Mechanical Engineering: 3035

MODULE 4

co Description Duration Cognitive

(Hours) Level

CO To acquire knowledge on the construction and 11 Applying

4 working principles of Steam boilers, Internal
combustion engines and steam turbines.

Module Description Duration Cognitive

outcomes (Hours) Level

M4.01 Explain the classification and working of 2 Understanding

steam boilers and discuss their applications.
M4.02 Explain the working of steam turbines and 2 Understanding
their application.
M4.03 Illustrate the working of internal combustion 5 Applying
engines and their classifications.

M4.04 Compare IC engines based on fuel used and 2 Applying

number of strokes

STEAM BOILERS

The function of a steam generator or boiler is to transfer the heat produced by the combustion
of fuel to water and generate steam. The boilers are classified as either fire tube boiler or
water tube boiler based on the flue gas flow path.

In fire tube boiler the hot flue gases produced by the combustion of fuel pass through the
tubes which are surrounded by water.

In water tube boilers water flows inside the tubes which are surrounded by hot flue gases
from outside.

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CLASSIFICATIONS

Content in tube Fire tube Water tube

(eg:Lancashire, cochran, (eg: benson, stirling, yarrow,
cornish, locomotive, nestler…) lamont, Babcock and Wilcox
…)

Location of furnace Internally fired Externally fired

(eg: firetube boilers) (eg: water tube boilers)

Axis Vertical boiler Horizontal boiler

Circulation of water Natural circulation Forced circulation

Pressure Low pressure High pressure

(eg: firetube boilers) (eg: water tube boilers)

Steam Boilers Functions and applications

Steam boilers are widely used in various industries and applications where steam is required for
heating, power generation, or industrial processes. The primary function of a steam boiler is to
generate and provide high-pressure steam, typically through the combustion of fuels or the use of
electric heating elements. Here are some key functions and applications of steam boilers:

1. Power Generation: Steam boilers play a crucial role in power plants, where they are used to produce
high-pressure steam that drives steam turbines to generate electricity. The boilers can be fueled by
coal, natural gas, oil, biomass, or a combination of these fuels.
2. Industrial Processes: Many industrial processes require steam for heating, drying, sterilizing, or other
purposes. Steam boilers are used in industries such as food processing, chemical manufacturing,
textile production, paper mills, pharmaceuticals, and refineries. They provide a consistent source of
high-pressure steam for these processes.
3. Heating Applications: Steam boilers are commonly used for heating large buildings, such as hospitals,
schools, hotels, and commercial complexes. They distribute steam through pipes or radiators to
provide space heating and hot water.
4. District Heating: In some urban areas, steam boilers are used to generate steam for district heating
systems. The steam is distributed through a network of pipes to heat multiple buildings or a whole
district.
5. Cogeneration: Steam boilers are utilized in cogeneration plants, also known as combined heat and
power (CHP) plants. These facilities generate electricity while simultaneously utilizing the waste heat
to produce steam for various industrial processes or heating applications, thereby increasing overall
energy efficiency.

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6. Food Industry: Steam boilers are extensively used in the food industry for processes like cooking,
sterilization, pasteurization, and drying. They are essential in food processing plants, breweries,
distilleries, dairy factories, and other food manufacturing facilities.
7. Oil and Gas Industry: Steam boilers are employed in the oil and gas industry for various purposes,
including enhanced oil recovery (EOR) techniques, where steam is injected into oil reservoirs to
increase oil production.
8. Environmental Applications: Steam boilers are also used in environmental applications, such as waste
incineration plants, where steam is generated to drive turbines for electricity production while
disposing of waste materials.

It's important to note that the specific design, capacity, and operating conditions of steam boilers
vary depending on the application and industry requirements. Safety measures and regulations must
be followed to ensure the safe and efficient operation of steam boilers.

PARTS OF A BOILER

1. Shell: It is the outer covering of boiler.

2. Steam space: It is space above the boiler where steam is stored.
3. Furnace: It is the chamber where fuel is burned and hot gases are produced

4. Boiler accessories
It is the essential (not necessary) equipment used to increase the efficiency of
the boiler Some of the boiler accessories are

a) Feed pump
b) Air preheater
c) Economizer

d) Superheater

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COMPARISON BETWEEN FIRE TUBE AND WATER TUBE BOILERS

WATER TUBE BOILERS

Examples for water tube boilers are babcock and Wilcox, benson, stirling, yarrow, lamont etc..

