PREFACE

As the UPSC Mains exam approaches, the need for concise and updated study material,
especially for Optional subjects, becomes crucial for students. AnthroEdge is a humble
attempt by us to present quality revision material for Anthropology subject in a
consolidated manner for students appearing in UPSC CS Mains 2024 exam. This
document has been thoughtfully designed to cater to the needs of variety of students at
different levels of preparation.
The first edition of AnthroEdge was immensely valuable for 2023 UPSC Mains students.
Last year, students were able to confidently answer nearly all questions, including many
new ones, using AnthroEdge. The success of the previous edition has motivated us to
revamp this document, making it more relevant, enriched and user-friendly for our
readers.
This updated edition of AnthroEdge has been modified extensively in its format as well as
its content. This edition has a sharp focus on essential and updated information with a
goal of providing clear and definitive answers to UPSC questions. It incorporates updated
perspectives on Anthropology and has accommodated changing demands of the
UPSC Civil services Mains examination. It attempts to arm students with value addition
content such as data, case studies, relevant current affairs, perspectives, illustrations and
diagrams while providing essential basic content on all topics mentioned in the syllabus,
to enable them write persuasive answers to ace Optional papers.
We are privileged to have compiled this updated edition and are enthusiastic about all
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Team AnthroEdge,
VISIONIAS

2
 INDEX

AnthroEdge
CHAPTER 1 4
Foundations of Anthropology and Human Evolution

CHAPTER 2 49
The Nature of Culture & Society

CHAPTER 3 70
Marriage, Family And Kinship

CHAPTER 4 107
Economic Organization

CHAPTER 5 121
Political Organisation & Social Control

CHAPTER 6 141
Religion

CHAPTER 7 153
Anthropological Theories

CHAPTER 8 187
Culture, Language and Communication

CHAPTER 9 201
Research Methods in Anthropology

CHAPTER 10 222
Physical Anthropology

CHAPTER 11 278
Growth and Development

CHAPTER 12 299
Demography: Fertility, Bioevents, and Demographic Theories

CHAPTER 13 308
Applications of Anthropology

3
 Chapter: 1
FOUNDATIONS OF ANTHROPOLOGY
AND HUMAN EVOLUTION
SYLLABUS Past year
themes/Questions
Meaning, Scope and development of Anthropology.
Relationships with other disciplines: Social Sciences, Scope and relevance of Social and Cultural
behavioural Sciences, Life Sciences, Medical Sciences, Anthropology. (10 Marks, 2023)
Earth Sciences and Humanities.
Elaborate the scope of anthropology and elucidate
Main branches of Anthropology, their scope and its uniqueness in the field of other social sciences
relevance: (20 Marks, 2021)
a) Social-cultural Anthropology. “The biocultural approach is the Hallmark of
b) Biological Anthropology. biocultural anthropology”. Explain (10 Marks, 2021)
c) Archaeological Anthropology. How can synergising the core branches of
d) Linguistic Anthropology. anthropology reinvigorate the holistic spirit of the
Human Evolution and emergence of Man: discipline. (20 Marks, 2020)
a) Biological and Cultural factors in human evolution. Give an account of the field methods used in the
b) Theories of Organic Evolution (Pre-Darwinian, study of Archaeological Anthropology. (15 marks,
Darwinian and Post-Darwinian). 2018)
c) Synthetic theory of evolution; Brief outline of terms Define Anthropology. Describe the major branches
and concepts of evolutionary biology (Doll’s rule, of Anthropology elaborating on any one branch.
Cope’s rule, Gause’s rule, parallelism, convergence, (2017)
adaptive radiation, and mosaic evolution). Explain the genetic mechanisms of micro and
Characteristics of Primates; Evolutionary Trend and macro evolution. (15 Marks, 2021)
Primate Taxonomy; Primate Adaptations; (Arboreal Elucidate how Darwin and post-Darwin theories of
and Terrestrial) Primate Taxonomy; Primate Behaviour; evolution resulted in the development of Synthetic
Tertiary and Quaternary fossil primates; Living theory of evolution. (15 Marks, 2020)
Major Primates; Comparative Anatomy of Man and
Explain the biological changes that made human
Apes; Skeletal changes due to erect posture and its
beings capable of making cultures. (20 Marks,
implications.
2018)
Phylogenetic status, characteristics and geographical
The losses and gains of erect posture (10 Marks,
distribution of the following:
2021)
a) Plio-preleistocene hominids in South and East
Africa—Australopithecines. Jane Goodall’s contributions in studying primate
behaviour. (10 Marks, 2020)
b) Homo erectus: Africa (Paranthropus), Europe
(Homo erectus (heidelbergensis), Asia (Homo Illustrate with examples the various types of
erectus javanicus, Homo erectus pekinensis. locomotion pattern among non-human primates.
c) Neanderthal man—La-chapelle-auxsaints (Classical (15 Marks, 2020)
type), Mt. Carmel (Progressive type). Adaptive primate radiation (10 Marks, 2019)
d) Rhodesian man. Discuss the evolutionary significance of bipedalism
e) Homo saoiens- Cromagnon, Grimaldi and and erect posture. (20 Marks, 2019)
Chancelede. Discuss major species of Australopithecus
The biological basis of Life: The Cell, DNA structure discovered from South and East Africa. Describe
and replication, Protein Synthesis, Gene, Mutation, the discovery, physical features and significance of
4 Chromosomes, and Cell Division.
Taung baby. (20 Marks, 2023)
What are the physical and cultural characteristics
of Homo erectus? Discuss its phylogenetic status?
(20 Marks, 2021)
Critically evaluate the contesting theories of the
emergence and dispersal of modern Homo sapiens.
(20 Marks, 2020)
Europeans are closer to Neanderthals’. Critically
discuss in view of the African origin of human kind.
(2019)
Describe the culture related to homo erectus.
15marks (2018)

5
 CONTENT VALUE ADDITION

Meaning: Anthropology, originating from the Greek words

Unveiling the Distinctiveness of Anthropology
“Anthropos” (Man) and “Logos” (Study), pertains to the
study of humans. The study of human beings is insufficient to define
anthropology as it encompasses various disciplines
Definition: Anthropology is the study of the origin, like sociology, psychology, political science,
development, and nature of human beings. economics, history, human biology, and even
The definition and meaning of Anthropology have humanistic fields like philosophy and literature.
evolved over time. Definitions by different scholars at Anthropology has a broader scope, covering a
various periods demonstrate the discipline’s evolving longer span of time and a wider range of topics
meaning. compared to these disciplines.
Anthropology is the only academic discipline that
1. Aristotle, the father of anthropology, coined and studies all aspects of humanity, from our biological
defined the term, describing anthropology as the origins to our cultural diversity. This makes it a
gossip that revolves around man. unique and valuable field of study, and one that is
2. Emmanuel Kant described anthropology in the essential for understanding the world we live in.
18th century as a study of animal origins, social and
cultural development, and human progress.
3. During the 19th century, Encyclopedia Britannica Anthropology Works
defined anthropology as a discipline concerned Orangutan Research Leads to Orangutan Advocacy
with discourse on human nature, encompassing
biology, culture, and society.
4. Anthropologists like Malinowski, Radcliffe Brown,
and Franz Boas defined anthropology as the study
of man at all levels of development, encompassing
the past, present, and future of humanity.
5. Krober described anthropology as the science of
groups of men and their behavior and production.
6. Herskovitz defined anthropology as the study of
man and his actions.

Scope:
Central Problem: Explanation of humanity (Man as
physical and social being). Biruté Galdikas, with her profound expertise in
Its scope is both broad and unique. orangutans, has studied and advocated for their
Broad Scope: As it study all people worldwide, preservation for five decades in Indonesia. She
from the distant past to the present, exploring their established Camp Leakey research center and co-
development and cultures across diverse regions. founded the Orangutan Foundation International
(OFI) to protect the endangered species. Her activism
Anthropologists have evolved from focusing solely on
includes educating the public, lobbying international
non-Western cultures to studying their own and other
institutions, and employing locals to safeguard
complex societies, erasing traditional disciplinary
orangutans and their habitat.
boundaries.
Unique (special role) Scope: Anthropology’s unique
role lies in its distinct combination of holistic, historical,
and comparative methods.

6
 CASE STUDY Broad Scope of Anthropology

Geographically (Spatially) study all varieties of

Correcting the Mistaken Belief people in the whole world
In the 1960s, American educators discovered
that African American schoolchildren seldom Historically (Temporally study people of all periods
consumed milk. Initially, attributing it to (Origin to today)
financial constraints or education, they were
proven wrong by evidence from anthropology.
Anthropologists had long known that in regions
with milking animals, people often sour milk or Anthropology studies man
turn it into cheese before consuming it. The
reason behind this practice became evident As member of animal kingdom
when it was revealed that many individuals
lack the enzyme lactase, essential for breaking
down lactose, the sugar in milk. Regular milk As member of society
consumption caused digestion issues, leading
to milk intolerance. This condition was found +Relation/intricacies between these two
in various populations worldwide, including
African Americans.
Why Anthropology has such a broad scope?
Generalization: Skeptical Approach: Protection against
Driven by the belief Entitled to Invalid Ideas:
that generalizations + skepticism if + Skepticism guards
about human beings generalizations don't against accepting
must apply across hold true widely. erroneous notions
different times about humans.
and places.

Themes of
Description Example
Anthropology

Holistic Approach Comprehensive understanding of human beings, Studying a tribal community's culture,
considering biological, cultural, social, and rituals, and ecology as a whole system.
historical aspects.

Comparative Theme Analyzing various societies and cultures Comparing marriage customs between
across time periods to identify similarities and different indigenous groups.
differences.
Historic Theme Tracing the development of human societies from Examining the evolution of trade routes in
ancient times to the present, exploring cultural the Silk Road.
changes and continuity.
System and Process Focusing on cultural systems and underlying Investigating the impact of globalization on
Theme processes that shape human behavior and local economies.
societal organization.
Case Study Method In-depth analysis of specific cultural groups or Conducting a case study on the Maasai
communities to reveal unique aspects of their community in Africa.
societies.
Emics and Etics Distinguishing between insider (emic) and Understanding cultural norms from the
outsider (etic) perspectives in studying cultural viewpoint of the local community (emic) and
phenomena. from an outsider's perspective (etic).

