occur when the
reinforcement steel is
encased in concrete.
• The surface of the
reinforcement steel is Concrete Chloride Content Test Setup
covered by a stable
protective oxide film that is • But due to chloride attack on concrete,
formed in the alkaline reinforcement steel gets corroded.
environment. • Chloride content test for concrete determines
• The alkaline environment is the level of chloride ions and ingress of the
created by the hydration of chloride ion which destroys the protective
the cement in concrete. layer of steel.
• Rapid chloride test method is also known as
RCT method, and it is one of the most
important and quick methods for testing of
acid soluble chloride in concrete.
• On the field chloride content test for concrete
includes the use of the chloride ion sensitive
electrode. This also known as Rapid Chloride
test kit.
• The rapid chloride test for concrete structure
consists of obtaining powdered sample by
drilling, collecting and crushing the concrete
Rapid Chloride Content Test
sample from every 5mm depths. Kit
• Mix the 1.5gm sample with a special chloride It is possible to quickly conduct a large number of in-situ
extraction liquid. Measure the electrical test to determine chloride content of the reinforced
potential of the liquid by the chloride ion concrete structure by RTC method. The accuracy of the
RTC method is equivalent to standard laboratory titration
selective electrode.
and has been accepted as such.
• The chloride content of the sample can be All chlorides in concrete do not contribute to corrosion
directly determined with the help of a process of the reinforcement steel. It is estimated that
calibration graph relating electrical potential between 50 and 75% of the total chloride content in the
and chloride content. concrete will be water soluble and will impact the
• The estimation of chloride limit by rapid corrosion process.
Condition Assessment of Buildings
Property under investigation Test Equipment type
Surface hardness Mechanical
Ultrasonic pulse velocity Electronic
Radiography Radioactive
Radiometry Radioactive
Relative humidity Chemical/Electronic
Permeability Hydraulic
Concrete quality, durability and
Absorption Hydraulic
deterioration
Petrography Microscopic
Sulphate content Chemical
Soundness Mechanical
Air content Microscopic
Cement type and content Chemical/Microscopic
Abrasion resistance Mechanical
Condition Assessment of Buildings
Detailed Investigation

Surface Hardness Test - Rebound Hammer

• A device to measure the elastic properties or
strength of concrete or rock, mainly surface
hardness and penetration resistance.
• The hammer measures the rebound of a spring-
loaded mass impacting against the surface of
the sample.
Average Rebound Number Quality of Concrete
• The test hammer will hit the concrete at a
> 40 Very good hard layer
defined energy. Its rebound is dependent on
the hardness of the concrete and is measured 30 – 40 Good layer
by the test equipment. 20 – 30 Fair
• By reference to the conversion chart, the < 20 Poor concrete
rebound value can be used to determine the 0 Delaminated
compressive strength.
Condition Assessment of Buildings
Detailed Investigation

Surface Hardness Test - Rebound Hammer

• A device to measure the elastic properties or
strength of concrete or rock, mainly surface
hardness and penetration resistance.
• The hammer measures the rebound of a spring-
loaded mass impacting against the surface of
the sample. • When conducting the test the hammer should be
• The test hammer will hit the concrete at a held at right angles to the surface which in turn
defined energy. Its rebound is dependent on should be flat and smooth.
the hardness of the concrete and is measured • The rebound reading will be affected by the
by the test equipment. orientation of the hammer, when used in a
• By reference to the conversion chart, the vertical position (on the underside of a suspended
rebound value can be used to determine the slab for example) gravity will increase the
compressive strength. rebound distance of the mass and vice versa for a
test conducted on a floor slab.
The rebound hammer method may be used
for

• Assessing the likely compressive

strength of concrete with the help of
suitable calibration charts.
• Assessing uniformity of concrete
• Assessing the quality of concrete in
relation to specified standard
requirements
• Assessing the quality of one element of
concrete to another
Condition Assessment of Buildings
Detailed Investigation

Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (UPV) Test

• An ultrasonic pulse velocity test is an in-situ, nondestructive
test to check the quality of concrete and natural rocks.
• In this test, the strength and quality of concrete or rock is
assessed by measuring the velocity of an ultrasonic pulse
passing through a concrete structure or natural rock
formation.
• This test is conducted by passing a pulse of ultrasonic
through concrete to be tested and measuring the time taken
by pulse to get through the structure.
• Higher velocities indicate good quality and continuity of the
material, while slower velocities may indicate concrete with
many cracks or voids.
• Different configurations of transducers can be used to perform a
UPV test. This includes direct transmission, semi-direct transmission,
and indirect (surface) transmission.
• Figure above shows different configurations of transducer based on
the access to the surface of test area.
• The ultrasonic velocity is prone to signal travel trajectory that is
defined by the transducer configurations.
Condition Assessment of Buildings
Detailed Investigation
Applications of UPV Test
The important factors that affect/influence the ultrasonic Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity can be used
pulse velocity test are: to:
1.Surface Conditions of Concrete • Evaluate the quality and
homogeneity of concrete materials
2.Moisture Content of Concrete
• Predict the strength of concrete
3.Path Length of Concrete Structure
• Evaluate dynamic modulus of
4.Shape and Size of Concrete Structure elasticity of concrete,
5.Temperature of Concrete • Estimate the depth of cracks in
concrete.
6.Stress to Which the Structure is Subjected
• Detect internal flaws, cracks,
7.Reinforcing Bars
honeycombing, and poor patches.
8.Contact Between the Transducer and Concrete
• The test can also be used to
9.Cracks and Voids in Concrete evaluate the effectiveness of crack
repair.
10.Density and Modulus of Elasticity of Aggregate
Condition Assessment of Buildings
Detailed Investigation

Radiographic test
• Radiographic test on building elements to examine
the internal condition of concrete. This test is
capable of examining concrete members without
causing any damages.
• The radiographic test is based on the ability of X-rays
or gamma rays to pass through materials under
examination. When radiation travels through
concrete element, different parts of reinforced
concrete element such as steel bars, concrete, and
voids would absorb different quantity of x-rays. Principle of Radiography
• Radiographic film which is sensitive to radiation is
used to catch images of defects and steel bars. This The most important advantage of radiography over other
NDT techniques is that it is highly reliable and shows a “see-
enables the observer to detect and specify the through” picture of the inspected area.
location of steel bars, voids, and cracks, accurately.
• The Detector and Source are placed on both
sides of the concrete. Using a magnet or gauss
locator the x-y location is verified so that the
Radiation and the Detector will be aligned.
• The Radiation passes through the Concrete and
reaches the detector in a non-uniform way
since Concrete contains construction
aggregates (sand, gravel, crushed stone and
other recycled materials).
• The thicker or the denser the material, the
fewer x-rays or gamma rays pass through (the
beam is attenuated).
• The Detector Records Radiation according to
the thickness and density of the materials
which it had passed through in its path and
therefore we receive an Image with different
shades of grey.
• Where there is a flaw, the material is thinner
and more Radiation passes through that area.
On the other hand, the presence of Re-bars or
cables weeken the Radiation relative to the
surrounding and therefore less Radiation Digital Radiography - Setup
reaches the Detector.
Condition Assessment of Buildings
Detailed Investigation

Radiometric test - Backscatter Radiometry (BSR)

• The BSR method determines the in-place density
of the outer 100 mm of hardened concrete. The
equipment has a concentrated gamma ray source
and a detector fixed in a frame. A nuclear surface
moisture density gauge has appropriate
configuration with a gamma ray source. In
operation, the gauge is placed on the concrete
surface and it measures the intensity of reflected
(backscattered) radiation that has passed through
the concrete component.
• The gauge requires calibration for backscatter
density, and density adjustments must be made
using cores from sites that have been tested using
the gauge. The method can be used when only
one face of a component is accessible.
Condition Assessment of Buildings
Detailed Investigation

Relative Humidity Test

The in-situ Relative Humidity test for concrete measures
the amount of moisture vapor present in a concrete slab.
The RH percentage value provides an indication of the
moisture content within the concrete.
• Step 1: Plan out drill locations
• Step 2: The holes must be drilled dry and perpendicular
(40% of the thickness of concrete) Relative Humidity and Concrete Moisture Content
• Step 3: Clean drilled hole While “relative humidity” and “moisture content”
may sound similar, it’s important to distinguish
• Step 4: Place the hole liner into the clean holes and between the two. RH refers to the moisture level in
seal it with the cap provided. Leave it for a period of 24 the air, specifically inside the concrete slab, and is
hours to ensure that the heat from drilling does not expressed as a percentage.
affect readings. On the other hand, moisture content generally
refers to the total amount of water in the concrete
• Step 5: Insert Hygro-i2 probe and read RH test results itself, often calculated by weight.
Condition Assessment of Buildings
Detailed Investigation