Babcock and Wilcox boiler

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The working of Babcock and Wilcox boiler is first the water starts to come in the water
tubes from the drum through down take header with the help of a boiler feed pump which
continues to feed the water against the drum pressure.

The water present in the inclined water tubes gets heated up by the hot flue gases
produced by the burning of coal on the fire grate.

These fuel gases are uniformly heated the water tube with the help of a baffle plate which
works deflect the flues gas uniform throughout the tubes which absorbed the heating
maximum from the flue gases.

As the hot flue gases come in contact with water tubes, It exchanges the heat with
heater and converts into the steam.

Continuous circulation of water from the drum to the water tubes and water tubes to the
drum is thus maintained.

The circulation of water is maintained by convective current and it’s known as

Natural Circulation.

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The Steam generated is moved upward, due to density difference and through the up-take
header, it gets collected at the upper side in the boiler drum.

Anti-priming pipe inside the drum which works separates the moisture from the steam
and sends it’s to the superheater.

The superheater receives the water-free steam from an anti-priming pipe. It increases the
temperature of the steam to the desired level and transfers it to the main steam stop valve
of the boiler.

The superheated steam stop valve is either collected in a steam drum or send it’s inside
the steam turbine for electricity generation.

IC ENGINES

IC Engines, also known as internal combustion engines, are devices that convert the chemical energy
stored in fossil fuels or other combustible substances into mechanical work. These engines are
commonly used in vehicles, power generators, and various industrial applications.

The term "internal combustion" refers to the combustion process that takes place inside the engine,
where a mixture of fuel and air is ignited within a combustion chamber. The resulting rapid expansion
of high-temperature and high-pressure gases drives a piston or a rotor, which in turn generates
mechanical energy.

There are two primary types of IC engines: spark ignition (SI) engines and compression ignition (CI)
engines.

1. Spark Ignition (SI) Engines: These engines rely on spark plugs to ignite the air-fuel mixture. They are
commonly used in gasoline-powered cars, motorcycles, and small engines. The fuel-air mixture is
drawn into the combustion chamber during the intake stroke, compressed during the compression
stroke, and ignited by a spark plug during the power stroke. The exhaust gases are expelled during
the exhaust stroke.
2. Compression Ignition (CI) Engines: Also known as diesel engines, CI engines rely on the heat of
compression to ignite the fuel. They are commonly used in heavy-duty vehicles, ships, power
generators, and some cars. In a CI engine, only air is initially compressed during the compression
stroke. Fuel is injected into the hot, highly compressed air, leading to spontaneous ignition and
combustion. The exhaust gases are expelled during the exhaust stroke.

Both SI and CI engines can operate in various configurations, including inline, V-shaped, horizontally
opposed, and rotary engines, each with its own advantages and applications. IC engines have played
a significant role in transportation and power generation for many decades, although there is
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increasing interest in alternative power sources due to environmental concerns and the pursuit of
sustainable energy solutions.

CLASSIFICATION OF IC ENGINES

Internal combustion engines (IC engines) can be classified in various ways based on different criteria.
Here are some common classifications of IC engines:

1. Based on the working cycle: a. Otto cycle engines: These engines operate on the Otto cycle, also
known as the spark-ignition (SI) cycle. Gasoline engines used in most cars are examples of Otto cycle
engines. b. Diesel cycle engines: These engines operate on the Diesel cycle, also known as the
compression-ignition (CI) cycle. Diesel engines used in trucks, buses, and some cars are examples of
Diesel cycle engines.
2. Based on the fuel used: a. Gasoline engines: These engines are designed to run on gasoline (petrol)
as the fuel. b. Diesel engines: These engines are designed to run on diesel fuel. c. Natural gas engines:
These engines are designed to run on natural gas as the primary fuel.
3. Based on the number of strokes: a. Two-stroke engines: These engines complete a power cycle in
two strokes of the piston (one upstroke and one downstroke). They are commonly used in small
motorcycles, scooters, and outboard motors. b. Four-stroke engines: These engines complete a
power cycle in four strokes of the piston (intake, compression, power, and exhaust). They are
commonly used in cars, trucks, motorcycles, and other applications.
4. Based on the engine layout: a. Inline engines: These engines have their cylinders arranged in a
straight line. For example, inline-four (four cylinders in a row) and inline-six engines. b. V engines:
These engines have their cylinders arranged in a V-shaped configuration. Examples include V6 and
V8 engines. c. Boxer engines: These engines have their cylinders horizontally opposed, with a flat
configuration. They are commonly found in some cars and aircraft.
5. Based on the cooling system: a. Air-cooled engines: These engines rely on air circulation for cooling,
without the use of a liquid cooling system. Some motorcycles and small engines use air-cooling. b.
Liquid-cooled engines: These engines use a liquid coolant, such as water or a coolant mixture,
circulated through passages in the engine to dissipate heat. Most cars and larger engines use liquid
cooling.
6. Based on the application: a. Automotive engines: These engines are specifically designed for use in
automobiles. b. Marine engines: These engines are designed for marine applications, powering boats
and ships. c. Industrial engines: These engines are used in various industrial applications, such as
power generation, pumps, and machinery