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 CONTENT VALUE ADDITION

Development of Anthropology:
Evolution of Anthropology: From Limited Knowledge to
Scientific Worldview
1. Limited Awareness of Other Cultures
Few encounters with non-native cultures.
Exceptions like Herodotus and Marco Polo.
2. European Exploration and Cultural Encounters
Colonial era brought exposure to diverse cultures.
Challenged traditional Judeo-Christian worldview.
3. Puzzles and Discoveries in Archaeology
Stone tools, extinct animals, and Neanderthal
remains.
Questions about human origins and ancient
civilizations.
4. Interpretations through Biblical Narratives
Cultures viewed through religious perspectives.
Supernatural explanations for unfamiliar customs. This painting by Raphael shows the expulsion of Eve and Adam
from Paradise. Well into the nineteenth century, the biblical
5. Paradigm Shift: Emergence of Geology and Biology
account of history provided the dominant framework explaining
Understanding Earth’s ancient age and geological the existence of “natives” in other lands and the nature of their
history raised questions about cultural progress culture.
and evolution.
Darwin’s theory of evolution and its influence on Important Anthropologists and their Work:
biological anthropology.
Questions about cultural progress and evolution. Late Nineteenth Century: Armchair Anthropology and
Comparative Study
Classification of phases of Anthropology: 1. Sir Edward Tylor: First definition of culture.
T.K. Penniman was a British anthropologist who wrote the 2. Sir James Frazer: Comparative study of religion.
book A Hundred Years of Anthropology in 1935. In this
Early Twentieth Century: Evolution, Functionalism,
book, he proposed a four-part model for the history of
and Cultural Relativism
anthropology, which is still widely used today.
1. Lewis Henry Morgan: Cultural evolution,
The four phases of anthropology are: comparative method.
1. Formulatory period (before 1835): This period is 2. Bronislaw Malinowski: Functionalism, holism,
characterized by the collection of data on human participant observation.
cultures and societies, but there is little attempt to
3. Franz Boas: Cultural relativism, historical
analyze or interpret this data. For example, the work of
particularism, advocacy.
James Cook and Charles Darwin in the 18th and 19th
centuries falls into this category. 4. Margaret Mead: Personality and culture, cultural
constructionism, public anthropology.
2. Convergent period (1835-1859): Development of the
first theories in anthropology, as scholars begin to 5. Ruth Benedict: Personality and culture, national
compare and contrast different cultures. For example, character studies.
the work of Edward Tylor and Lewis Henry Morgan in 6. Zora Neale Hurston: Black culture, women’s roles,
the 19th century falls into this category. ethnographic novels.
3. Constructive period (1859-1900): This period sees the Mid- and Late Twentieth Century and Early Twenty-
development of the four subfields of anthropology. For First Century: Diverse Approaches
example, the work of Franz Boas and Alfred L. Kroeber
1. Claude Lévi-Strauss: Symbolic analysis, French
in the early 20th century falls into this category.
structuralism.
4. Critical period (1900-present): New theoretical
2. Beatrice Medicine: Native American anthropology.
approaches in anthropology, as scholars begin to
question the assumptions of earlier work. For example, 3. Eleanor Leacock: Anthropology of colonialism and
the work of Claude Lévi-Strauss and Margaret Mead indigenous peoples.
in the mid-20th century falls into this category. 4. Marvin Harris: Cultural materialism, comparison,
theory building.
8
Some other classifications: 5. Mary Douglas: Symbolic anthropology.
Franz Boas (1858-1942) divided the history of
6. Michelle Rosaldo: Feminist anthropology.
anthropology into three periods: ethnological (18th-
19th centuries), culture-historical (early 20th 7. Clifford Geertz: Interpretive anthropology, thick
century), and relativistic (mid-20th century). description of local culture.
Alfred L. Kroeber (1876-1960) divided the history of 8. Laura Nader: Legal anthropology, “studying up”.
anthropology into four periods: pre-scientific (before 9. George Marcus: Critique of culture, critique of
1860), evolutionary (1860-1920), historical-cultural cultural anthropology.
(1920-1950), and modern (1950-present). 10. Gilbert Herdt: Gay anthropology.
Clifford Geertz (1926-2006) divided the history of
anthropology into two periods: positivist (19th-20th
centuries) and interpretive (mid-20th century- Phase Dates Characteristics
present).
Formulatory Before 1835 Data collection, little analysis
or interpretation
Do you know? Convergent 1835-1859 Development of first theo-
ries, comparison of cultures
The discipline of anthropology was finally
established as a distinct discipline with Edward Constructive 1859-1900 Development of four
B. Tylor assuming the chair of anthropology at subfields, new research
the Oxford University. methods
In India, S. C. Roy, the first Indian ethnographer, Critical 1900-present Development of new theo-
is regarded as ‘father of Indian anthropology’. retical approaches,
questioning of assumption

Relationships with other disciplines:

A. Similarities and Differences between History and Anthropology:

Aspect Similarities Differences

Subject Both disciplines study the past. History focuses on answering questions about the causes of certain
Matter events in the past, while anthropology aims to understand the past as
a part of the evolution of human beings, their institutions, cultures, and
civilization.
Scope Both rely on evidence-based History often deals with important people and famous incidents, while
investigation. anthropology considers society as a whole and gives equal importance
to all human beings, regardless of status.
Approach Both use a variety of methods, The scope of anthropology in time and scale is wider than history, while
including participant observation, the depth of history in understanding detailed events can be said to be
interviewing, and archival research. higher.
Conclusion History can provide anthropology with a chronological framework for understanding the past, while
anthropology can provide history with a deeper understanding of the cultures and societies of the past.

Examples:
Historical Study:
Event: The French Revolution.
Method: Examination of archival documents, letters, political pamphlets, and official records to understand the causes,
progress, and impact of the revolution.
Anthropological Study:
Community: The Yanomami people in the Amazon.
Method: Ethnographic fieldwork, participant observation, interviews with community members, and analysis of material
culture to understand their social organization, rituals, and daily life.
9
 B. Similarities and Differences between Economics and Anthropology:

Aspect Similarities Differences

Subject Both disciplines are concerned Economics is a normative theory, while anthropology is a descriptive
Matter with the production, distribution, social science. This means that economics specifies how people
and consumption of goods and should act if they want to make efficient economic decisions, while
services. anthropology analyzes what people actually do and why they do it.

Scope Both disciplines use a variety of Economics focuses primarily on market exchanges, while anthropology
methods, including participant encompasses the production, exchange, and consumption of both
observation, interviewing, and material objects and immaterial services.
archival research.

Approach Both disciplines are interested Economic anthropologists dispute the idea of “rational economic man,”
in understanding the behavior of while economists generally accept this idea. Economic anthropologists
economic agents. argue that social, cultural, political, and institutional forces shape
everyday decisions, while economists believe that individuals are
primarily motivated by self-interest.
Social anthropologists are not scientifically interested in the operation
of the economy of one’s own society, while economists are extremely
interested in the operation of their own economy. This is because
economists believe that understanding the economy of their society is
essential for making informed economic decisions.

Conclusion Economics can provide anthropology with a theoretical framework for understanding economic behavior,
while anthropology can provide economics with a more nuanced understanding of the social and cultural
factors that shape economic behavior.

Examples:
Economics Study:
Topic: The impact of minimum wage laws on employment.
Method: Statistical analysis of employment data before and after the implementation of minimum wage increases to
determine their effects on job creation and wages.
Anthropological Study:
Topic: The role of kinship in economic transactions in a rural community.
Method: Ethnographic fieldwork involving participant observation, interviews, and analysis of social networks to
understand how kinship ties influence economic behavior.

C. Similarities and Differences between Sociology and Anthropology:

Aspect Similarities Differences

Subject Both disciplines are concerned with the Sociology is typically focused on the study of modern, Western
Matter study of human societies. societies, while anthropology is more interested in the study of
traditional, non-Western societies.

Scope Both disciplines use a variety of methods, Sociology tends to use quantitative methods, while anthropology
including participant observation, tends to use qualitative methods.
interviewing, and archival research.

Approach Both disciplines are interested in Sociology is more focused on the study of social structure, while
understanding the social and cultural anthropology is more focused on the study of culture.
factors that shape human behavior.

10
 Sociology is typically focused on understanding the present, while
anthropology is more interested in the past and the future. This
is because anthropology is concerned with understanding the
evolution of human societies, while sociology is more concerned
with understanding the current state of human societies.

Conclusion Sociology can provide anthropology with a theoretical framework for understanding social structure, while
anthropology can provide sociology with a more nuanced understanding of the cultural factors that shape
social structure.

Examples:
Sociological Study:
Topic: The impact of social media on adolescent mental health.
Method: Surveys and statistical analysis of data from a large sample of adolescents to identify correlations between
social media use and mental health outcomes.
Anthropological Study:
Topic: Marriage rituals among the Maasai people in Kenya.
Method: Ethnographic fieldwork involving participant observation, interviews, and documentation of rituals to understand
the cultural significance and social functions of marriage practices.

D. Similarities and Differences between Psychology and Anthropology:

Aspect Similarities Differences

Subject Both disciplines are concerned Psychology is typically focused on the study of the individual, while
Matter with the study of human behavior. anthropology is more interested in the study of the group.

Scope Both disciplines use a variety of Psychology tends to use quantitative methods, while anthropology
methods, including participant tends to use qualitative methods.
observation, interviewing, and
archival research.

Approach Both disciplines are interested in Psychology is more focused on understanding the present, while
understanding the cultural and anthropology is more interested in the past and the future. This is
social factors that shape human because psychology is concerned with understanding the development
behavior. of the individual, while anthropology is concerned with understanding
the evolution of human societies.

Conclusion Psychology can provide anthropology with a theoretical framework for understanding individual behavior,
while anthropology can provide psychology with a more nuanced understanding of the cultural factors that
shape individual behavior.

Examples:
Psychologists might study how cultural norms impact mental health, while anthropologists investigate cultural practices
and rituals.
Clinical psychology applies psychological theories and methods to diagnose and treat mental health disorders, while
applied anthropology may work on cultural adaptation programs in international development.

11
 E. Similarities and Differences between Political Science and Anthropology:

Aspect Similarities Differences

Subject Both disciplines are concerned with Political science is typically focused on the study of modern,
Matter the study of human societies. Western societies, while anthropology is more interested in the
study of traditional, non-Western societies.

Scope Both disciplines use a variety of Political science tends to use quantitative methods, while
methods, including participant anthropology tends to use qualitative methods.
observation, interviewing, and archival
research.

Approach Both disciplines are interested in Political science is more focused on the study of political institutions,
understanding the political and social while anthropology is more focused on the study of culture.
factors that shape human behavior. Political science is more focused on understanding the present,
while anthropology is more interested in the past and the future.
This is because political science is concerned with understanding
the current state of political institutions, while anthropology is
concerned with understanding the evolution of political institutions.

Conclusion Political science can provide anthropology with a theoretical framework for understanding political
institutions, while anthropology can provide political science with a more nuanced understanding of the
cultural factors that shape political institutions.

Examples:
A political scientist might study how cultural values influence democratic participation, while an anthropologist might
examine how cultural practices affect social hierarchy.
Political Science applies realism or liberalism to analyze international relations, whereas, Anthropology uses structuralism
to understand the deep structures of myths in a society.

F. Similarities and Differences between Anthropology and Life Sciences

Aspect Similarities Differences

Subject Both disciplines are concerned Anthropology is a social science, while life sciences are natural sciences.
Matter with the study of living organisms. This means that anthropology is concerned with understanding the
social and cultural aspects of human behavior, while life sciences
are concerned with understanding the biological aspects of human
behavior.

Scope Both disciplines use a variety of Anthropology is more holistic in its approach, while life sciences
methods, including participant are more specialized. This means that anthropology is interested in
observation, interviewing, and understanding the whole person, while life sciences are interested in
archival research. understanding specific aspects of human biology.

Approach Both disciplines are interested in Anthropology is more interested in understanding the past and
understanding the biological and present, while life sciences are more interested in understanding the
cultural factors that shape human present and future. This is because anthropology is concerned with
behavior. understanding the evolution of human behavior, while life sciences are
concerned with understanding the current state of human biology.

Conclusion Anthropology can provide life sciences with a more nuanced understanding of the cultural factors that
shape human biology, while life sciences can provide anthropology with a more rigorous understanding of
the biological factors that shape human behavior.

12
Examples:
Both disciplines may study human evolution, but anthropology focuses on cultural and behavioral aspects, while life
sciences (like evolutionary biology) examine genetic and biological changes over time.
Anthropologists studying ancient civilizations might collaborate with geneticists to analyze DNA from archaeological
remains to understand population migrations.

G. Similarities and Differences between Anthropology and Medical Science:

Aspect Similarities Differences

Subject Both disciplines are concerned Anthropology is a social science, while medical science is a natural science.
Matter with the study of humans. This means that anthropology is concerned with understanding the social
and cultural aspects of human health and disease, while medical science
is concerned with understanding the biological aspects of human health
and disease.

