CARBOHYDRATESOF BIOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE
Chemical Nature of Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are polyhydroxyalcohols with an aldehyde or keto group. They are
represented with general formulae C,(H2O), and hence called hydrates of carbons.
Biomedical importance of Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are the most abundant organic molecules in nature. They have a wide
range of functions, including:
Providing a significant fraction of the dietary calories for most organisms.
Acting as a storage form of energy in the body. Serving as cell membrane components
that mediate some forms of intercellular
communication.
Classification of Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are classified according to the hydrolysis products into four
main groups as
follows:
I- Monosaccharides: contain one monosaccharide unit.
II- Disaccharides: contain 2 monosaccharide units per molecule.
III-Oligosaccharides: contain from 3 to 10 monosaccharide units per
molecule.
IV- Polysaccharides: contain more than 10 monosaccharide units per
molecule.
Heteropolysaccharides
These are polysaccharides which are formed of more than one type of monosaccharide unit. They include
glycosaminoglycans (GAGS) formly called mucopolysaccharides.
Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs)
Glycosaminoglycans are:
- Unbranched
-Long chains (usually >50 sugar units) heteropolysaccharides
- Composed of repeating disaccharide units, usually made up of an amino sugar and a
uronic acid.
Glycosaminoglycans are classified into:
I- Sulfate free glycosaminoglycans: e.g. hyaluronic Acid
II- Sulfate containing glycosaminoglycans: e.g. chondroitin sulphate, keratan sulphate, dermatan sulphate,
heparin and heparan sulphate
GAGs and proteoglycans
Most of the GAGs are covalently conjugated to a protein core, the product of which is
termed proteoglycans. They are formed mainly of carbohydrates (95%) and only (5%)
proteins.
GAGs are present mainly in the extracellular matrix (ECM) or ground substance in
association with other extracellular proteins (explained in chapter of proteins of ECM).
Functions of GAGs and proteoglycans
1- They are important constituents of extracellular matrix.
2- The negatively charged carboxylate and sulfate groups on the proteoglycan bind
positively charged ions and form hydrogen bonds with trapped water molecules, thereby
creating a hydrated gel. This gel:
- Provides flexible mechanical support for the ECM.
- Acts as a filter that allows the diffusion of ions (e.g., Ca2+), H2O, and other small
molecules but slows diffusion of proteins and movement of cells.
- Acts as a lubricant in synovial fluid.
- Is compressible: when a GAG solution is compressed, water is squeezed out and
GAGs occupy a smaller volume. When the compression is released, their molecules
regain their original hydrated size. This gives GAGs solutions the shock absorbing
properties and explains their role as shock absorbents in joints and making the
eyeball resilient.
3- The proteoglycans interact with a variety of proteins in the matrix, such as
collagen
and elastin, and theses interactions are important in determining the structural
organization of the matrix.
4-Hyaluronic acid proteoglycans
In addition to the above functions, hyaluronic acid is:
- Present in high concentration in embryonic tissues and play an important role in
cell migration and morphogenesis.
- Involved in wound healing (repair). In the initial phase of wound healing, hyaluronic
acid concentration increases many folds at the wound site.
Hyaluronidase enzyme (spreading factor):
- This enzyme can hydrolyze hyaluronic acid present in the ground substance of
connective tissue.
-Hyaluronidase secreted by some bacteria helps the spread of bacteria through
subcutaneous tissues. It is also present in sperms (head) and helps the process of
ovum
fertilization.
5-Heparin proteoglycan is an important anticoagulant (prevents thrombus formation), it
acts by binding with factor IX and XI. Also, it produces activation of antithrombin. It
binds specifically to lipoprotein lipase enzyme and increases its release form the
capillary
wall to the plasma. This enzyme helps in removal and clearance of blood lipids.
6- Keratan sulfate proteoglycan is important for transparency of the cornea.
7- Heparan sulfate proteoglycans are associated mainly with plasma membrane of cells
and play an important role in cell membrane receptors and cell-cell interactions.
8- Aggrecan:
It is the major proteoglycan present in cartilage. It has a very complex structure
containing several types of GAGs (hyaluronic acid, chondroitin sulfate and keratan
sulfate) attached to a protein core and a link protein. GAGs side chains bind
electrostatically to collagen fibrils. GAGs side chains are acidic and therefore negatively
charged, they repel each other. Hence, they attract water in between causing the
molecule
to form a gel. It plays an important role in compressibility of cartilage.
GAGs and aging:
Structure of aggrecan changes with age:
- The amount of CS in cartilage diminishes with age, whereas the amount of
KS and
hyaluronic acid increase.
- The average monomer size is decreased.
- The chondroitin sulfate content is decreased and chains become shorter.
These changes may contribute to the development of osteoarthritis.
Also changes in the amounts of certain GAGs in the skin occur with aging
and help to
account for the characteristic changes in this organ in the elderly
Glycoproteins
Glycoproteins
They are proteins to which oligosaccharide chains are covalently bound. The
carbohydrate contents of glycoproteins are less relative to proteoglycans and
deficient of
uronic acids and the repeating disaccharide units of proteoglycans.
Eight monosaccharides are commonly present in the oligosaccharide chain of
glycoproteins i.e. galactose, glucose, mannose, xylose, fucose,
N-acetylglucosamine, N-
acetylgalactosamine and N-acetylneuraminic acid. They are found in mucous
fluids,
tissues, blood and in cell membrane. The carbohydrate content of glycoproteins is
quite
variable, it is 1% in collagen, 4% in IgG, 50 % in mucins and 85% in the ABO
blood
group antigens. (Refer also to the chapter: Protein Chemistry)
ABO Blood Group Antigens
The human blood groups A, B, AB, and O depend on the oligosaccharide part of
the
glycoprotein or a glycolipid on the surface of erythrocytic cells.
