TCOM370

Solutions to Homework 99-1

Problem 1

4 hops (point-to-point links) between two terminals nodes; Transmission rate 9600 bps on
all links; 24 overhead bits [Header + Trailer] for each packet; 1ms per-hop signal
propagation delay. 1 sec. Call set-up time for circuit switched connection across 4 hops.

(a) Message size 5000 bits, packet size 1024 bits, all other parameters the same.

Circuit switching

5000 bits at 9600 bps ⇒ 0.521 sec. message duration

total propagation delay 0.004 sec.
Total time for message is 0.521 + 0.004 + 1 = 1.921 sec.

Packet switching

Number of packets = 5 (1024 - 24 = 1000 bits of message data, 5×1000=5000)

Packet duration = 1024/9600 = 0.107 sec.
Entire 1024-bit packet received by each node from preceding node in 1024/9600 + 0.001
= 0.108 sec.

Total message time is therefore 4×0.108 + 4×0.107 = 0.968 sec. (There are 4 hops, and 4
packets in succession after the first complete packet is received at terminal node)
Transmission delay is 4×0.001 + 3×0.107 = 0.325 sec.

By Transmission Delay we mean the delay between the sending out of a bit in the
message and its reception at the other end.

(b) Message size 5000 bits, packet size 512 bits, other parameters the same.

Circuit switching

The same as in (a).

Packet switching

Number of packets = 11 (512 - 24 = 488 bits of message data for first 10 packets, the 11th
packet has 120 bits of message data and 380 dummy bits)
Packet duration = 512/9600 = 0.0535 sec.
Entire 512-bit packet received by each node from preceding node in 512/9600 + 0.001 =
0.0545 sec.
1
Total message time is therefore 4×0.0545 + 10×0.0535 = 0.753sec. (There are 4 hops,
and 10 packets in succession after the first complete packet is received at terminal node)
Transmission delay is 4×0.001 + 3×0.0535 = 0.1645 sec.

Following solutions for problems 2.1, 2.4 and 2.5 are from the solutions manual for
the textbook.

Problem 2 (2.1)

The main factors that influence the choice of transmission medium to be used in a data
communication application are the required bit rate and the distance between the two
communicating devices. The various types of transmission media listed in the question
each has a defined maximum limit in terms of these factors and it is this that determines
the application domain of each type of medium.

(a) Two-wire open lines are used mainly for connecting a data terminal
equipment(DTE) - a computer for example - to a local data circuit-terminating
equipment(DCE) such as modem. When designed for use with the analog switched
telephone network, the maximum bit rate is the order of 100,000 bps. Also, the modem is
normally situated less than 50m from the DTE. The actual maximum physical separation
of the devices is influenced by the type of driver/receiver electronic circuits being used.

(b) Twisted pair lines have much better immunity to spurious noise signals owing to
the two conducting wires being twisted together. This is exploited by the use of
differential line driver and receiver circuits since these operate on the difference between
the signals on each line rather than their absolute value. By twisting the two conductors
together, any noise or spurious signal is picked up in both conductors and hence this does
not affect the difference signal. This effect is further reduced by introducing a protective
screen or shield around the twisted pair as shown in Fig. 2.2. The two types are then
known as unshielded twisted pair (UTP) and shielded twisted pair (STP). UTP is used
extensively in the switched telephone network for connecting the telephone to the local
exchange. In addition, both types are now used extensively for data communications and ,
with appropriate differential line driver and receiver circuits, physical separations of up to
100m at 1Mbps are achievable. Also, with additional signal conditioning circuits, data
rates as high as 100Mbps are now possible.

(c) Coaxial cable is used extensively for linking computers together in the form of a
network. Both thin-wire (0.25 inch diameter) and thick-wire (0.5 inch diameter) versions
are used. The operation bit rate is normally 10Mbps and, at this rate, the maximum length
of cable is 200m for thin-wire and 500m for thick-wire. Larger diameter coaxial cable -
up to 1 inch -is also used in community antenna television (CATV) networks.

(d) Optical fiber cable is the preferred choice for high bit rates - in excess of, say,
100Mbps - and long physical separations in excess of a few kilometers. It is used in
computer networks at bit rates of 100Mbps and also in the switched telephone network
for linking switching exchanges, either locally, nationally or internationally. In such
2
applications many voice circuits are multiplexed together and combined bit rates in
excess of 600Mbps are frequently used. In addition, because of its superior immunity to
electrical interference compared with copper conductors, optical fiber is also used in
lower bit rate applications with noisy environments.