Scope Both disciplines use a variety of Anthropology is more holistic in its approach, while medical science is more
methods, including participant specialized. This means that anthropology is interested in understanding
observation, interviewing, and the whole person, while medical science is interested in understanding
archival research. specific aspects of human health and disease.

Approach Both disciplines are interested Anthropology is more interested in understanding the past and present,
in understanding the cultural while medical science is more interested in understanding the present and
and social factors that shape future. This is because anthropology is concerned with understanding the
human health and disease. evolution of human health and disease, while medical science is concerned
with understanding the current state of human health and disease.

Conclusion Anthropology can provide medical science with a more nuanced understanding of the cultural factors that
shape human health and disease, while medical science can provide anthropology with a more rigorous
understanding of the biological factors that shape human health and disease.

Examples:
Geneticists studying inherited diseases and developing genetic therapies, whereas Anthropologists study traditional
medicine practices in indigenous communities.
Anthropologists apply symbolic anthropology to understand the cultural meanings of diseases, whereas Medical Science
uses biochemical pathways to explain disease mechanisms.

H. Similarities and Differences between Anthropology and Earth Sciences:

Aspect Similarities Differences

Subject Both disciplines are concerned Anthropology is a social science, while earth sciences such as Geography
Matter with the study of the past. and Geology are natural sciences. This means that anthropology is
concerned with understanding the social and cultural aspects of the
natural world, while earth sciences are concerned with understanding the
physical aspects of the natural world.

Scope Both disciplines use a variety of Anthropology is more holistic in its approach, while earth sciences are more
methods, including participant specialized. This means that anthropology is interested in understanding
observation, interviewing, and the whole person, while earth sciences are interested in understanding
archival research. specific aspects of the natural world.
Approach Both disciplines are interested Anthropology is more interested in understanding the past and present,
in understanding how humans while earth sciences are more interested in understanding the past and
interact with the natural world. future. This is because anthropology is concerned with understanding
the evolution of human societies, while earth sciences are concerned with
understanding the evolution of the natural world.
13
 Conclusion Anthropology can provide earth sciences with a more nuanced understanding of the social and cultural
factors that shape the natural world, while earth sciences can provide anthropology with a more rigorous
understanding of the physical aspects of the natural world.

Examples:
Anthropologists investigate how ancient civilizations adapted to environmental changes and resource management,
similarly, Earth Scientists study past climate changes and their impact on ecosystems and human evolution.
Archaeologists study ancient civilizations and their technological advancements, whereas, Paleontologists study fossil
records to understand evolutionary history.

Main branches of Anthropology, their scope and relevance:

Four-field approach: This approach was started by Franz Boas. He provided four-field classification of anthropology: Cultural
(Social) Anthropology, Physical (Biological) Anthropology,
Archaeology and Linguistics. Biological Anthropology
Applied
Anthropology was traditionally broad, covering many Physical Anthropology, Forensic Anthropology, Anthropology
Paleoanthropology, Human Anatomy, Human Anatomy,
subjects. Now it is more specialized due to vast accumulation Human Taxonomy, Paleopathology Primatology, Ethology, Forensic
of information. Population Genetics, Human Ecology, Bioarchaeology, Anthropology
Anthropometry Cultural Resource
Two main branches: biological (physical) anthropology Manangement
and cultural (Social) anthropology. Archealogy Applied
Cultural
Cultural anthropology has three subfields: Prehistoric Archaeology, Historical Archaeology,
Anthropology
Classical Archaeology, Demographic Archaeology,
Archaeology - studies past cultures through artifacts, Biblical Archaeology, Maritime Archaeology, Underwater
fossils, remains Archaeology, Urban Archaeology, Ethnoarchaeology,
Industrial Archaeology, Cognitive Archaeology Cultural
Linguistics - studies language evolution, structure, Resource Management
usage Linguistic Anthropology
Ethnology/Cultural/Social anthropology - studies Structural Linguistics, Historical Linguistics, Phonology, Morphology, Comparative
modern human cultures and societies Syntax, Ethnosemantics, Cognitive Linguistics, Pragmatics, Sociolinguistics

Applied anthropology involves application of anthropological Cultural Anthropology | Ethnology

knowledge to solve real-world problems. Ecological Anthropology, Demographic Anthropology, Economic Anthropology,
Social Anthropology, Political Anthropology, Legal Anthropology, Anthropology of
So the major fields in anthropology are physical Religion, Psychological Anthropology, Medical Anthropology, Urban Anthropology,
anthropology, archaeology, linguistics, cultural Applied Anthropology, Ethnomusicology, Anthropology of Art, Ethnopoetics,
anthropology, and applied anthropology. Specialization
has occurred due to vast growth of information.
Four-field tendecies in Anthropology ANTHROPOLOGY IS BOTH A SCIENTIFIC AND
Dee
HUMANISTIC DISCIPLINE
pen
in g Pur ing
Physical alis
m is m en Anthropology as science employs scientific methodologies
Anthropology ral De
ep
Pu
nin
g
Biological Archaeology
to explore various facets of human existence and some
de
oa
Br
Anthropology Bro
aspects of anthropology are far more firmly rooted in hard
Holism
ad
en
Bioanthropology in g
science.
Pu History art
ral
Medicine is Patrimony
m
m Empirical Research: Anthropologists often conduct
paediatrics alis
Pur
public Health fieldwork, observing and documenting human
Environments Sociolinguistic
Bro
Cultural
Linguistics Semiotics behaviour in its natural context. For example, Malinowski
Politics
ade
n Anthropology
Sociology
ing
Biological nin
g used participant observation among fieldwork in
De de
oa
Economy Anthropology ep
en
in g
Br Trobriand islanders.
ening
Deep
Interdisciplinary Approaches: Anthropology takes
the help of other scientific disciplines, such as
Figure: Forces or tendencies (arrows) experienced by the biology, geology, and genetics. For instance, Physical
four fields in Anthropology. Pluralism is the basic force anthropology shows that certain populations developed
(inwards arrows) to develop interdisciplinary studies and lactose tolerance due to a genetic mutation, a trait that
it is based in the principle of holism. The force of specific emerged in response to the cultural practice of dairy
knowledge is deepening the field (green outwards arrows). farming.
The force bringing to work in the affinity areas is knowledge
Quantitative and Qualitative Methods: While qualitative
broadening (blue arrows), this force is shaping a wider field:
research is predominant, anthropologists also employ
Bioanthropology.
quantitative methods to analyse data and draw
statistical inferences. For instance, dating methods are
14 used for the identification of fossils etc.
Anthropology as Humanistic studies provides more insight into how humans function in our societies.
Holistic cultural understanding: Anthropologists strive to comprehend the complexities of different cultures, including
their values, beliefs, and worldviews. For example, in healthcare, anthropologists have contributed to the development of
culturally sensitive and appropriate healthcare practices.
Cultural Sensitivity: Anthropologists strive to interpret cultural practices within their contexts rather than imposing
external judgments. This sensitivity is rooted in a humanistic commitment to respecting and valuing diverse ways of
life. For instance, While Greeks believed that burning the dead was the proper way to dispose of the body, the Callatians
believed that eating the dead was the correct course of action. (James Rachels 1999)
Culmination of various humanistic subjects: Anthropology took the help of various humanistic sciences in devising
concepts etc. For instance, Kroeber called anthropology and sociology as ‘twin-sisters’.
By integrating scientific rigour with humanistic insight, anthropology provides a comprehensive understanding of humanity
that respects both the objective and subjective dimensions of human life.

CONTENT VALUE ADDITION

(A) Biological or Physical Anthropology:
Evolution of the discipline
1. Definition: Physical/biological anthropology is the study
of the past and present evolution of the human species Ancient Beginnings:
and is especially concerned with understanding the Human classification originated in ancient Greece, with
Plato and Aristotle making early observations on human nature
causes of present human diversity. and anatomy.
Scope: There are three main branches of Physical
Anthropology:
Scientific Roots:
Paleontology: Formal study began in the 17th-18th centuries, with racial
Study of extinct primates (Science of Old Life). classification by scholars like Blumenbach.
Reveals foundations of human biological and
cultural evolution. Craniometry and Environment:
Neontology: 19th-century anthropologists focused on craniometry (Broca) and
Study of living primates and human variation the impact of environment on the human
body (Virchow).
(Science of New Life).
Examines comparative anatomy, physiology,
genetics, and adaptation. Cultural Influence:
Franz Boas emphasized cultural impact on human form,
Ethology: challenging fixed “racial" traits.
Scientific study of animal behavior, including
primates.
Combines knowledge of behavior with language "New Physical Anthropology":
In 1951, Washburn shied focus to human evolution, expanding
development and cultural capacity. to paleoanthropology and primatology.
Relevance:
Helps trace the origin and evolution of human
Modern Advancements:
species and its varieties 20th-century synthesis of evolution and genetics, DNA
Provides insights into human migration patterns understanding, and chronological dating enriched the field.
and genetic relationships
Studies adaptations to differing environments
Analyzes hereditary characteristics of human The Journey from Physical to Biological Anthropology
populations 1. Physical Anthropology (Early Stage): Focused
Contributes to individual characterization, including on anatomical observations, measurements, and
age and sex determination. classifications during the early development of
human anatomy as a science.
Applies knowledge of osteology, dermatoglyphics,
and serology for forensic analysis. 2. New Physical Anthropology (1951): Introduced
by Washburn, this marked a shift towards an
Assists in analyzing human body form, function,
evolutionary study and a more analytical approach.
and growth dynamics
It emphasized understanding complex features and
Useful in medical and industrial research related to their interrelated factors.
human physical characteristics.
3. Biological Anthropology (Modern Stage):
Advancements in genetics and biology led to the
integration of genetic, biochemical, and physiological
perspectives. This expanded the scope, allowing for a
comprehensive understanding of human diversities. 15
 CASE STUDY

Biological anthropology and emerging diseases

Biological anthropology takes into account cultural, social, and behavioral dimensions of health and disease. It sees
beyond the established factorial model of disease.
For example, during COVID-19 pandemic, in Serbia, cultural thought process was studied to understand vaccine
refusal. While some thought that the illness did not exist, others were holding on to the myth that leading a healthy
lifestyle would not expose them to any infections (Žikić, B, 2022)

CONTENT VALUE ADDITION

(B) Socio-Cultural Anthropology:
Definition and Meaning: Socio-cultural anthropology is Evolution of the discipline
the study of social behavior and human societies, with a
focus on systematic comparative analysis of social forms 1. Ethnology (Late 18th Century):
and institutions. Scholars like Sir Edward Tylor and
Comparative study of human
Scope: cultures and societies. Lewis Henry Morgan contributed to
1. Detailed study of various aspects of ancient societies. the development of ethnology.
2. Understanding the customs, traditions, religious, and Ethnography (19th Century):
political institutions of human societies.
3. Study of social structures and the relationships Detailed, systematic study of Anthropologists like Bronisław
between individuals and social institutions. a specific culture or society. Malinowski & Franz Boasemphasized
ethnographic research.
4. Comparative analysis of different cultures to eliminate
ethnocentrism.
Social Anthropology (Late 19th to Early 20th Century - Britain):
5. Investigation of culture contact and its processes.
6. Reconstruction of social history. Study of social behavior Anthropologists like A.R. Radcliffe-Brown
and institutions in human and E.E. Evans-Pritchard were key figures
7. Search for universally valid social laws.
societies. in the establishment of social anthropology
Relevance:
1. Provides insights into diverse human cultures and Cultural Anthropology (Early 20th Century - United States):
societies.
Study of cultural traditions, Prominent figures like Franz Boas and
2. Helps understand the origin and development of social beliefs, and customs in Margaret Mead contributed to the
organizations. societies. development of cultural anthropology in
3. Allows comparisons between different societies, the United States
enabling a broader understanding of human behavior.
Socio-cultural Anthropology (20th Century):
4. Offers perspectives on the complex interactions
between culture, society, and individual behavior. Integrated approach Scholars like Clifford Geertz and
5. Helps counter ethnocentrism and promote cultural combining social and Claude Lévi-Strauss played significant roles
understanding and tolerance. cultural aspects. in promoting a socio-cultural perspective.
6. Contributes to social development and policymaking,
especially in multicultural societies.
7. Facilitates the preservation of vanishing social systems
and traditions.

