Chapter one

1. Inverse functions
1.1. Properties of inverse functions
Let f be a function, then f has an inverse provided that there is a function g such that the domain
of g is the range of f such that that f(x) = y iff g(y) = x for all x in the domain of f and y in the
range of f.
Remark 1.1.1
1. The inverse of f is mainly denoted by f −1 .
2. Domain of f = range of f −1 and Range of f = domain of f −1 .
3. If f −1 is an inverse of a function f, then
a. (f −1 o f)(x) = x for each x in the domain of f and
b. (f o f −1 )(x) = x for each x in the range of f.
4. A function f is said to be invertible iff it is one to one or it is strictly monotonic function.
5. Steps to find inverse of a function
a. write y = f(x)
b. Interchange x and y
c. Solve for y in terms of x in step 2
d. Write f −1 (x) for y
Example 1.1.1: Let f(x) = 3x − 2, then find the inverse of f.
Solution: Since f is 1 – to – 1 function on (−∞, ∞), then f has an inverse on (−∞, ∞).
Let y = 3x − 2
x = 3y − 2
x 2
y = +
3 3
x 2
 f −1 (x) = +3
3
Exercise 1.1.1: Find the inverse of
x
a. f(x) = x−2.
b. f(x) = x 2 − 4 for x ≥ 0.
Theorem 1.1.1: Let f be continuous on an interval I, and f sends any x in I in to an interval M. If
f has an inverse, then f −1 is continuous on M.
1.2. Derivative of inverse functions
Theorem 1.2.1: Suppose that f has an inverse and is continuous on an open interval I containing
a. Assume also that f ’(a) exists and f ′(a) ≠ 0 and f(a) = c. Then (f −1 )’(c) exist and
1
(f −1 )’(c) = f ′ (a).
Example 1.2.1: Let f(x) = x3+x2+x − 2 , then find (f −1 ) ’(−2).
Solution: Let us find the value of a for which f(a) = −2 but f(0) = −2, so a = 0
Since f ’ (x) = 3x2+2x + 1. It follows that f ’ (0) = 1.
1
(f −1 )’(−2) = ′ (0) = 1.
f
1
Remark 1.2.1: (f −1 )′ (x) = f ′ (y) where y = f −1 (x).

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 1.3. Inverses of trigonometric functions and their derivatives
The inverse of trigonometric functions are stated as follow as.
π π
a. y = sin−1 x is equivalent to siny = x for − 1  x  1 and − 2 ≤ y ≤ 2.
b. y = cos −1 x is equivalent to cosy = x for −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 and 0 ≤ y ≤ π.
π π
c. y = tan – 1 x is equivalent to tany = x for −∞ < x < ∞ and − 2 < y < 2.
d. y = cot −1 x is equivalent to cot y = x for −∞ < x < ∞ and 0 < y < π.
π
e. y = sec – 1 x is equivalent to secy = x for |x| ≥ 1, 0 ≤ y ≤ π and y ≠ 2 .
π π
f. y = csc −1 x is equivalent to csc y = x if |x| ≥ 1, – 2 ≤ y ≤ and y ≠ 0.
2

Identities for inverse trigonometric functions.

π
i. sin – 1 x + cos−1 x = 2
1
ii. csc −1 x = sin−1 (x) for |x| ≥ 1
1
iii. sec −1 x = cos−1 (x) for |x| ≥ 1
1
iv. cot −1 x = tan−1 (x) for x ≠ 0
v. sin−1(−x) = − sin−1 x
vi. cos−1 (−x) = π − cos−1 x
vii. tan−1(−x) = − tan−1 x
x+y
viii. tan−1(x) + tan−1 y = tan−1 (1−xy)
ix. sin−1(x) + sin−1 y = sin−1 (x√1 − y 2 + y√1 − x 2 )
x. cos−1 (x) + cos −1 y = cos −1 (xy − √1 − x 2 √1 − y 2 )
The proof of these are left as an exercise.

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Theorem 1.3.1
1
a. (sin−1 x)′ = √1−x2
1
b. (cos−1 x)′ = − √1−x2
1
c. (tan−1 x)′ = 1+x2
1
d. (sec −1 x)′ =
x√x2 −1
1
e. (c sc −1 x)′ = −
x√x2 −1
1
f. (cot −1 ′
x) = − 1+x2
Let us prove only e.
x
c sc −1 x = y ⟹ x = csc y ⟹ csc y = 1
√x2 −1
cot y = = √x 2 − 1
1
d d
(x) = (csc y)
dx dx
dy
⟹ 1 = − csc y cot y dx
dy 1 1
⟹ dx = − 𝑐𝑠𝑐𝑦 cot 𝑦 = −
x√x2 −1
1
⟹ (c sc −1 x)′ = −
x√x2 −1
1.4. Exponential and Logarithmic functions
Definition 1.4.1: Exponential function is a function that can be expressed in the form of

f(x) = ax for a > 0 and a ≠ 1.