Explain the working of two stroke and four stroke (petrol and diesel) engines

Two-Stroke Engine (Petrol): A two-stroke engine completes its combustion cycle in two strokes of
the piston, namely the compression stroke and the power stroke. Here's how it works:

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1. Intake/Compression Stroke: As the piston moves upward, it creates a vacuum in the cylinder, drawing
a mixture of air and fuel into the combustion chamber through the intake port.
2. Compression/Power Stroke: The piston then moves downward, compressing the air-fuel mixture.
Near the bottom of the stroke, the spark plug ignites the mixture, causing an explosion. This
explosion drives the piston back up.
3. Exhaust Stroke: As the piston reaches the top, it uncovers the exhaust port, allowing the burned gases
to escape. Simultaneously, the intake port is uncovered, allowing a new mixture to enter.

The two-stroke engine does not have dedicated valves for intake and exhaust, relying on the
movement of the piston and ports instead. While it offers simplicity and higher power output due to
its faster combustion cycle, it is less efficient and produces more pollution compared to a four-stroke
engine.

Four-Stroke Engine (Petrol): A four-stroke engine completes its combustion cycle in four strokes
of the piston: intake, compression, power, and exhaust. Here's how it works:

1. Intake Stroke: The piston moves downward, creating a vacuum that draws the air-fuel mixture into
the combustion chamber through the intake valve.
2. Compression Stroke: The piston moves upward, compressing the air-fuel mixture. Near the top of
the stroke, the spark plug ignites the compressed mixture, causing an explosion. This explosion drives
the piston back down.
3. Power Stroke: As the piston moves down, it transfers the force generated by the combustion to the
crankshaft, creating rotational motion. This power is used to drive the vehicle or perform mechanical
work.
4. Exhaust Stroke: The piston moves back up, expelling the burned gases from the combustion chamber
through the open exhaust valve.

The four-stroke engine has separate valves for intake and exhaust, controlled by a camshaft. It offers
better fuel efficiency, lower emissions, and smoother operation compared to a two-stroke engine.

Diesel Engine (Four-Stroke): The working principle of a four-stroke diesel engine is similar to a
four-stroke petrol engine, but the fuel ignition process is different. Here's how a diesel engine works:

1. Intake Stroke: The piston moves downward, drawing in only air into the combustion chamber
through the intake valve. Compression ratio is higher in diesel engines.
2. Compression Stroke: The piston moves upward, compressing the air to a high pressure and
temperature. At the top of the stroke, fuel is injected into the combustion chamber as a fine mist or
spray.
3. Power Stroke: When the fuel is injected, it self-ignites due to the high temperature and pressure of
the compressed air. The burning fuel rapidly expands, driving the piston down.
4. Exhaust Stroke: The piston moves back up, pushing out the exhaust gases through the open exhaust
valve.
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Diesel engines operate on the principle of compression ignition, where fuel ignites spontaneously
when exposed to high temperature and pressure. They are more fuel-efficient than petrol engines
but tend to produce higher levels of nitrogen oxides (NOx) and particulate matter

COMPARISON OF -PETROL AND DIESEL ENGINE

Petrol and diesel engines are two common types of internal combustion engines used in vehicles.
While both engines serve the same purpose of converting chemical energy into mechanical energy,
they differ in several aspects, including fuel type, combustion process, efficiency, and emissions.
Here's a comparison of petrol and diesel engines:

1. Fuel Type:
 Petrol engines use gasoline (petrol) as fuel, which is a lighter and more volatile fuel compared to
diesel.
 Diesel engines use diesel fuel, which is heavier and less volatile than petrol.
2. Combustion Process:
 Petrol engines use a spark ignition system, where a spark plug ignites the air-fuel mixture in the
combustion chamber.
 Diesel engines use a compression ignition system, where the fuel is injected into the highly
compressed air in the combustion chamber, causing spontaneous combustion.
3. Efficiency:
 Diesel engines are typically more fuel-efficient than petrol engines. They extract more energy from
each unit of fuel due to higher compression ratios and longer expansion strokes.
 Petrol engines have lower compression ratios and shorter expansion strokes, resulting in lower
efficiency compared to diesel engines.
4. Power and Torque:
 Petrol engines tend to produce more power at higher RPM (revolutions per minute) and are generally
smoother and more responsive at higher speeds.
 Diesel engines are known for their high torque output, making them suitable for heavy-duty
applications and towing. They provide more low-end torque, making them better for off-road driving
and hauling loads.
5. Emissions:
 Petrol engines produce lower levels of particulate matter (PM) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions
compared to diesel engines.
 Diesel engines emit higher levels of PM and NOx, but advancements in emission control technologies
have significantly reduced their environmental impact.
6. Noise and Vibration:
 Petrol engines generally operate more quietly and produce fewer vibrations compared to diesel
engines.
 Diesel engines tend to be noisier and can generate more vibrations due to higher compression ratios
and the compression ignition process.
7. Cost:
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 In many regions, diesel fuel is often more expensive than petrol, which can impact the cost of
operating a diesel engine vehicle.
 Diesel engines themselves are typically more expensive to manufacture due to their heavier
construction and additional components like turbochargers and fuel injection systems.

Comparison of Two stroke and Four Stroke

Two-stroke and four-stroke engines are two different types of internal combustion engines with
distinct operating principles. Here's a comparison of the two:

1. Operating Cycle: The main difference between two-stroke and four-stroke engines lies in their
operating cycles:
 Two-Stroke Engine: In a two-stroke engine, the complete power cycle (intake, compression,
combustion, exhaust) is completed in two strokes of the piston, i.e., one revolution of the crankshaft.
 Four-Stroke Engine: In a four-stroke engine, the power cycle is completed in four strokes of the
piston, i.e., two revolutions of the crankshaft.
2. Design and Complexity:
 Two-Stroke Engine: Two-stroke engines are simpler in design and have fewer parts compared to
four-stroke engines. They typically consist of a cylinder, piston, crankshaft, and ports for intake and
exhaust. This simplicity leads to lower manufacturing costs.
 Four-Stroke Engine: Four-stroke engines are more complex and consist of additional components
such as valves, camshafts, and a dedicated lubrication system. They have a separate stroke for intake,
compression, combustion, and exhaust, resulting in better efficiency.
3. Power Output and Efficiency:
 Two-Stroke Engine: Two-stroke engines have a higher power-to-weight ratio because they produce
power with each revolution of the crankshaft. They can deliver more power than a similar-sized four-
stroke engine.
 Four-Stroke Engine: Four-stroke engines tend to be more fuel-efficient compared to two-stroke
engines. The separation of the power cycle into four strokes allows for better control of fuel intake,
combustion, and exhaust, resulting in improved efficiency.
4. Emissions:
 Two-Stroke Engine: Traditionally, two-stroke engines have been known for higher emissions due to
the way the fuel-air mixture is scavenged. However, advancements in technology have led to the
development of cleaner two-stroke engines that comply with emissions regulations.
 Four-Stroke Engine: Four-stroke engines generally produce lower emissions because of their more
controlled combustion process. They have dedicated intake and exhaust valves that aid in efficient
fuel burning and emission control.
5. Lubrication:
 Two-Stroke Engine: Two-stroke engines require oil to be mixed with fuel to lubricate the moving
parts, as they lack a dedicated lubrication system. This oil-fuel mixture is burned during combustion,
resulting in some oil consumption and potential emissions.

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 Four-Stroke Engine: Four-stroke engines have a separate lubrication system, where oil is stored in an
oil sump and circulated through the engine to lubricate various components. This results in less oil
consumption and a cleaner exhaust.

