MEM 103 Unit 4, Lesson 3

LESSON 3 ELECTRIC ARC WELDING PROCESS

STRUCTURE

3.0 INTRODUCTION
3.1 ARC WELDING
3.2 MECHANICS OF ARC
3.3 POLARITY IN WELDING (APPLICABLE TO DC ARC WELDING ONLY)
3.3.1 STRAIGHT POLARITY (DCSP)
3.3.2 REVERSE POLARITY (DCRP)
3.4 ALTERNATING CURRENT WELDING
3.5 ARC WELDING ELECTRODES
3.6 ARC WELDING EQUIPMENT
3.6.1 ARC W ELDING MACHINES (POWER SOURCE)
3.6.2 AC METAL-ARC WELDING MACHINES
3.6.3 DC ARC WELDING MACHINES
3.6.4 MISCELLANEOUS EQUIPMENTS
MEM 103 Unit 4, Lesson 3

3.0 Introduction
In electrical arc welding circuit there are three factors: current (flow of electricity),
pressure (force required to cause the current to flow) and resistance (force
required to regulate the flow of current)

Current (I) is a rate of flow and is measured by the amount of electricity that
flows through a wire in one second. The term ampere denotes the amount of
current per second that flows in a circuit.

Pressure is the force that causes a current to flow. The measure of electrical
pressure is the volt (E). The voltage between two points in an electrical circuit is
called the difference in potential. This force or potential is called electromotive
force or EMF. The difference of potential or voltage causes current to flow in an
electrical circuit.

Resistance is the restriction to current flow in an electrical circuit. Every

component in the circuit, including the conductor, has some resistance to current
flow. Resistance (R) depends on the material, the cross-sectional area, and the
temperature of the conductor. The unit of electrical resistance is ohm. It is
designated by the letter.

From welding point of view, voltage is important as sufficient "pressure" is

required to make the current flow through a circuit. In any circuit of a given
resistance, it is the current which primarily determines the amount of heat
generated.

AC and DC
In Direct Current (DC), current flows in the one direction constantly throughout
the circuit. One side of the power source is nominated as the positive (+) pole
and the other as the negative (-) pole. An automotive battery or dry cell gives DC.

Figure 1: AC and DC

In Alternating Current (AC), current periodically reverses its direction along the
conductor, i.e., one fraction of a second the right-hand terminal is "negative", the
next fraction of a second it is "positive". In 50 Hertz AC current, the current is
changing direction of flow 100 times a second.
MEM 103 Unit 4, Lesson 3

3.1 Arc Welding

In arc welding process the heat required for welding is obtained through electrical
energy. In arc welding processes, an electric arc is used to heat base metals and
a consumable filler rod. Welding begins when an electric arc is struck between
the tip of the electrode and the base metal to be weld. The intense heat
(temperatures above 6000°C) of the arc melts the tip of the electrode and the
surface of the work beneath the arc. Small globules of molten metal form on the
tip of the electrode, then transfer through the arc stream into the molten weld
pool. In this manner, filler metal is deposited as the electrode is progressively
consumed. The arc is moved over the work at an appropriate arc length and
travel speed, melting and fusing a portion of the base metal and adding filler
metal as the arc progresses.

Figure: Arc welding process Figure: Arc welding process setup

Figure 2: AC and DC

The power source in arc welding process is called a welding machine or welder.
This power source is used to create a high potential between an electrode
(guided by the welder) and a base metal.
Arc welding procedure

Advantages of arc welding process

1. It is a versatile, simple and flexible joining process.
2. Equipment is simple and of low initial cost.
3. Used by small welding shop, home mechanic, farmer, but also extensive
application in industrial fabrication, structural steel erection, weldment
manufacture.

Disadvantages of arc welding process

The main problem that arises in arc welding is contamination of the metal with
elements in the atmosphere (O, H, N). There can also be problems with surfaces
that are not clean.