(C) Archaeological Anthropology: How Does Archaeology relate with Anthropology?

Archaeological anthropology is the study of past
humans and cultures through material remains. It I can obtain material facts directly from the past
and i can study those facts in their
involves the excavation, analysis and interpretation of chronological order
artifacts, soils, and cultural processes.
I can write books
Branches of Archaeological Anthropology: ab out how people I can examine
behave modern &
1. Pre-Historic Archaeological Anthropology: Studies ancient DNA.
cultures before the development of writing.
2. Text-Aided Archaeological Anthropology: Focuses on
16 ancient civilizations with written records.
3. Text-Free Archaeological Anthropology: Concerned
with non-literate societies. “Ancient Horseman Syndrome: Unraveling the First
Horseback Riders in History”
4. Salvage Archaeological Anthropology: Rescues and
gathers information from threatened sites. Archaeologists found skeletal evidence of “horseman
syndrome,” indicating early horseback riding in
Scope: kurgans across eastern Europe. The remains analyzed
1. Reconstructing past cultures and tracing their belonged to the Yamnaya people, dating back to
development over time. around 3000 B.C.E. The syndrome involves changes
2. Analyzing material remains to understand ancient to the thigh bones, pelvis, and lower spine, resulting
societies and human behavior. from repeated movements during horse riding. The
discovery provides crucial insights into the early use
3. Studying prehistoric periods and cultures before the
of horses by humans and their historical interactions
advent of writing.
with these animals.
4. Utilizing written accounts for understanding ancient
civilizations.
5. Investigating non-literate societies in Old and New
World archaeology.
Relevance:
Enhancing our knowledge of human history and
cultural evolution.
Fostering cultural identity and connecting communities
to their heritage.
Providing insights into ancient human adaptation to
environmental changes.
Enriching the field of anthropology with valuable
historical data. An Egyptian graffito of goddess Astarte on horseback, Nineteenth
Promoting preservation efforts and appreciation of Dynasty Egypt. This depiction dates about 1500 years later than
the Yamnaya riders. Note particularly the rather stockily built,
cultural heritage.
smaller, and shorter horse when compared to modern horse.
Credit: S. Steiß, Berlin

Role of archaeological anthropology in the reconstruction of the past:

Construction of cultural chronologies: By examining and dating artefacts, structures, and ecofacts recovered
from archaeological sites, anthropologists can establish a sequence of events and cultural changes over time. For
instance, de Terra and Patterson excavated the Sonian tradition, collecting stone artifacts from various terraces.
Using stratigraphical and typological considerations, they established the Soan culture sequence, which includes the
Pre-Soan, Early Soan, Late Soan, and Evolved Soan stages.
Reconstruction of extinct lifeways: Archaeological anthropology yields important insights into extinct lifeways. By
meticulously examining the material remains of past societies, archaeologists can piece together a comprehensive
picture of how people lived, worked, and interacted with their environment. For instance, the identification of various
artefacts in IVC such as the Proto-shiva seal, and the Great Bath, give insight into the religious life of IVC people.
Insights into interplay of biological and cultural factors: Archaeological anthropology uncovers the complex interplay
between biology and culture over time by examining material remains, revealing how human biology has been shaped
by cultural practices and environmental factors. For instance, Neolithic revolution led to shift to a diet based on
softer, cultivated foods leading to softer chewing muscles, smaller jawbones and teeth.
Insights into variations in human behaviour:- Archeological anthropology allows researchers to trace the evolution
of technology, cultural exchanges, and environmental adaptations. For example, the recognition that the Acheulean
tradition is not uniformly repeated at La Micoque (Micoquian).
Understanding ideological aspects of past societies: Lewis Binford’s work on “mortuary analysis” emphasised the
relationship between burial practices and social organisation, highlighting how Archaeological Anthropology can
reveal the ideological aspects of past societies.

17
 CONTENT VALUE ADDITION

(D) Linguistic Anthropology:

Evolution of the discipline
Definition and Meaning:
Linguistic anthropology is the study of speech and 1. Anthropological Linguistics (Pre-1950s):
language as socio-cultural phenomena across space
1. Pioneers like Franz Boas and
and time. 1. Focused on language
Edward Sapir emphasized cultural
origin and classification.
It goes beyond linguistics by exploring language within diversity and linguistic relativity.
its cultural and social contexts.
Linguists focus on language history, structure, variation,
and meaning apart from social and cultural aspects. Shift to Linguistic Anthropology (1950s):

Branches of Linguistic Anthropology: 1. Field transitioned to 1. Dell Hymes and Charles Hockett
studying language within contributed with concepts like
1. Historical Linguistics: Studies language emergence, communicative competence and
cultural contexts.
divergence, and evolutionary development from local language universals.
to world languages.
2. Structural Linguistics: Analyzes the rules governing
language construction, including sound systems, Contemporary Linguistic Anthropology:
grammar, and meaning. 1. Incorporates 1. Explores topics such as Universal
3. Socio Linguistics: Examines actual speech in different interdisciplinary approaches Grammar, language endangerment,
social and situational contexts, revealing how people to language research. revitalization, and globalization.
categorize experiences and order social relations.
4. Ethnosemantics: Explores how people perceive and
classify material and social phenomena based on their “ The Whistling Language of La Gomera: An
cultural criteria. Anthropological Endeavor to Preserve Silbo Gomero “
5. Psycholinguistics: Investigates the processes
underlying language acquisition and use.
Scope and Relevance:
Linguistic anthropologists employ specialized
techniques to reconstruct language history and
relationships.
They analyze languages spoken across diverse
cultures, revealing cultural aspects tied to speech.
Understanding the role of language in human life and
its connection to cultural processes is a significant
focus.
Linguistic anthropology contributes to cultural Archaeologists found skeletal evidence of “horseman
anthropology’s comprehension of language syndrome,” indicating early horseback riding in
transmission, idea dissemination, and cultural kurgans across eastern Europe. The remains analyzed
preservation. belonged to the Yamnaya people, dating back to
around 3000 B.C.E. The syndrome involves changes
to the thigh bones, pelvis, and lower spine, resulting
CASE STUDY from repeated movements during horse riding. The
discovery provides crucial insights into the early use
of horses by humans and their historical interactions
William Labov’s studies on linguistic change
with these animals.
in Philadelphia demonstrate how social factors
influence the adoption of new language forms.
Labov found that the linguistic variable (r) was
an indicator of social stratification in New York.
Overall, the employees with higher socioeconomic
status pronounced the rhotic /r/ more frequently.
Variations in pronunciation can spread across
social groups, eventually becoming the standard.

18
 Invention of writing allowed recording and
HUMAN EVOLUTION AND EMERGENCE OF dissemination of knowledge.
MAN
c. Social Organization:
Kinship and reciprocal altruism: Formation of
(A) Biological and Cultural factors in human social bonds based on genetic relatedness and
evolution: cooperation.
The hominization process marks the evolutionary Social hierarchies: Establishment of dominance
transformation from prehominid to hominid status during and leadership structures for cohesion.
human evolution. Hominization signify a crucial threshold Long-term pair bonding and nuclear families:
that prehumans had to cross to become human. This Provided a stable social structure for offspring.
process involves significant anatomical, physiological,
and behavioral changes. These changes can be broadly d. Art, Symbolism, and Rituals:
categorized into: Cave paintings and portable art: Early evidence of
symbolic thought and abstract representation.
A. Biological Factors in Human Evolution: Rituals and ceremonies: Facilitated group bonding
a. Genetic Mutations: and cultural transmission.
FOXP2 gene: Associated with speech and language Music and dance: Enabled emotional expression
development. and communication of cultural identity.
Lactase persistence: Enables the digestion of
lactose in adulthood. Important Biological factors in detail:
AMY1 gene: Related to the production of amylase, 1. Bipedalism:
aiding starch digestion.
Analysis of A. africanus, A. afarensis, A. ramidus, and
b. Natural Selection: A. anamensis fossils shows bipedalism as one of the
Bipedalism: Advantages in energy efficiency, oldest hominid characteristics.
thermoregulation, and tool use. The appearance of australopithecines like A. ramidus
Enlarged brain size: Increased cognitive abilities around 4.4 million years ago marks a significant step
and problem-solving skills. in hominization.
Skin pigmentation: Adaptation to UV radiation,
sunburn protection, and vitamin D synthesis.
“ The footprints of our predecessors “
c. Sexual Selection:
Facial and body hair reduction: Possibly linked to
reduced parasite loads.
Permanent breast size: May signal fertility and
reproductive potential.
Long-term pair bonding: Facilitated provisioning of
resources and parental care.
d. Gene-Culture Coevolution:
Dairy farming and lactase persistence: Spread of
dairy farming led to lactase persistence.
Agriculture and amylase gene copy number: Rise
of agriculture favored individuals with more amylase
gene copies.
Cooking and jaw size: Advent of cooking led to a
reduction in jaw size.
3.6 million years ago in Laetoli, Tanzania, three early
B. Cultural Factors in Human Evolution: humans walked through wet volcanic ash. When the
a. Tool Use and Technology: nearby volcano erupted again, subsequent layers of
Oldowan tools: Early stone tools for cutting and ash covered and preserved the oldest known footprints
processing food. of early humans. The footprints show a “heel-strike”
Acheulean handaxes: Advanced bifacial tools for and “toe-off” gait similar to modern humans. The close
butchery and woodworking. spacing suggests they had short legs. These footprints
Controlled use of fire: Enabled cooking and are the oldest known evidence of early human
expanded dietary options. locomotion and behavior. Fossils of Australopithecus
afarensis found nearby further confirm their presence
b. Language and Communication: in the area at the time of the footprints’ formation.
Ability to represent objects and concepts abstractly. 19
 2. Hand Manipulation and Tool Use: 5. Changes in Vocal Tracts, Language, and Speech:
A. afarensis displayed hand proportions more similar Hominid supralaryngeal airways evolved differently
to humans than apes, suggesting increased manual from other primates, allowing complex speech patterns.
dexterity. The region surrounding the sylvian fissure of the left
Evidence of modified stone tools dating back 2 million hemisphere contains areas specialized for speech and
years found with Homo habilis indicates early tool use language, which evolved around 1.8 million years ago.
and making.
MAIN ACHIEVEMENTS IN HUMAN EVOLUTION
Power and Precsion grip
-4.2 m.y. bipedalism
Power grip
-2.5 m.y. early tools
Note the Following
-400 000 y early burials
Power grip: Fingers
& thumbs wrap around
the object
-35 000 y artistic expressions

Precision grip:
Forefingers and thumb
hold the object. (B) Theories of Organic Evolution:
Importance: Organic evolution, also known as biological evolution,
We can do finer
work compared to refers to the process of change and diversification of
Precision Grip nonhumanprimates. living organisms over successive generations. Organic
evolution is a fundamental concept in biology and provides
3. Modification of Jaws and Teeth: the framework for understanding the diversity of life on
Hominid dental morphology, with a gradual reduction Earth and the relationships between different species
in cusp height and sizes of teeth, indicates adaptation through common ancestry.
to changing habitats. Pre-Darwinian Theories of evolution:
Climatic changes around 2.5 million years ago 1. Theory of Spontaneous Generation or Abiogenesis:
influenced hominids like Paranthropus, resulting in
Ancient belief that life arose from non-living matter.
larger cheek teeth for processing low-quality food.
Disproved by Redi, Spallanzani, and Pasteur.
Dentition 2. Theory of Eternity of Present Condition:
APE LAETOLI-HADAR HOMNID Proposes the unchangeableness of the universe.
Dental arcade & diastema Australopithecus & Homo
Incisors
Organisms remain unaltered and will continue
Canine unchanged.