Moisture Content Test – Calcium Chloride Test

The calcium chloride test method is used to
determine the moisture vapor emission rate
(MVER) from a concrete slab. Calcium chloride
testing involves sealing a small dish of calcium
chloride on a clean section of concrete under a
plastic dome.
A small container of salt is weighed before and
after it's exposed to the concrete slab for 60 to
72 hours.
The weight difference is plugged into a formula
to calculate the amount of moisture vapor
emitted from the slab.
Condition Assessment of Buildings
Detailed Investigation Permeability Test Of Concrete – Why?
Permeability tests are important especially for
Permeability in Concrete Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC) as the
Permeability is the ability of a given reinforcement bars present inside the concrete
sample of concrete to permit liquids or element are prone to corrosion when in contact with
gases to pass through it. It is the water. Due to corrosion, the volume of concrete
measurement of the amount of water, expands and leads to cracking of the concrete
air, and other such substances that can element.
enter the concrete through its pores.
Concrete contains some pores in its So it is necessary to check the permeability of
structure. These pores are the route for concrete. To check the permeability of concrete,
substances to enter the concrete there are various methods. Some of them are most
element. commonly used. They are as follows:
To avoid corrosion in reinforcement and
spalling of concrete, the concrete made, • Rapid Chloride Permeability Test. (RCPT)
should be impermeable. • Water permeability test by pressure.
Condition Assessment of Buildings
Detailed Investigation

Rapid Chloride Permeability Test

(RCPT)
The rapid chloride permeability
test is a test to determine the
concrete’s ability to resist the
penetration of chloride ions in it.
Chloride ions are passed through
the sample of concrete electrically.
The readings are taken as the One of the two reservoirs, present in the equipment, consists of 3% of NaCl
solution, and the other one consists of NaOH solution respectively. The sample of
current passes through the concrete to be used for testing shall be of 50mm and 100mm thickness.
concrete sample.
On average 2 to 3 samples are Once the concrete sample is placed between the reservoirs, an electric current of
60V is applied and passed through the concrete block for 6 hours. The amount of
taken from each batch of concrete
current passed through the concrete block is measured & can be seen on the LCD
and the average reading is taken screen on the equipment, which is connected to the cell.
as the final value.
Condition Assessment of Buildings
Detailed Investigation
Procedure:

Water Permeability test for 1. The concrete having a

concrete by Pressure: thickness more than 20mm
is placed on permeameter.
2. And then the
• This test is suited and applied to the
permeameter is filled with
concrete having high permeability.
This test is also called as water the water.
penetration test of concrete. 3. To find the permeability
of concrete the water
• As in the above test, we check the passing through the disc is
concrete permeability based on
collected at the water
chloride penetration. This test is not
suitable for concrete having low collection unit.
permeability and takes a lot of time 4. To accelerate the
for results. process, the pressure is
applied to the water from
• This test is carried out using a disc of
concrete and involves water flowing the top.
out through the disc at a steady rate.
Condition Assessment of Buildings
Detailed Investigation

Absorption Test:
• Water absorption is one of the most
important transport properties of concrete.
• Most aggressive ions penetrate into
concrete through water absorption, leading
to durability-related damage and
performance degradation. The lower the absorption, the better the result; however,
• It is a test method by which the rate of as do many durability tests, there are limitations:
absorption (sorptivity) of water by hydraulic
cement concrete is estimated by measuring • It doesn’t account for any type of reactive process that
the increase of mass of the specimen ties up water;
resulting from absorption of water as a • The assumption that all the weight gain is due to
function of time when only one surface of water; and
the specimen is exposed to water. • There is only a short duration of submersion compared
to what might happen in long term conditions.
Condition Assessment of Buildings
Detailed Investigation

Petrography Test:
• Petrographic examinations of concrete are
typically performed due to the premature
failure of an existing concrete structure or a
problem during a construction project.
• Petrography is probably the only accepted
method to determine many of the cause(s)
of concrete deterioration that are related
Stereomicroscope image.
to durability.
Reflected light photomicrograph of the polished surface of a
• Petrographers can tell if concrete is concrete core.
deteriorating from freeze-thaw damage, The image was taken at 10x magnification.
alkali-aggregate reactions, chemical attack, The red arrows highlight mortar with darker color than
surrounding concrete matrix. Features such as these often
corrosion, and more.
form when concrete is retempered.
Petrographers do most of their work with microscopes that use Petrographic examination can determine a
reflected light (stereomicroscope), transmitted light range of parameters, as follows:
(petrographic microscope) and electron beams (scanning
electron microscope, SEM) to identify basic components in • Type, proportions, grading, shape and
concrete, study cracks and microcracks, and identify secondary condition of the aggregates
deposits that form when concrete deteriorates, such as gel
from alkali-silica reaction. • Nature of the cement paste, including
mineral additions such as fly ash/pfa,
the degree of hydration
• Presence of deleterious material,
cement paste and air voids
• Depth of carbonation
• Bond between the aggregate and the
paste
• Evidence of sulfate attack, frost
damage, some forms of chemical attack
• They are impregnated with resin. and alkali-silica reactions
• Suitable surfaces (either polished or thin sections) are • Depth of fire damage and temperature
prepared by sawing, lapping and polishing. of the fire
• The samples are examined through a petrological
(geological polarising) microscope, using either • Measurement of air entrainment.
reflected or transmitted light. The lighting may be
normal, ultra-violet or polarised.
Condition Assessment of Buildings
Detailed Investigation