3.2 Mechanics of arc

An electric arc is formed when an electric current passes between two electrodes
separated by a short distance from each other. The electrode and base metal
are connected to the electric supply, one to the positive pole and one to the
negative pole. The arc is started by momentarily touching the electrode on to the
base metal and then withdrawing it to about 3 to 4 mm from the base metal.
MEM 103 Unit 4, Lesson 3

When the electrode touches the metal workpiece, current flows, and as it is
withdrawn from the metal workpiece the current continues to flow in the form of a
'spark' across the very small gap first formed. This causes the air gap to become
ionized and as a result the current is able to flow across the gap, even when it is
quite wide, in the form of an arc. When alternating current is used, heat is
developed equally at metal workpiece and welding electrode, since the electrode
and base metal are changing polarity at the frequency of the supply. The greater
the volts drop across the arc the greater the energy liberated in heat for a given
current.
Arc energy is usually expressed in kilo-Joules per millimeter length of the weld
(kJ/mm) and

Arc energy (kJ/mm) = (arc voltage x welding current) / welding speed

(mm/s) x 100

Penetration - Penetration is the depth from the surface of the work to the bottom
of the molten metal.

Length of arc - It is the distance between the tip of the electrode and the base
metal upon which the melted globules of electrode metal are deposited. The
length of the arc is proportional to the voltage across the arc. If the arc length is
increased beyond a certain point, the arc will suddenly go out. If a higher current
is used, a longer arc can be maintained.

Figure 3: Arc length and Arc column with reference to base metal and electrode.

Arc column - Arc column is that portion which is in between anode and cathode
drop regions. It consists of radiating mixture of electrons and highly excited
neutral atoms and molecules. The arc column is normally round in cross section.

Electron theory of arc column

When an electric arc is struck between two electrodes, flow of electrons takes
place from cathode (electrode) to anode (base metal). However, the mass of the
electrons is very small, they travel with very high velocities, and when they strike
the surface of the base metal, kinetic energy acquired by these electrons is
converted into heat energy. At the same time the positively charged ions
MEM 103 Unit 4, Lesson 3

traveling from anode to cathode give protecting shield to the flowing electrons as
shown in Figure below.

Cathode (-)
(-) Charged
electrons

DC

Air gap
Power
Supply

(+) Charged
ions
Anode (+)

Figure 4: Electron theory of arc column

Approximately 50% of the electrical energy put into the arc system comes out in
the form of heat energy. Approximately two-thirds of the energy released in the
arc column system is always at the anode or the positive pole. This is true in all
dc systems. When an ac power supply is used, the heat in the arc column is
generally equalized between the anode and the cathode areas.

Arc crater - In arc welding pool of molten metal at end of rod called crater is
obtained by the pressure of expanding gases from the electrode tip. This causes
the molten metal to flow back into the weld bead.

Arc stability - Arc is stable if it is uniform and steady. A good weld bead and a
defect free weld is the product of a stable arc.

Factors affecting arc stability

a. Suitable matching of arc and power source characteristics.
b. Continuous and proper emission of electrons from the electrode and the
thermal ionization in the arc column.
c. Arc length and arc current.
d. Electrode geometry.
e. Use of arc stabilizing material in the coating of the electrode.
f. Skill of the operator.

Arc blow - Arc blow is the deflection of an electric arc from its normal path due to
magnetic forces. Arc blow and is experienced when using currents above 200A
or below 40A. AC welding has less trouble with arc blow since the magnetic field
due to the arc stream is constantly alternating in direction at the frequency of the
supply.
MEM 103 Unit 4, Lesson 3

Initiating an arc
To establish a stable arc during arc welding, turn on the welding machine, the
operator should briefly touch the electrode tip to the base metal by moving down,
across and up, and quickly raise it to a distance of 3mm to 4mm between
electrode and base metal.