If a = e = 2.718281828459 …, then the function is called natural exponential function,

denoted by f(x) = ex .
1 x
Example 1.4.1: f(x) = 3x and g(x) = (2) are exponential functions but h(x) = (−2)x is not
exponential function.
Exercise 1.4.1: Sketch the graph of the exponential functions and state their properties.
Definition 1.4.2: Logarithmic function is a function that can be expressed in the form of
f(x) = log a x for x > 0, a > 0 and a ≠ 1.
If a = e = 2.718281828459 …, then the function is called natural logarithmic function,
denoted by f(x) = ln x.
Example 1.4.2: f(x) = log 3 x and g(x) = log 1 x are logarithmic functions but h(x) = log −2 x is
2
not logarithmic function.
Exercise 1.4.2: Sketch the graph of the logarithmic functions and state their properties.
Remark 1.4.1
a. Exponential and logarithmic functions are inverse to each other.
b. (ax )′ = ax lna
c. y = log a x ⟹ x = ay
d d
⟹ (x) = (ay )
dx dx

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 dy
⟹ 1 = ay ln a
dx
dy 1 1 1
⟹ dx = ay ln a = x ln a = x log a e
1
⟹ (log a x)′ = x log a e
1.5. Exponential growth and decay
Theorem 1.5: Suppose f is continuous on [0, ∞) and f ′(t) = kf (t) for t > 0. Then
f (t) = f (0)ekt for t ≥ 0……………….(*)
where f(0) is initial amount
f(t) is amount after time t
k is constant you must find first
t is time in whatever was used to find k
If a function f satisfies (*), then we say that f grows exponentially if k > 0 and that f decays
exponentially if k < 0.
df
Proof: Let f ′ (t) = dt and f(t) = f
⟹ f ′ (t) = kf(t)
df
⟹ dt = kf
1
⟹ f df = kdt
1
⟹ ∫ f df = ∫ kdt
⟹ ln|f| = kt + c
⟹ f = ±ec ekt
⟹ f = Aekt where A = ±ec
Since the initial value of t is zero, then A = f(0).
Hence, f (t) = f (0)ekt.
Example 1.5.1
1. How many days will it take for an insect population to double if its growth rate is 5%.
Solution
2p = pe0.05t
⟹ 2 = e0.05t
⟹ ln 2 = ln[e0.05t ]
⟹ ln 2 = 0.05t
ln 2
⟹ t = 0.05 ≈ 13.86
∴ 𝐭 = 𝟏𝟒 𝐝𝐚𝐲𝐬
2. In 1950, the population of red fox was 6,000 in a park. By 1990, the population grow to 12,000.
In what year will the population reach 30,000?
Solution
➢ 12000 = 6000e40k
⟹ 2 = e40t
⟹ ln 2 = ln[e40k ]
⟹ ln 2 = 40k
ln 2
⟹ k = 40
ln 2
➢ 30000 = 6000e 40 t
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 ln 2
⟹ 5 = e 40 t
ln 2
⟹ 40 t = ln 5
40 ln 5
⟹ t = ln 2 ≈ 92.9 years
3. The half – life of lead is 22 years. How long will it take for a lead object to decay to 80% of
its original amount?
Solution
1
➢ 2 p = pe22k
⟹ 0.5 = e22k
⟹ ln 0.5 = ln[e22k ]
⟹ ln 0.5 = 22k
ln 0.5
⟹k=
22
ln 0.5
t
➢ 0.8p = pe 22
ln 0.5
⟹ 0.8 = e 22 t
ln 0.5
⟹ 22 t = ln 0.8
22 ln 0.8
⟹ t = ln 0.5 ≈ 7.08 years
1.6. Inverse of hyperbolic functions and their derivatives
Definition 1.6.1
a. y = sinh−1 x iff x = sinhy for all x and y.
b. y = cosh−1 x iff x = coshy for x ≥ 1 and for y ≥ 0
c. y = tanh−1 x iff x = tanhy for − 1 < x < 1 and for all y
d. y = coth−1 x iff x = cothy for x > 1 and y ≠ 0
e. y = sech−1 x iff x = sechy for 0 < x ≤ 1 and y ≥ 0
f. y = csch−1 x iff x = cschy for x ≠ 0 and y ≠ 0

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Theorem 1.6.1
a. sinh−1 x = ln(x + √x 2 + 1) for x ∈ ℝ
b. cosh−1 x = ln (x + √x 2 − 1) for x ≥ 1
1 1+x
c. tanh−1 x = 2 ln (1−x) for – 1 < x < 1
1 1+x
d. coth−1 x = 2 ln (x−1) for |x| > 1
1 1+√1−x2
e. sech−1 x = 2 ln ( ) for 0 < x ≤ 1
x
1 1 √1+x2
f. csch−1 x = 2 ln (x + |x|
) for x ≠ 0
The proof of these are left as an exercise.
Derivative of inverse hyperbolic functions.
d 1
a. [sinh−1 x] = 2
dx √x +1
d 1
b. [cosh−1 x] = √x2
dx −1
d 1
c. dx [tanh−1
x] = 1−x2
The remaning derivatives are left as an exercise.