(e) Microwave transmission is used in two forms: terrestrial microwave and satellites.
Terrestrial microwave is used to transmit data at rates in excess of 100Mbps at distances
up to 50km. Normally microwave is used when the laying of cables is either impossible
or would be prohibitively expensive.

Satellites are also used for computer-to-computer communications over wide

geographical areas. The two alternative configurations are shown in Fig. 2.4. In both
applications the satellite is launched to a height of 35,784m above the earth since, at this
height, it has the same period of rotation as the Earth. It is then said to be geostationary.
The Satellite simply acts as a repeating or relay station, retransmitting the data it receives
on one frequency band out on a link between two ground stations while in the second it
acts as a point-to-point multipoint (broadcast) link between a central (hub) site and
multiple, physically-distributed receivers. In the case of the latter, all data is relayed via
the central hub site (computer).

Problem 3 (2.4)

4 5 2
2 7 3
7 3 1
1 6 4
6 4 5
5 2 7
2 7 3
3 1 6
1 6 4
4 5 2

Seven-cell repeat pattern

Because of its broadcast nature, the use of the radio spectrum has to be strictly
controlled otherwise the various services would interfere with each other. Hence for each
service, a specific portion of the radio spectrum is allocated. With an application such as
television or radio, this is effectively a one-to-many form of communication; that is, the
signal transmitted by the transmitter is received by all receivers. Thus a single frequency
band is sufficient.
In contrast, data communications normally requires many-to-many
communications thus necessitating multiple frequency bands. To optimise the use of the
allocated frequency band, the assigned frequency band is normally divided into a number
of sub-bands known as cells. The frequency bandwidth associated with each cell is then
3
selected to provide a wireless (cordless) link between a number of user terminals within
the field of coverage of a central (base) station for that cell. The latter is normally
connected to the fixed-wire network which is then used to provide a link between cells.
The power output from each base station - and hence its field of coverage - is controlled
so that it is sufficient to meet the number of active users within that region. Then, by
assigning the frequency bands to each base station in a regular repeat pattern, it is
possible to obtain complete radio coverage using only a small number of frequency
bands.
An example is the 3-cell repeat pattern shown in Fig. 2.5 and an alternative is the
7-cell repeat pattern in which the distance between cells sharing the same frequency
channel is larger and hence the risk of interference within a cell from a base station in
another cell on the same frequency is reduced. This type of interference is known as
channel interference and is discussed further in Section 6.4.1.

Problem 4 (2.5)
The effects on a transmitted signal of the different attenuation and distortion
sources listed are shown in Fig. 2.6.

(a) Attenuation
As a signal propagates along a transmission medium its amplitude decreases, but
waveform shape of the signal doesn’t change.

(b) Limited bandwidth

As we can see from the Fourier Series of a periodic signal, it is made up of an infinite
series of sinusoidal frequency components. But a communications channel has a limited
bandwidth, so only those frequency components that are within the channel bandwidth
will be received.

(c) Delay distortion

The various frequency components of a signal may arrive at the receiver with different
amplitudes and different phases, which are called amplitude distortion and phase
distortion. An example of amplitude/phase distortion is given in notes 99-4B.

(d) Line and system noise

Because the amplitude of the signal is attenuated and different noises are added to the
signal, the SNR (signal-to-noise ratio) might be rather small at the receiver. This will
cause a problem at the receiver, in that reliable bit decisions cannot be made. The
received signal may be unrecoverable.

Problem 5 (2.6)
The Fourier series of a periodic function x(t) is:
∞ ∞
x ( t ) = a0 + ∑n=1 an cos(2 nf 0 t ) + ∑b n sin(2πnf 0 t )
π n =1
where,

4
 τ /2
1
T − τ∫
a0 = x (t )dt ,
/2
and,
τ /2 τ /2
1 1
T − τ∫ ∫x(t ) sin( 2πnf t )dt,
an = x (t ) cos(2πnf 0 t )dt , bn = 0
/2
T −τ /2

From the class notes 2 and 2B, we have for pulse train of wdth-tau pulses and period T :
Aτ
a0 = ,
T
and,
2A
an = sin(πnf 0τ ), bn = 0
nπ

(i) For the unipolar binary signal shown in Fig. 2.7(a), τ = T / 2 , A = V .