Figure 5: Procedure for initiating an arc

Metal transfer in arc welding process from the tip of the electrode
When an arc is struck between the electrode and plate, the heat generated forms
a molten pool in the base metal and the electrode begins to melt away, the metal
being transferred from the electrode to the base metal. The metal is transferred
in the form of drops or globules and these globules vary in size according to the
current and type of electrode covering. The force, which causes the transfer, is
due to: (1) its own weight, (2) the electro magnetic forces, (3) gas entrainment,
(4) magneto dynamic forces producing movement, (5) surface tension. The
globule is finally necked off by the magnetic pinch effect.

Figure 6: Metal transfer in the form drops (globules), elongate with a neck connecting
them to the electrode, the neck gets reduced in size until it breaks and finally the drop is
projected in the molten pool.

3.3 Polarity in welding (Applicable to DC arc welding only)

In DC welding, the welding current circuit may be either straight polarity (DCSP)
or reverse polarity (DCRP). It has been observed that while welding with direct
current, about 60% to 75% of heat produced in the arc is collected on the positive
pole and rest on negative pole, i.e., for both current polarities the greatest part of
the heating effect occurs at the positive side of the arc. Therefore, for thick jobs
DCSP and for thin jobs and sheets DCRP is preferred.

3.3.1 Straight polarity (DCSP)

In DCSP, the welding machine connections are electrode negative and
workpiece positive. Electron flow is from electrode to workpiece. DCSP welding
will produce a wide, relatively shallow weld. In general, straight polarity is used
with all mild steel, bare, or light coated electrodes.
MEM 103 Unit 4, Lesson 3

Figure 7: Circuit for DC straight polarity arc welding

3.3.2 Reverse polarity (DCRP)

In DCRP, the welding machine connections are electrode positive and workpiece
negative. Electron flow is from workpiece to electrode. DCRP requires a larger
diameter electrode than does DCSP. DCRP welding gives a narrow, deep weld.
Reverse polarity is used in the welding of non-ferrous metals such as aluminum,
bronze, monel, and nickel.

Figure 8: Circuit for DC reverse polarity arc welding

3.4 Alternating current welding

In AC there is no polarity because current keeps on changing its direction of flow
from one polarity to another. AC weldingis a combination of DCRP and DCSP
welding. This can be best explained by showing the three current waves visually.
In AC welding half of each complete alternating current (AC) cycle is DCSP, the
other half is DCRP.

Figure 9: Effect of polarity on weld shape

MEM 103 Unit 4, Lesson 3

AC arc welding DC arc welding

AC arc welding machine has no rotating DC arc welding machine has rotating
parts parts such as motors and generators.
Transformer costs less. Initial cost of generator type of set up is
high.
Maintenance of setup is less Maintenance of setup is high.
Generation of heat is equal on both the Generation of heat is different at both the
poles. poles i.e. 75% of heat is generated at
positive pole and 25% heat is generated
at negative pole.
The problem of arc blow does not exist in The problem of arc blow is severe and is
AC arc welding process, as it is very not easily controlled.
easy to control.
Bare electrodes can not be used and All types of electrodes, bare or coated,
only coated electrodes are used can be used with DC.
effectively.
Usually ferrous metals are welded by AC All types of metals are joined with DC arc
and not the non-ferrous ones. welding.
Arc is never stable Arc is more stable.
Table: Comparison between AC and DC arc welding
3.5 Arc welding electrodes
In electric arc welding, the term electrode refers to the component that conducts
the current from the electrode holder to the metal being welded. It progressively
melts away due to the heat of an electric arc held between it and the base metal.
The arc welding electrode combines a central current carrying "core wire" (filler
rod) and a flux coating. Arc welding electrodes are available in various diameters
and lengths, depending on the base metal thickness and requirements of the
welded joint.

Figure 10: Arc welding electrode

Electrodes are classified into two groups: consumable and nonconsumable.