Air Content Test:

• Air entrainment is added to concrete to
provide freeze-thaw protection.
• If water inside the pores of the concrete
freezes, the expansion of the water will
create stress that can causing cracking
and deterioration.
Optical image of air entrained concrete.
• The entrainment of many small air
bubbles, spaced closely together, provides
a means of relieving the stress from
freezing water.
• Properly air entrained concrete can be
very durable for many years, even in the
most severe environments where there
are many freeze-thaw cycles.
Condition Assessment of Buildings
Detailed Investigation
Air Content Test:
• Sample Collection: Fresh concrete samples are obtained from the
concrete batch used for construction. These samples must represent
the mixture's true proportion and consistency.
• Filling the Air Meter: The air meter is partially filled with water
before the concrete sample is placed inside. This step helps ensure
that the pressure inside the air meter is equal to the atmospheric
pressure at the time of testing.
• Introducing the Concrete Sample: The fresh concrete sample is
carefully added to the air meter, filling it to a specific level. Any
excess concrete is then removed, and the mold is wiped clean.
• Pressurization: The rubber bulb is used to apply pressure to the air
in the concrete sample. As pressure is applied, air bubbles within
the concrete reduce size and become compressed.
• Pressure Gauge Reading: The pressure gauge on the air meter
provides a reading that correlates to the air content percentage in
the fresh concrete sample.
Condition Assessment of Buildings
Detailed Investigation

Sulphate Content Test:

• Sulfate attack can lead to expansion,
cracking, strength loss, and disintegration
of the concrete. Sulfate attack is generally
attributed to the reaction of sulfate ions
with calcium hydroxide and calcium
aluminate hydrate to form gypsum and
ettringite.
• Sulphate Testing involves an acid extraction
and precipitation of the sulphate as barium
sulphate with barium chloride solution. The
resulting barium sulphate is filtered and
weighed to determine sulphate
gravimetrically.

Ettringite is a hydrous calcium aluminium sulfate mineral

(a) Weighing of the powder;

(b) dissolving the powder with hydrochloric acid;

(c) Filtering with qualitative filter paper;

(d) adding of barium chloride;

(e) waiting for the barium sulfate to precipitate;

(f) filtering with quantitative filter paper;

(g) burning at a high temperature;

(h) Barium sulfate;

(i) cooling;

(j) weighing of the barium sulfate

Condition Assessment of Buildings
Detailed Investigation

Soundness Test:
• The change in volume of cement after Causes of Unsoundness of cement:-
setting or hardening is caused due to the
“unsoundness of cement.” • Unsoundness is caused due to the
• The expansion of cement after setting presence of excess of lime in cement.
causes disruption of the hardened mass • Inadequate burning at kiln during
and create severe difficulties concerning manufacturing of cement.
strength and durability of the structure.
• Improper grinding and mixing of raw
• Soundness test of cement is done to ensure materials during the production of
that cement doesn’t show any expansion cement.
after hardening and to find out the
uncombined lime in cement (excess lime). • Unsoundness is also caused due to the
high proportion of magnesium content
• In simple words, this test is conducted to
or sulphate content.
check “unsoundness of cement”
 The Soundness test of the cementing procedure is as follows,

• The mould and the glass plates are oiled before conducting the test.
• Take 400 grams of cement sample.
• For this test to be performed we need standard consistency of
cement. Water is taken as 0.78 x P (Where P is water required for
Standard consistency in percentage)
• For example, Standard consistency is 30% of water, then take water
percentage for soundness is 0.78 x 30% = 23.4%. So water mixed in
400 gm of cement will be 400 x (23.4/100) = 93.6ml.)
• Make a well-mixed paste of cement and fill in Le- Chatelier mould
taking care to keep the edges of the mould gently together during the
operation.
• Clean the upper surface and make it smooth and place a small weight
over the cover plate.
• Put this assembly quickly in water at a temperature of 27º C + 2ºC
and keep it there for 24 hours.
• Take out mould from water and measure the distance between the
indicators points as Reading-1.(Suppose it is 2 mm)
• Now, again put this assembly in boiling water for 25 to 30 minutes
and keep at boiling for 3 hours. The mould should be in boiled water
during this period
• Remove the mould from the water and allow it to cool at room
The soundness of cement = (Reading-2) – (Reading-1)
temperature.
• Measure the distance between the indicator points as Reading-2.
(Suppose it is 10mm)
Condition Assessment of Buildings
Detailed Investigation

Abrasion Test:
• Abrasion resistance
means an ability to
withstand the wear and
tear of friction caused by
mechanical parts and
instances of repetitive
scraping or rubbing.
• Abrasion testing
determines the relative
quality, toughness, and
durability of mineral
aggregates subjected to Abrasion Test Setup
impact and abrasion.