Premolars
3. Theory of Special Creation or Creationism:
Living organisms were created by divine power in
Molars six days.
Organisms remain unchanged since their creation.
Chimpanzee upper A. afarensis upper Human upper 4. Theory of Catastrophism:
jaw jaw jaw
Earth subjected to periodic catastrophes that
Comparison of dentition in ape, uman, and A. afarensis plates destroyed and created new life forms.
5. Lamarckism:
4. Enlargement of Brain:
Proposed by Jean Baptiste de Lamarck.
Brain evolution progressed alongside other changes in Four Principles:
hominids. H. habilis exhibited a significant increase in
a. Internal urge: Organisms tend to increase in
brain volume compared to australopithecines.
size and every part up to its function.
Relative and absolute brain sizes increased during b. Direct environment and new desires: Organs
hominid evolution between 4 to 2 million years ago, form as a response to new desires.
suggesting the hominization
c. Use and disuse: Organ development is
proportional to its use or disuse.
d. Inheritance of acquired characters: Changes
acquired during life are inherited.
Criticism of Lamarckism:
Many principles were proven incorrect.
The inheritance of acquired characters was refuted by
Austalopithecus Homo Homo Homo Homo
20 africanus habilis erectus neanderthalis sapiens experiments.
 Changes in somatic cells do not affect heredity, only chances.
changes in reproductive cells do. e. Modifications of Species: Gradual modifications
6. Neo-Lamarckism: occur over long periods of geological time.
Neo-Lamarckism is a modified version of Lamarckism Criticism of Darwinism:
developed by a group of evolutionary biologists. Neo- Lack of mechanistic explanation for variation and
Lamarckism suggests that acquired traits can be inherited heredity.
by subsequent generations, contrary to Darwin’s theory of
Inability to explain the origin of useless or non-adaptive
natural selection which emphasizes inherited variations.
organs.
Some evidences for inheritance of acquired characters: Difficulty explaining overspecialized organs and
i. McDougall’s experiments with rats: Rats were trained degeneracy of certain characters.
to escape from a tank with electric shocks. Their Doubt regarding the intensity of the struggle for
offspring showed increased learning speed, suggesting existence.
the learning habit was inherited.
Questioning the idea that superiority or inferiority is
ii. Kammerer’s experiments with Proteus anguinus: This solely due to specific characteristics.
blind amphibian developed normal eyes and skin color
when exposed to daylight. These somatic characters Ecology
were inherited by the next generation. Observation 1
Populations have the
iii. Griffith and Detleofson’s experiments with rats: Rats potential to increase
Inference 1
placed on a rotating table for months adapted to exponentially. Not all offspring that are produced survive
& reproduce, because of a struggle
the condition and exhibited signs of dizziness. The but for resources
Observation 2
offspring also showed dizziness and irregular gait, and
Populations generally
indicating inheritance of acquired traits. remains stable once they Inference 2
reach a certain size Some individuals are more likely to survive
iv. Sumner’s experiments with white mice: Exposure to and reproduce than others because of
and
higher temperatures led to increased length of body, their herritable traits.
Observation 3
hind limbs, and tail in mice, and this character was Natural resources are
transmitted to their offspring. limited

Heredity Inference 3
Criticism of Neo-Lamarckism:
Differences in survival and reproduction
Observation 4
Lack of mechanistic explanation for the inheritance of among individuals are non- random,
Individuals in a with some traits being passed on at a
acquired characteristics. population are not higher rate than others and increasing
identical, they vary in in proportion in the population from one
Insufficient empirical evidence supporting the many Characteristics generation to the next.

transmission of acquired traits to offspring. and

Evolution
Observation 2 by natural selection
Contradiction with the principles of modern genetics
Many charateristics are
and inheritance. heritable (i.e., are
passed on from parent
Emphasis on natural selection as the prevailing to offspring)
mechanism of evolution.
Conclusion: Neo-Lamarckism lacks substantial evidence
6. Neo-Darwinism:
and a mechanistic basis, and it is not widely accepted in
the scientific community. The theory of evolution that fuses Darwin’s concept
of natural selection with information from the fields of
7. Darwinism: genetics mathematics, embryology, paleontology, animal
Darwin’s Voyage and Observations: behavior, and other disciplines.
HMS Beagle expedition from 1831 to 1833.
Malthusian Variation Mutation
Important findings in the Galapagos Islands, a living competition (breeds, races, (small changes in
(geometric population subspecies) individual characteristics)
laboratory of evolution. growth, limited resources)

Five Principles of Darwinism: 19th Centure

a. Prodigality of Overproduction: More individuals are
born than can survive. Natural selection Genetic variation Mendelian
("survival of the fittest") (alleles of individual genes, inheritance
b. Variation and Heredity: Natural variation among combining to give
continuous variation)
(2 copies of each gene,
1 from each parent)
individuals and hereditary transmission.
c. Struggle for Existence: Three-fold struggle-
intraspecific, interspecific, and with the
environment. Early 20th Centure
Modern
d. Survival of the Fittest: Individuals with favorable synthesis
traits have better survival and reproduction 21
 Transition to Neo-Darwinism:
DARWINISM
VERSUS
Efforts to rejuvenate and modify Darwin’s views by
later scientists.
NEO DARWINISM Contributions of Neo-Darwinists like Weismann,
DARWINISM NEO DARWINISM Huxley, and Wallace.
Evidences Supporting Neo-Darwinism:
A modern version of Darwin's
The theory of the evolution of Fossils: Geology and paleontology show gradual
theory of evolution by natural
species by natural selection changes in life forms over geological time.
selection, incorporating the
advanced by Charles Darwin
findings of geneties Embryonic Similarities: Embryos of related species
reveal similarities reflecting evolutionary history.
A modification based on the Adaptations in Living Organisms: Examples of
The original theory Mendelian genetics and modern
structural variations and behaviors advantageous
synthesis of natural selection
for survival.
Major Driving Force: Major Driving Force: Difference between Darwinism and Neo-Darwinism:
Accumulation of phenotypic Accumulation of genetic Evolution, as per modern synthesis, can be expressed
variations variations
simply as a change in frequencies of alleles in the
Describes the reason for gene pool of a population. The modern theory of the
Does not describe the reason variation as mutation, genetic mechanism of evolution differs from Darwinism in the
for variation recombination, natural selection, following three significant aspects:
and reproductive isolation i. It recognises several forces of evolution in addition
to natural selection, of which gene drift is equally
Natural Selection: Natural Selection: important.
The survival of the fittest and The differential amplification
the removal of the unfitted ii. It recognises that characteristics are inherited as
of the fittest genes and
organisms during a course of discrete entities known as genes and that variation
genotypes
time within a population is due to the presence of
multiple alleles of a gene.
Does not believe isolation as a Believes isolation as a major
iii. It suggests that formation of new species is usually
major component of evolution component of evolution
due to the gradual accumulation of small genetic
changes.

22
Value Addition: Industrial Revolution:
1. The Galápagos Finches: A Case Study in Darwinism: Environmental Change: Industrial pollution
Background: darkened the tree bark by killing the lichen, making
the light-colored moths more visible to predators.
Charles Darwin’s observations of finches on the
Galápagos Islands during his voyage on the HMS Rise of the Dark Morph: The dark-colored
Beagle provided critical evidence for his theory of carbonaria morph, previously rare, became more
natural selection. These finches, now known as common as it provided better camouflage against
Darwin’s finches, exhibit a variety of beak shapes and the soot-darkened trees.
sizes adapted to different ecological niches. Genetic Basis:
Observations: Mutation: The dark coloration in peppered moths
Beak Variation: Darwin noted significant variation is due to a single gene mutation. The allele for dark
in beak shapes among the finches, correlating with coloration is dominant, while the allele for light
their food sources. For example, finches with large, coloration is recessive.
strong beaks were able to crack open large seeds, Allele Frequency: The frequency of the dark allele
while those with slender, pointed beaks were better increased in polluted areas due to the survival
suited for eating insects. advantage it conferred.
Adaptive Radiation: The finches had diversified Post-Industrial Revolution:
from a common ancestor into multiple species, Environmental Recovery: With pollution control
each adapted to different ecological roles. This measures, the environment began to revert to
phenomenon, known as adaptive radiation, is a its pre-industrial state, favoring the light-colored
hallmark of Darwinian evolution. morph once again. The frequency of the light
Mechanism: allele increased as the trees regained their lichen
Natural Selection: The variation in beak shape covering.
provided some individuals with a survival advantage Implications for Neo-Darwinism:
in specific environments. Finches with beak shapes Genetic Variation: The existence of different color
better suited to available food sources were more morphs in the moth population provided the raw
likely to survive and reproduce, passing on their material for natural selection to act upon.
advantageous traits to the next generation.
Natural Selection: Environmental changes directly
Environmental Influence: The diverse environments influenced which morphs were more likely to survive
of the Galápagos Islands, with varying food and reproduce, demonstrating natural selection.
sources, exerted selective pressures that drove the
Reversibility: The shift back to light-colored moths
diversification of beak shapes.
with environmental recovery illustrates the dynamic
Conclusion: nature of evolutionary processes in response to
The Galápagos finches exemplify Darwin’s principle changing conditions.
of natural selection. The adaptive radiation observed Conclusion:
among the finches underscores how environmental
The case studies of the Galápagos finches and the
pressures can lead to the evolution of distinct species
peppered moths illustrate the principles of Darwinism
from a common ancestor.
and Neo-Darwinism. The finches demonstrate adaptive
radiation and natural selection as envisioned by Darwin,
while the peppered moths highlight the integration
2. The Peppered Moth: A Case Study in Neo- of genetics with natural selection, central to Neo-
Darwinism: Darwinism. Both examples underscore the importance
Background: of environmental pressures in shaping evolutionary
The peppered moth (Biston betularia) is a classic trajectories and provide compelling evidence for the
example of natural selection in response to mechanisms of evolution.
environmental changes, integrating principles of
genetics with Darwinian theory.
Pre-Industrial Revolution: CLIFF NOTE
Light Morph Dominance: Before the Industrial
Revolution, the light-colored typica morph of the
peppered moth was predominant. Their coloration
provided camouflage against predators on lichen-
covered trees.
23
 (C). Brief outline of terms and concepts of (b) Cope’s Rule:
evolutionary biology: Cope’s Rule, proposed by Edward Drinker Cope, states
(a) Dollo’s Rule(Irreversibility): that organisms tend to increase in size during evolution.
In 1893, Louis Dollo, a palaeontologist, proposed Dollo’s Examples of Size Increase
Law of Irreversibility. Gigantism in Herbivores: Evolution of camel, horse,
Definition: Once an organism undergoes certain etc.
evolutionary stages, it cannot return to previously Other Examples: Crocodiles, tortoises, and dinosaurs
expressed forms. Exceptions to Cope’s Rule
New form Flying Bats: Size limitations due to flight requirements
Mammalian Lineages: Not all show gigantism
Insectivorous Mammals: Physical constraints on size
Reasons for Size Increase
Survival in Ice Ages: Large size conserves heat
Fecundity in Egg-laying Mammals: More offspring with
larger bodies
Examples of Exceptions:
Improbable Decline in Size: Carnivores in Pliocene and Pleistocene
reverse
evolution
Planktonic Foraminifera: Newer species are smaller
Cope’s Rule holds true for many examples, but exceptions
highlight diverse evolutionary trends.