Overall, two-stroke engines offer simplicity, lightweight design, and higher power output, while four-
stroke engines provide better fuel efficiency, lower emissions, and more refined operation. The choice
between the two depends on specific application requirements, regulations, and the desired balance
between power and efficiency.

WORKING PRINCIPLES OF IMPULSE TURBINE

Impulse turbines are a type of steam turbine commonly used in power generation, specifically in
hydroelectric power plants. They operate based on the principle of converting the kinetic energy of
a high-velocity jet of steam into mechanical work. Here are the working principles of impulse
turbines:

1. Nozzle: The process starts with high-pressure steam being directed through a set of nozzles. The
nozzles are designed to accelerate the steam, converting its pressure energy into high-velocity kinetic
energy. The nozzles are typically shaped like a converging-diverging nozzle to ensure maximum
steam acceleration.
2. Jet of Steam: The high-velocity jet of steam leaves the nozzles and enters the turbine blades. The
steam jet is directed at the blades in a tangential direction. The high velocity of the steam is
maintained as it enters the turbine rotor.
3. Rotating Blades: The turbine rotor consists of a series of specially designed blades or buckets. These
blades are curved in such a way that the steam jet changes its direction as it passes through them.
The steam exerts a force on the blades due to its momentum and velocity.
4. Impulse and Reaction: In an impulse turbine, the pressure drop of the steam occurs entirely in the
nozzles, resulting in a high-velocity steam jet. As the high-velocity steam passes through the blades,
it exerts an impulse force on them. The blades do not change the pressure of the steam but only
redirect its flow.
5. Rotational Motion: The impulse force from the steam jet causes the turbine rotor to rotate. The
rotational motion of the rotor is transmitted to a generator or other machinery, converting the
mechanical energy into electrical energy or other useful work.
6. Exhaust: After the steam has passed through the blades, its pressure and velocity are reduced. The
low-pressure and low-velocity steam is then exhausted into a condenser or atmosphere, depending
on the system design.
7. Efficiency: The efficiency of an impulse turbine is influenced by factors such as steam pressure, nozzle
design, blade shape, and steam velocity. Efficient designs maximize the conversion of steam's kinetic
energy into useful work, while minimizing losses due to friction and turbulence.

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WORKING PRINCIPLES OF REACTION TURBINE

Reaction turbines are a type of steam or gas turbine that operate on the principle of fluid dynamics
and the conservation of momentum. They are commonly used in power generation and propulsion
systems, such as in hydroelectric power plants or steam turbines for electricity generation.

The working principles of a reaction turbine can be summarized as follows:

1. Fluid Flow: A reaction turbine operates by directing a high-velocity fluid, such as steam or gas,
through a series of moving blades or vanes. The fluid flows through the turbine and imparts a
reaction force to the blades, causing them to rotate.
2. Nozzles and Guide Vanes: The fluid enters the turbine through a set of nozzles or a stationary set of
guide vanes. These components help to control and direct the flow of fluid onto the moving blades.
They convert the pressure energy of the fluid into kinetic energy, increasing the fluid's velocity before
it enters the rotor.
3. Rotor Blades: The rotor consists of a set of curved blades or vanes mounted on a rotating shaft. The
high-velocity fluid from the nozzles or guide vanes strikes the rotor blades, causing a change in
momentum and a reaction force. The blades are curved to take advantage of the pressure differences
across them and to efficiently convert the fluid's kinetic energy into mechanical energy.
4. Reaction Force: As the high-velocity fluid flows over the rotor blades, it imparts a reaction force on
the blades due to Newton's third law of motion (action and reaction). The blades deflect the fluid,
which results in a change in momentum and the generation of a torque on the rotor. This torque
causes the rotor and shaft to rotate.
5. Energy Conversion: The rotation of the rotor is connected to a generator or other mechanical load,
where the rotational energy is converted into useful work. In power generation applications, the
rotation is typically used to drive an electrical generator to produce electricity.
6. Velocity Compounding: Reaction turbines often employ multiple stages with sets of stationary guide
vanes and rotor blades. These stages are arranged in series, and each stage extracts energy from the
fluid flow, reducing its velocity. The use of multiple stages allows for higher efficiency and greater
energy extraction from the fluid.

Overall, reaction turbines work by utilizing the principle of fluid dynamics and the conversion of
kinetic energy to mechanical energy. By controlling the fluid flow and utilizing reaction forces, they
are able to extract energy from the fluid and convert it into useful work for various applications.

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