Consumable electrodes not only provide a path for the current but they also
supply filler metal to the joint. An example is the electrode used in shielded metal
arc welding.
Non-consumable electrodes are only used as a conductor for the electrical
current, such as tungsten electrode and carbon electrode. The filler metal for
processes using non-consumable electrodes are hand fed consumable welding
rod.
MEM 103 Unit 4, Lesson 3

Electrode Size - Electrode size is nominated by diameter of core wire.

Electrodes are available from 2.0mm to 6mm diameter. Size determines the
amperage used and so the heat input into the job. For bigger the joint, bigger
electrode is desirable.

Electrode efficiency - The efficiency of an electrode is the mass of metal

actually deposited compared with the mass of that portion of the electrode
consumed. It can be expressed as a percentage thus:

Efficiency % = Mass of metal deposited x 100 / mass of metal of the

electrode consumed

Functions of coating on the electrode

a. It provides a gaseous shield to exclude the air from the arc areas and so
reduce the tendency to oxidation of the molten metal.
b. It produces a slag, which assists in the protection of the molten metal.
c. It provides a vehicle for adding alloying elements into the weld metal, over
and above those elements normally available within the core wire.
d. It can include arc stabilizing elements which permit smooth stable arc
characteristics, even on low voltage AC welding power.

Electrodes are classified into five main groupings:

Rutile (titanium dioxide) – It is a general purpose electrode. Gives arc stability
and low spatter.
Basic (calcium carbonate and fluoride) - Moisture resistant flux coating, low
spatter, good arc striking. Used on carbon steels giving excellent mechanical
properties and low crack risk.
Cellulosic (cellulose) - Deeply penetrating all positions electrodes provides light
slag covering, used mainly for high speed welding of pipe.
Iron powder - Added to coating/flux to produce deep penetrating welds and
good arc striking characteristics. Used mainly for structural steels.
Surfacing and non-ferrous alloy type - Nickel type electrodes for welding of
cast iron, giving an imaginably deposit. Used for building up of worn surfaces and
providing a wear resistant finish.

3.6 Arc welding equipment

3.6.1 Arc welding machines (power source) - Arc welding machine also
known as arc welder is an electrical machine capable of supplying current of
sufficient magnitude to provide satisfactory welding heat at a safe voltage
capable of sustaining the arc.

3.6.2 AC arc welding machines are based on a transformer, which is a static

electrical machine that can convert AC power from high voltage low amperage
(as in the mains) to low voltage high amperage power (as used in welding).
MEM 103 Unit 4, Lesson 3

3.6.3 DC arc welding machines are either DC rotary generators driven by an

AC electric motor or alternatively use an AC transformer with a rectifier
attachment which is an electrical "one-way flow valve" permitting the AC welding
current to only flow in one direction, thus achieving a DC effect.

3.6.4 Miscellaneous arc welding equipments

Electrode holder - An electrode holder is an insulated clamping device for
holding the electrode at any desired angle during the electric arc welding firmly
process. The electrode holder is connected to the power source.

Figure 11: Arc welding electrode holder

Cables - Two welding cables of sufficient current carrying capacity with heavy
insulation are used in electric arc welding process.
Earth clamp - It gives connection of earthing cable with the base metal through
the metallic welding table on which the base metal is placed.
Chipping hammer and wire brush - A chipping hammer is required to loosen
scale, oxides and slag. A wire brush is used to clean each weld bead before
further welding.
Welding table - A welding table should be of all-steel construction. A container
for electrodes with an insulated hook to hold the electrode holder when not in use
should be provided.
Goggles - During all electric arc welding processes, operators must wear safety
goggles to protect their eyes from weld spatter.

Goggles

Chipping hammer
and wire brush Shield Apron
Gloves
Figure 12: Miscellaneous arc welding equipments

Hand-held shield - Welder needs a hand-held shield to protect his eyes and
face from harmful light and particles of hot metal.
Apron - It is made of heat resistant chrome leather, is used to protect the
operator from sparks and heat.
Gloves - Gloves are also made of chrome leather and are used to protect the
hands of welder from the spark and spatter of the arc.