Old form
Recent

Irreversibility in Structures Foreleg

If a structure changes during evolution, it will not revert Tooth
back to its earlier form.
Pleistocene

Equus
Dentition as an Example
In primate evolution, dentition (teeth) is used as crucial
evidence of ancestral or descendant status between
forms. 3 million yr.ago
Once a tooth of a specific series (e.g., incisor, canine, Pliohippus
premolar, molar) is lost in a form, it does not reappear
Pilocene

in the same series in that form.

Irreversibility as a Descriptive Generalization 3 million yr.ago
Irreversibility is a descriptive generalization and not a
law of nature.
It is not a property of living organisms but a pattern
observed in evolutionary changes.
Miocene

Repeated Structures in Evolution

Although certain structures may not revert, similar
structures or adaptive patterns can arise independently Merychippus
in different lineages in the evolutionary record. 25 Million yr. ago
For example, after flying reptiles became extinct, wings Miohippus
Oligocene

and adaptations to airborne life evolved separately in

birds and mammals.
Conclusion
Dollo’s Law of Irreversibility highlights the one-way 40 million yr. ago
nature of evolutionary changes in organisms.
Eocene

While structures may not return to previous forms,

evolution can lead to the development of similar
adaptations in different lineages. Eohippus 60 million yr. ago
24
(C) Gause’s Rule: Parallelism Old World
Gause’s Rule, also known as the Competitive Exclusion and New World
Principle, posits that when two species compete for limited monkeys had a
common origin in
resources within an ecosystem, they cannot coexist at Africa. Aer raing to
constant population values. One species with even a slight South America, the
advantage will dominate in the long term, leading to either New World monkeys
evolved along lines
the extinction of the weaker competitor or a shift to a
similar to those of Old
different ecological niche. World monkeys
because of the
Competition within Ecosystems:
common origin and
Species at the same trophic level compete for similarities in
resources like food, space, light, or shelter. ecological niches.
To minimize competition, species occupy separate
niches.
Strongly overlapping niches can lead to one species’
decline and eventual extinction, observed in laboratory
conditions like Paramecium Aurelia and P. Caudatum.
Survival of the Fittest:
Gause’s Rule supports “the survival of the fittest.”
Species with superior adaptive traits have a higher
chance of survival and dominance.
Weaker competitors are gradually eliminated,
promoting natural selection.
Application to Humans:
The principle applies to human societies.
Hunter-gatherer groups may engage in conflict when
surrounded by similar groups, but coexist peacefully
with different subsistence-based groups.
Universal Acceptance and Organic Evolution:
Gause’s Rule is widely accepted and offers insights into
organic evolution.
adaptive features in animals that are related, such as
It emphasizes the struggle for existence and natural
those belonging to the same order. These resemblances
selection.
likely result from a shared genetic potential present
Competitive Exclusion in Paramecia throughout the group.
In separate containers In container Example: Brachiation, locomotion by swinging arm over
arm through the trees in some monkeys of both old
world and new world and in certain apes.
Relative poulation

Convergence: Convergence occurs when similar

density

adaptive relationships or structures emerge in two

P. aurelia P. aurelia animal species or major groups that are not closely
P. caudatum P. caudatum related.
Example: Tasmanian wolf and Gray wolf of America.
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

Days Days

(D) Parallelism & Convergence:

In the study of evolutionary biology, similarities in
Tasmanian wolf
structures, behaviors, or adaptive relationships among Gray wolf
different animal groups raise intriguing questions. These
similarities may be examples of parallelism or convergence,
indicating whether a close phylogenetic relationship exists
between organisms or not. Understanding these concepts
and distinguishing between them can shed light on the Sperm whale
evolutionary history of various species.
The similarities between the Tasmanian wolf and the gray
Parallelism and Convergence Defined: wolf result from convergent evolution. Actually, the gray wolf is more
closely related to the sperm whale. 25
Parallelism: This refers to the development of similar
 Homologous and Analogous Structures:
Examples of Adaptive Radiation:
Homologous: Structures related by evolutionary
descent and divergence. For example, the wing of a Mammals: During the geological revolution marking
bat and the forelimb of a monkey are homologous, the end of the Mesozoic era, mammals experienced
originating from the same ancestral structure. adaptive radiation. As previously stable climates
Analogous: Structures with similar functions and forms changed, dinosaurs became extinct, while mammals
but not related by descent from the same ancestral diversified into distinct lines. Rodents specialized
structure. For instance, the wing of a bat and the wing for gnawing, carnivores for hunting, hoofed animals
of a butterfly are analogous. for grazing, primates and sloths took to the trees,
whales, seals, and sea cows adapted to life in the
oceans, and bats took to the air.
Primates on Madagascar: Isolated from monkeys
The wings of the and apes, earlier primates on the island of
butterfly, the bird, and Madagascar underwent adaptive radiation. They
Bat the bat are analogous occupied new niches and evolved into various
structures. They serve
species with contrasting dietary habits, such
the same function,
flying, but were as insect-eating, seed-eating, leaf-eating, and
Butterfly independently evolved in omnivorous genera.
different evolutionary Galápagos Finches: The finches of the Galápagos
lines.
Islands provide a classic example of adaptive
radiation. A single mainland species evolved into
13 new species upon reaching the islands, each
Bird adapting to specific niches, resulting in distinctive
characteristics and new species.

Perhaps thinking of parallelism as homologous evolution

and convergence as analogous evolution would help us
distinguish the two processes.
Homology Parallelism Convergence Analogy

Ancestor
Ancestor had initial More
had the feature that distant No known
same led to later common common
feature similarity ancestor ancestor

(E) Adaptive Radiation:

Definition: Adaptive radiation refers to the rapid increase
in the numbers and diversity of any evolving group Gene mutation Natural
selection
Hybridization
Genetic Adabtative
New
Chromosomal changes
Species
of animals. It occurs when a group of animals, such as Recombination of genes
Reproductive
isolation Migration
Variability Radiation

a species or a genus, takes advantage of environmental

changes and explores various new niches in the living Factors Influencing Adaptive Radiation:
space. Physical Access: The ability to disperse into new
Concept: According to Simpson (1953), adaptive radiation niches depends on physical barriers and accessibility
involves the rapid proliferation of new species from a to new habitats.
single ancestral group. As species evolve, they become Habitat Diversity: Habitats must provide a variety of
progressively dissimilar from their common ancestor. niches to support adaptive radiation.
This phenomenon occurs when the descendants of
a single species exploit numerous environments and Pre-Adaptation: Individuals entering new niches
opportunities. Rapid changes in the external environment should be pre-adapted to some degree.
or the evolution of traits that open up new possibilities can Competition: The new niche must be unoccupied or
also lead to adaptive radiation. the entering individuals must outcompete existing
populations.
Adaptive radiation leads to the rapid diversification and
proliferation of species, as organisms exploit various niches
in response to environmental changes or evolutionary
26 innovations. This process plays a vital role in shaping
biodiversity and the rich variety of life forms we observe
today. Primates
(F) Microevolution, Macroevolution, and Mosaic Evolution:
(A) Primates &Primate Characteristics:
Microevolution and Macroevolution:
Introduction to Primates:
Microevolution: Small-scale changes within a population
Primates are a diverse group of animals (>500),
over short periods, altering allele frequencies due to
including lemurs, tarsiers, monkeys, apes, and humans.
factors like genetic drift and natural selection.
Primates reside at the initial stage in the series of
Macroevolution: Large-scale changes over longer
evolution of man and therefore constitute the first
periods, leading to new species and higher taxonomic
footstep of man’s origin.
groups, influenced by major environmental shifts.
Primates are primarily mammals possessing several
Mosaic Evolution: Concept from paleontology,
basic mammalian features such as presence of
evolutionary change in some body parts without
mammary glands, dense body hair; heterodonty,
simultaneous changes in others.
increased brain size, endothermy, a relatively long
Interplay between Microevolution, Macroevolution, and gestation period followed by live birth, considerable
Mosaic Evolution: capacity for learning and behavioural flexibility.
Speciation and Adaptive Radiation: Microevolutionary Primate Evolution:
changes over time can lead to the formation of new
Proto-Primates: Early primate-like mammals,
species, initiating adaptive radiations where mosaic
resembling squirrel and tree shrews, appeared around
evolution drives the emergence of multiple species in
55 million years ago.
diverse niches.
True Primates: The first true primates emerged in
Punctuated Equilibrium: Mosaic evolution helps
the Eocene Epoch in Africa, Asia, and North America,
explain periods of stasis, where species show
resembling present-day prosimians like lemurs.
little morphological change, interrupted by rapid
morphological innovations during macroevolutionary Anthropoids Evolution: Anthropoid monkeys evolved
events. from prosimians during the Oligocene epoch, leading
to the appearance of monkeys in both the New World
(South America) and Old World (Africa and Asia).
Example: Adaptive Radiation in Darwin’s Finches
Apes Emergence: Apes evolved from catarrhines in
Microevolutionary process: Variations in beak size
Africa during the Miocene epoch, around 25 million
and shape within the population of Darwin’s finches
years ago.
on the Galápagos Islands.
Macroevolutionary event: Adaptive radiation of Primate Definition & Characteristics:
Darwin’s finches resulted in multiple species with St. George J Mivart (1873) defined Primates (as an
distinct beak morphologies suited to different food order) as “unguiculate, claviculate, placental mammals,
sources. with orbits encircled by bone; three kinds of teeth, at
Mosaic evolution’s role: Mosaic changes in beak least at one time of life; brains always with a posterior
morphology allowed different finch species to lobe and calcarine fissure; the innermost digits of at
exploit various ecological niches, facilitating their least one pair of extremities opposable, hallux with a
coexistence on the islands. flat nail or none; a well-developed caecum; pendulous
penis; testes with scrotum; two pectoral mammae.”
However, many primatologists have pointed out that
Mosaic evolution plays a pivotal role in the interplay no single feature on this list is unique to primates.
between microevolution and macroevolution, driving Also, nails appear twice. Taken together, perhaps it is
species diversification and adaptive radiations. a useful list. Unfortunately, some of these traits (e.g.,
three types of teeth) are neither clear nor true of all
primates. Other traits, like nipple number and location,
are quite variable among primates. Still others, for
CLIFF NOTE example the pendulousness of the penis, can be
assessed in only males.