Therefore,

Vτ V
a0 = =
T τ =T / 2 2
2V 2V πn
an = sin(πnf 0τ ) = sin( )
nπ τ =T / 2 nπ 2

2V 2V 2V 2V
a1 = , a2 = 0, a3 = − , a4 = 0, a5 = , a6 = 0, a7 = − ...
π 3π 5π 7π
2V
Hence, an = , n = 4k + 1, k = 0,1,2...
nπ
2V
and an = − , n = 4k + 3 , k = 0,1,2...
nπ

The Fourier series for a unipolar binary signal therefore is:

∞
2πnt
x(t ) = ∑ an cos( ) with the a’s given above.
n=0 T

(ii) The bipolar binary signal shown in Fig. 2.7(a), is simply the unipolar signal of
amplitude A=2V from which a constant level of V is subtracted. Therefore, the Fourier
Series for it is simply that of the unipolar signal with amplitude 2V, with a0 reduced by a
constant level of V.

Therefore,

a0 = 0

5
 4V nπ
an = sin( )
nπ 2

4V 4V 4V 4V
a1 = , a2 = 0, a3 = − , a4 = 0, a5 = , a6 = 0, a7 = − ...
π 3π 5π 7π
4A
Hence, an = , n = 4k + 1, k = 0,1,2...
nπ
4A
and an = − , n = 4k + 3, k = 0,1,2...
nπ
bn = 0 for n=1,2,3,4,5…

Problem 6 (2.7)
Assuming one binary digit per signaling element and either unipolar or bipolar
encoding, the line signal will change most frequently when the binary sequence 101010...
is being transmitted. All other sequences will result in the line signal changing at a lower
rate. The sequence 101010..., which has the shortest period, will yield the highest
fundamental frequency component. Hence the fundamental and harmonics associated
with this sequence will be larger than those of other sequences and hence determine the
minimum bandwidth required for the channel.

Problem 7

(a) τ = 1/3 sec. , T=1 sec.

 t τ
 A(1 − ) t ∈ [0, ]
 τ 2
x (t ) =  is an even function.
 A(1 + t τ
 ) t ∈ [− ,0]
 τ 2

τ /2
t 2 τ / 2 2 A τ τ  3 Aτ
T /2
1 2A t 2A
a0 = ∫
T − T /2
x (t )dt =
T ∫(1 −
0
τ
)dt =
T
(t −
2τ
)0 =  − =
T  2 8  4T
,

T /2 τ /2
2 2A t
T − T∫/ 2 ∫
an = x (t ) cos( 2πnf t ) dt = ∗ 2 (1 − ) cos(2πnf 0 t )dt
τ
0
T 0

6
 τ /2
4 A sin( 2πnf 0 t ) 1  1 
=  − 
t sin( 2πnf 0 t ) + cos(2πnf 0 t ) 

T  2πnf 0 2πnf 0τ  2πnf 0 0
4 A sin(πnf 0τ ) 1 τ 
=  −  sin(πnf τ ) +
1
(cos(πnf τ ) − 1)

T  2πnf 0 2πnf 0τ  π
0 0
 2 2 nf 0 
4 A sin(πnf 0τ ) 
=  −
1
(cos(πnf 0τ ) − 1)
T  4πnf 0 (2πnf 0 ) τ
2


bn = 0; (since x(t) is an even function)

Amplitude spectrum An = an + bn = an
2 2

0.45
Amplitude Spectrum An (tau=1/3, T=1)

0.4

0.35

0.3

0.25

0.2

0.15

0.1

0.05

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
nf0

7
(b) τ = 1/3 sec. , T=1 sec.

(i) n=3

1.2

0.8

0.6
x(t)

0.4

0.2

-0.2
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
t (tau=1/3, T=1, n=3)

(ii) n=12

1.2

0.8

0.6
x(t)

0.4

0.2

-0.2
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
t (tau=1/3, T=1, n=12)

8
(c) τ = 1/3 sec., T=2 sec., n=6.

∞
x (t ) = a 0 + ∑a
n =1
n cos(2πnf 0 t )

1.2

0.8

0.6
x(t)

0.4

0.2

-0.2
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
t (tau=1/3, T=2, n=6)

Note that for (n=3,T=1) and (n=6,T=2), the plots are re-constructions to within the 3 Hz
bandwidth given by the rule: bandwidth = 1/tau. (approx.)