27
 Primates cannot be defined by a single trait due Clark’s Ten Evolutionary Trends:
to their diverse nature. However, a set of general 1. Elaboration and perfection of the visual apparatus,
tendencies characterizes the entire primate order. developing varying degrees of binocular vision.
Limbs and Locomotion: 2. Reduction of the apparatus of smell.
Tendency toward an erect posture, variously 3. Loss of certain elements of the primitive mammalian
associated with sitting, leaping, standing, and dentition and preservation of a simple cusp pattern
occasionally bipedal walking. of the molar teeth.
Generalized limb structure allows for various 4. Progressive expansion and elaboration of the brain,
forms of locomotion and facilitates activities particularly the cerebral cortex.
beyond movement.
5. Progressive and efficient development of gestational
Prehensile hands (and sometimes feet) for
processes for foetal nourishment.
skilled manipulation. This ability is enhanced
by features like retaining five digits, opposable 6. Prolongation of postnatal life periods.
thumbs, nails instead of claws, and tactile pads 7. Preservation of generalized limb structure with
on the digits. pentadactyly and retention of certain skeletal
elements (such as the clavicle) which tend to be
Diet and Teeth: reduced or to disappear in some groups of primates.
Lack of dietary specialization, making most
8. Enhanced free mobility of digits, especially the
primates omnivorous and capable of eating
opposable thumb and big toe for grasping.
various food items.
Generalized dentition not specialized for 9. Replacement of sharp compressed claws with
processing only one type of food. flattened nails and sensitive tactile pads.
10. Progressive abbreviation of the snout or muzzle.
The Senses and the Brain:
Diurnal primates rely heavily on vision and have
color vision, while nocturnal primates lack color
vision.
Primates possess stereoscopic vision, allowing
them to perceive objects in three dimensions.
This is facilitated by features like forward-facing
eyes and visual information transmitted to both
hemispheres of the brain.
Decreased reliance on the sense of smell,
correlated with reduced olfactory structures
and snout size.
Expansion and complexity of the brain, especially
in the visual and association areas of the
neocortex.
Maturation, Learning, and Behaviour: Landmarks in the Life Cycle of Primates
Efficient foetal nourishment, longer gestation
Gestation Age of First Life Span
periods, reduced offspring numbers (single Species
(days) Birth (years) (years)
births are common), delayed maturation, and
Ring-tailed lemur 134-138 3 27
extended lifespans. Lemur catta
Greater dependence on flexible, learned Rhesus macaque
behavior, leading to longer periods of infant and 164 4.5 29
Macaca mulatta
adolescent dependency on at least one parent. Yellow baboon
175 5.5 40
Tendency to live in social groups, with adult Papio hamadryas cynocephalus
males permanently associated with the group. White-handed gibbon
205 9.3 44
Most primates are diurnal, except for a few Hylobates lar
nocturnal species. Borneo orangutan
244 12-15 59
Pongo pygmaeus
Western lowland gorilla
256 9-11 50
Gorilla gorilla gorilla
Chimpanzee
240 11.5-15 53
Pan troglodytes
Humans
270 16-20 80-90
Homo sapiens
28
(B) Primate Taxonomy:

(C) Primate Behaviour: Communication:

Introduction: Primates communicate through a combination of
Primate behaviour is a rich field of study in anthropology behaviors, such as:
and primatology, offering insights into the social structures, Vocalizations: Different species have specific calls
communication methods, mating systems, and cognitive for various purposes, such as alarm calls, mating
abilities of our closest biological relatives. Understanding calls, and food discovery calls. Vervet monkeys,
primate behaviour helps anthropologists make inferences for example, have distinct alarm calls for different
about human evolution and the origins of human social predators.
behaviour. Facial Expressions: Primates use facial expressions
to convey emotions and intentions. For instance, a
Social Structures:
“play face” in chimpanzees signals that their rough-
Primates exhibit a variety of social structures influenced
and-tumble behavior is non-threatening.
by factors such as species, habitat, and ecological
pressures. Body Postures and Gestures: Dominance can be
expressed through standing tall and puffing up the
Solitary: Some primates, like the orangutans, are
body, while submission might be shown through
primarily solitary, with males and females coming
crouching or presenting the back.
together only for mating.
Pair-living: Species like the gibbons form Grooming: Social grooming is vital for establishing
monogamous pairs and maintain small family units. and maintaining social bonds. It serves both a
hygienic function and a social function, reinforcing
Multi-male, Multi-female Groups: Many primates,
alliances and hierarchical structures within the
such as baboons and macaques, live in large groups
group.
with multiple males and females. These groups
often have complex social hierarchies.
One-male, Multi-female Groups: In species like the
gorilla, groups typically consist of one dominant
male and several females with their offspring. CLIFF NOTE
Fission-fusion Societies: Chimpanzees and
bonobos exhibit this type of social organization,
where the size and composition of the group
change throughout the day based on activities and
resource availability. 29
 Mating Systems: “ Primate Case Studies “
Primate mating systems are diverse, influenced Rhesus Monkeys (Macacamulatta):
by social structure, environmental factors, and Live in large multimale-multifemale groups with
evolutionary pressures. complex social structures.
Monogamy: Found in species like gibbons, where Females show genital swellings during oestrus to
one male mates with one female and they typically signal mating availability.
form long-term bonds. Social grooming and reconciliatory behaviors are
Polygyny: Seen in gorillas, where one male mates common.
with multiple females. The dominant male usually Baboons (Papio):
has exclusive mating rights within his group.
Live in multimale-multifemale groups with strong
Polyandry: Rare among primates but observed dominance hierarchies.
in some New World monkeys like marmosets and
Males fiercely defend the group.
tamarins, where one female mates with multiple
males. Communication includes facial expressions and
vocalizations.
Promiscuity: Common in species like chimpanzees
and bonobos, where both males and females have Hanuman Langurs (Presbytis):
multiple mating partners. This system can lead Mostly active in the early morning and late afternoon.
to complex paternity scenarios and emphasizes Various social structures observed: one male-
sperm competition. multifemale, multimale-multifemale, all females
with infants, all-male groups.
Communication involves vocalizations, presenting
Parental Care: behavior, and head-shaking.
Parental care varies widely among primates, from
species with extensive maternal investment to those
with significant paternal involvement. Aggression & Cooperation:
Maternal Care: For all primate species, the primary Aggression and cooperation are two sides of social
social link is the mother-infant bond. Females make interaction in primate societies.
a substantial commitment of time and energy to Aggression: Aggressive behaviors help establish
pregnancy and lactation once they have conceived. and maintain social hierarchies, defend territories,
Paternal Care: In species like marmosets and and compete for resources and mates. Dominance
tamarins, males participate actively in rearing hierarchies are often established through displays
offspring, often carrying and grooming them. This of aggression and submission.
shared responsibility helps reduce the burden on Cooperation: Cooperation is essential for social
the mother and enhances offspring survival. cohesion and survival. Activities like hunting in
Alloparenting: In some primate groups, non- groups, defending against predators, and sharing
parental individuals, such as older siblings or other food require cooperative behaviors. Primate species,
group members, assist in caring for the young. especially those with complex social structures,
often exhibit high levels of cooperation.

Cognitive Abilities:
Primates demonstrate advanced cognitive abilities,
such as: CASE STUDY
Tool Use: Chimpanzees are known for their ability
to use tools. They use sticks to extract termites
from mounds. According to a recent study published in the
American Journal of Primatology, Primates show
Problem-Solving: Primates exhibit sophisticated
a remarkable ability to modify their behaviours
problem-solving skills. Experiments have shown
to accommodate their physical disabilities and
that they can understand cause-and-effect
impairments. Whether the disabilities are the
relationships, use insight to solve novel problems,
result of congenital malformations or injuries,
and even plan for future events.
many primate species exhibited behavioural
Social Learning: Primates learn behaviors from flexibility and innovation to compensate for their
observing others. This cultural transmission of disabilities. They also benefited from flexible and
knowledge includes learning foraging techniques, innovative behavior by their mothers early in life
social behaviors, and tool use. Young primates often and from their peers within their population
learn from their mothers and other group members group as they aged.
through imitation.
30
Primate behavior provides a window into the evolutionary roots of human sociality, communication, and cognition. By
studying primates, anthropologists gain insights into the fundamental aspects of behavior that are shared across primate
species, including humans. The diverse social structures, communication methods, mating systems, cognitive abilities,
and cooperative behaviors of primates underscore the complexity and adaptability of these animals, highlighting their
significance in understanding the broader tapestry of life on Earth.

Few specific behavioral patterns among primates:

Primate Ecology Social Behavior Reproduction Locomotion

Tarsiers Nocturnal, Southeast Solitary and territorial, Slow reproductive Excellent climbers and
Asia vocalizations and scent marking rate, single offspring leapers
Lemurs Native to Madagascar, Social, varying group sizes, diverse Breeding season, Mostly arboreal, various
diverse diet social structures one to six offspring gaits

Monkeys Widespread, varied Highly social, large groups with Diverse reproductive Climbers and
diet complex structures, vocalizations patterns quadrupedal walkers
and body language
Lesser Apes Monogamous, small Territorial, emigrate from natal Slow reproductive Arboreal, move through
family groups, hooting groups around adolescence rate, monogamous forest canopy via
calls mating pattern brachiation

Orangutans Borneo and Sumatra, Relatively solitary, avoid Low reproductive Arboreal, swing through
predominantly confrontations using long calls rate, one offspring trees and walk on all
frugivorous every 3-8 yrs fours

Chimpanzees Diurnal, frugivorous Complex social groups based on No distinct breeding Knuckle-walkers, upright
permanent relationships among season, one walking on two legs
males, use grooming and gestures offspring when needed
to maintain bonds
Gorillas Folivorous, largest Structured family groups, Slow reproductive Knuckle-walkers,
primates dominant male leads, can display rate, offspring every primarily terrestrial but
aggression when provoked four yrs can climb

Humans & Shared traits with Some primates used in scientific Varied reproductive Varied locomotion
others primates research, high genetic similarity patterns depending on species
with chimpanzees and

Locomotor Pattern Definition Found Among

Vertical clinging and The animal rests on a tree trunk in a clinging position,
leaping keeping its body in an orthograde posture. In moving
from one tree to another, it uses its long, powerful
legs to leap, landing vertically on a new trunk. On the
ground, it hops or moves bipedally.

Nocturnal prosimians
(Tarsiers, galagos)

Branch running and The primate walks, climbs, jumps, and leaps on
walking and among the branches, using its hands and feet
to grasp the branches. Legs are longer than arms.
Relatively short limbs bring the body close to the
branch for stability. Relatively long fingers and toes
facilitate grasping branches.
Arboreal monkeys (Lemurs, tamarins, guenons,
mangabeys)
31
 Ground running and Terrestrial primates are larger than arboreal ones.
walking They do not grasp the ground and seldom leap or
climb as they move along a relatively flat surface.
They possess shorter fingers and toes. Arms and
legs are of nearly equal length.
Terrestrial monkeys (Baboons, mandrill)

Old World A form of branch running and walking where the

semibrachiation animal spends a considerable amount of time
suspended under branches to reach food below.
Characterized by a great deal of leaping.

Colobus monkeys, langurs

Slow climbing Slow climbing involves cautious and deliberate

movement through branches. The body is suspended
from above and propelled by arm swinging.

Nocturnal prosimians (Lorises, potto)

True brachiation Hand-over-hand locomotion along a branch with the

body suspended underneath the branch by the arms.

Lesser apes (Gibbons, siamang)

New World Similar to Old World semibrachiation, but the animal

semibrachiation uses a prehensile tail for suspending its body under
branches.

New World monkeys (Spider monkeys, howler

monkeys, woolly monkeys)

Quadrumanous Locomotor pattern found among orangutans, who

locomotion often suspend themselves under branches and move
slowly using both forelimbs and hindlimbs.

Orangutans

Knuckle walking Semierect quadrupedalism, found in chimpanzees

and gorillas, with upper parts of the body supported
by knuckles as opposed to palms.

Chimpanzees, gorillas
32
 Erect bipedalism Although many primates can walk upright on
their legs for short periods of time, habitual erect
bipedalism is found in only one primate species -
humans. The heel of the foot strikes the ground first;
the cycle ends when the individual pushes off with
the big toe. This is called the heel-toe stride.

Humans

(D) Living Major Primates and their distribution:

With few exceptions, nonhuman primates inhabit tropical
or semitropical regions in both the New and Old Worlds. In
the New World, these areas encompass southern Mexico,
Central America, and various parts of South America.
Old World primates, on the other hand, are distributed
across Africa, India, Southeast Asia (including several
islands), and Japan. While many nonhuman primates are
adapted to arboreal life and dwell in forest or woodland
environments, certain Old World monkeys like baboons
and African apes such as gorillas, chimpanzees, and
bonobos spend significant periods of their day on the
ground. Nonetheless, all nonhuman primates utilize trees, (E) Comparative Anatomy of Man and Apes:
especially for sleeping, as a part of their lifestyle. A. Skull:
Human brain size is much larger than any living apes,
Primate Species Distribution with a brain volume ranging from 1300cc to 1450cc,
whereas apes’ brain sizes range from 365cc to 550cc.
Homo sapiens (Humans) Worldwide, inhabiting all
The human cranium is larger and more protruding,
continents
with a smaller facial portion compared to apes, who
Pan troglodytes Central and West Africa, in have larger facial portions relative to their cranium.
dense forests and savannas Humans have a more vertical face and a prominent,
Pan paniscus (Bonobos) Democratic Republic of the arched forehead, whereas apes lack a forehead.
Congo, in dense forests Foramen magnum position is anterior in humans,
Gorilla spp. (Gorillas) Central and Eastern Africa, allowing for an upright posture and better balance,
in tropical forests while in apes, it is posterior, causing the skull to hang
on the vertebral column.
Pongo spp. (Orangutans) Sumatra (Pongo abelii) and
Borneo (Pongo pygmaeus) Gorilla Skull Human Skull
Diagram of a gorilla skull: Diagram of a human skull:
Hylobates spp. (Gibbons) Southeast Asia, including
Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia G3
H1
H3

G1
H2
G2
Macaca spp. (Macaques) Various parts of Asia,
G4
including India, China, Japan
H4

Cercopithecus spp. Central and Eastern Africa,

in rainforests and mountains G5
H5

H7
H6

Saimiri spp. (Squirrel Central and South America, Discription of a gorilla skull: Discription of a human skull:

Monkeys) including Brazil, Bolivia, Peru 1.

2.
no forehead
large and distinctive brow ridge, called the "supraorbital
1.
2.
high forehead
small brow ridge
torus" 3. larger braincase (than in gorillas to enclose larger
3. small braincase (for smaller brain than in humans) human brain)

Callithrix spp. South America, including 4.

5.
face projects forwards "projecting face", i.e. it is
prognathous
large canine teeth/prominent canine teeth.
4. "flattened" rather than "projecting" face, mouth sits
behind rather than forward of the tip of the nose but
chin projects forward of mouth.

(Marmosets) Brazil 6. large zygomatic arch (surface and points of attachment

for facial muscles whose purpose is to operate the jaw
5.
6.
teeth include small molars and vertical incisors
smaller zygomatic arch than in gorillas
bones and perform chewing actions) 7. shallow lower jaw.
33
 B. Teeth and Lower Jaw: E. Leg:
Humans have comparatively smaller teeth than apes, Human femurs are placed at an angle from the hip to
with reduced canines used less for tearing flesh. the knee, allowing for more efficient striding during
Apes have larger canines, which are sharp and bipedal walking.
projecting. Apes have femurs almost parallel to one another.
Posterior teeth in apes are larger and arranged in Human femurs are slightly curved to bear the weight
parallel, giving their dental arcade a U shape, while in of the body.
humans, it is parabolic.

Changes in dentition

Valgus
angle

Centre of
gravity
C. Vertebral Column and Thorax:
Human vertebral column has an S-shaped curve,
allowing for better balance and a center of gravity
between the feet.
In apes, the vertebral column has a single C-shaped
curve.
Gorilla Human
The human thorax is barrel-shaped, with a broader
shoulder girdle and longer clavicles, while apes have an
F. Foot:
inverted cone-shaped thorax.
Human feet are adapted for efficient striding and
weight-bearing, with a robust big toe and two arches
to support the body weight.
Apes have prehensile feet with opposable big toes and
no transverse arch.

D. Pelvis and Birth Canal:

Human pelvis is basin-shaped, facilitating abdominal
organ support and bipedal locomotion.
Apes have a long and flat ilium on their back.
Human pelvis is narrower to accommodate a narrower
birth canal, making childbirth more difficult than in
34 apes.
G. Arm: (Dryopithecus), and Proconsul found in Africa and
Human arms are no longer used for walking and have Eurasia.
become free to carry objects and make tools.
Apes’ arm bones are more robust for weight-bearing
during walking.
Overall, the differences between human and ape anatomy
are primarily driven by bipedalism, erect posture, and
changes in dietary habits. These adaptations have led to
significant variations in the skeletal structure and overall
body morphology between the two.

(F) Tertiary and Quaternary fossil primates:

Tertiary Period Fossils:
1. Paleocene fossils (65.5 - 55.8 million years ago):
Oldest primates found in regions of France and
North America.
Classified into three families: Carpolestidae,
Phenacolemuridae, and Plesiadapidae.
5. Pliocene fossils (5.3 - 2.6 million years ago):
2. Eocene fossils (56.0 - 33.9 million years ago): Limited fossils found, mainly regarding monkey
True primates or Euprimates found in North America families.
and some parts of Asia. Considered the time when human lineage began to
Resemble lemurs and tarsiers. form in central and east Africa.
Monkey-like primates arose in China. Quaternary Period Fossils:
Divided into two families: Adapidae and Omomyidae.
1. Pleistocene fossils (2.6 million years ago):
Ice age with ice sheets covering land masses.
Extinction of many animals, including mammoths,
ground sloths, mountain goats, etc.
Fossils of dwarf mammoths found in California.
Holocene epoch (11,700 years ago to present):
Ongoing epoch, no fossils available yet.
Time when humans have spread globally and caused
various environmental disturbances.

(F) Skeletal changes due to erect posture and its

implication:
Australopithecus afarensis, exemplified by “Lucy” around
3 million years ago, showed a transition from quadrupedal
3. Oligocene fossils (33.9 - 23.0 million years ago): to bipedal locomotion.
Separation between primitive and advanced
Selection for bipedalism was driven by environmental
primates.
changes in eastern Africa around 4 million years ago. Shifts
Fossils of the skull of Rooneyia found in Texas with a
from continuous forest to wooded savannah created more
mixture of features.
Most fossils of anthropoids found.
Divided into three taxonomic groups:
Parapithercidae, Propliopithiescidae, and Platyrrhini.
Fossils found in Egypt, Europe, and Cairo.
4. Miocene fossils (23.0 - 5.3 million years ago):
Formation of huge grasslands during this epoch.
Development of new types of primates which were
terrestrial and ground walking.
Fossil evidence of ancestors of orangutans
(Sivapithecus) found in Eurasia.
Ancestors of humans, gorillas, chimpanzees 35
 open habitats with dispersed food resources, favoring Improved ability to carry food, tools and infants during
bipedal movement’s energetic efficiency. their period of dependence
Human walking is more energetically efficient than These adaptations are likely to be secondary to the drive
most animal locomotion forms, supporting the adaptive for selection based on energetic efficiency, and could have
advantage of bipedalism. arisen from the initial adaptation of standing upright and
Other arguments that have been put forward for the adopting a bipedal gait. While bipedalism was selected for
origin of bipedalism include: and therefore had adaptive advantage, it also had adaptive
costs that resulted from the structural changes that are
Improved thermoregulatory efficiency, leading to the associated with the upright posture and bipedal gait, as
ability to forage through the heat of the day shown in the table below.
Improved ability to see and therefore avoid predators

None

36
 Phylogenetic status, characteristics and
geographical distribution of the following
fossils:

(A) Australopithecines
Australopithecus, meaning “southern ape,” is a genus of
hominins that evolved in eastern Africa approximately
four million years ago and became extinct about two
million years ago. It includes several different fossil
species, most of which were found in East Africa. The
genus Homo evolved from a common ancestor shared
with Australopithecus about two million years ago.
Australopithecus had characteristics more similar to great
apes than to modern humans.
Geographical Distribution:
Australopithecus fossils have been primarily discovered
in eastern Africa, with significant finds in regions like
Ethiopia, Tanzania, and South Africa.
Classification/Types:
There were several species within the genus
Australopithecus. Some of the notable ones include:
Australopithecus anamensis (about 4.2 million
years ago)
Australopithecus afarensis (about 3.9 - 2.9 million
years ago)
Australopithecus africanus (about 2 - 3 million years
ago)
Australopithecus sediba (about 1.95 - 1.78 million
years ago)
Paranthropus robustus (included within the genus
Australopithecus)
Characteristics:
Australopithecus had a cranial capacity slightly in
excess of 400 cubic centimeters.
Their teeth were more similar to the great apes,
with larger canines and molars than in modern
humans.
The skull showed ape-like features, such as a
U-shaped jaw, prominent brow ridges, and a sloped
forehead.
They demonstrated sexual dimorphism, with males
being up to 50 percent larger than females.
Australopithecus was bipedal but likely spent some
time in trees as well.
Their limb bones, hip bones, and big toe arrangement
indicate adaptations to upright posture and bipedal
walking.
They had a reduced dentition and jaw size
compared to earlier hominins, showing a trend in
human evolution.
Phylogenetic Status:
Australopithecus is considered an early hominin genus
that predates the genus Homo. While they share 37
 some features with modern humans, Australopithecus
at the time.
did not lead directly to the human lineage. The
genus Homo evolved from a common ancestor with Paleo-environmental Context:
Australopithecus about two million years ago and The discovery of Taung Child helped scientists
represents a separate branch of hominin evolution. understand the paleoenvironment of early
hominins, indicating that they lived in savannah-
like habitats rather than dense forests.
Impact on Anthropology:
The Taung Child spurred further research and
discoveries in paleoanthropology, leading to the
recognition of Australopithecus as an important
genus in human evolutionary history.
Cultural Significance:
The discovery highlighted Africa as a crucial
region for studying human origins and evolution,
challenging Eurocentric views prevalent in early
20th-century anthropology.

(B) Homo Habilis

Homo habilis, meaning “handy man,” is an early
hominin species that lived during the early Pleistocene,
Phylogenetic Trees Showing Possible Relationships among Fossil approximately 1.75 to 2 million years ago. The discovery of
Hominin Species (a) Published in 1994 and (b) published in 2001. fossils in Kenya and Tanzania indicated that Homo habilis
individuals had cranial capacities ranging from over 650
Describe the discovery, physical features and cubic centimeters to close to 800 cubic centimeters.
significance of Taung baby. Geographical Distribution:
Discovery: Fossils of Homo habilis have been found in East Africa,
Date: The fossil was discovered in 1924 by specifically in regions of Kenya, Tanzania, and Olduvai.
quarrymen working at the Buxton-Norlim Limeworks Characteristics:
near Taung, South Africa. Homo habilis was named “handy man” because it was
Discoverers: It was discovered by workers who believed to be a tool-maker. Its hands were similar to
were quarrying limestone when they came across those of modern humans, and it showed early signs of
a fossilized skull. developing manual dexterity.
Physical Features: Compared to Australopithecus africanus, Homo habilis
Age: The Taung Child is estimated to be about 2.8 had a larger head, shorter and rounder neck, a relatively
million years old, placing it in the early Pleistocene flat and less protruding face, and teeth that were less
epoch. massive than those of southern apes.
Species: It belongs to the species Australopithecus The cranial capacity of Homo habilis ranged from over
africanus, a small-brained bipedal hominine species. 650 to close to 800 cubic centimeters, indicating
Cranial Capacity: The skull has a small cranial some advancement in brain size compared to its
capacity, indicating a brain size similar to that of Australopithecus predecessors.
modern chimpanzees. They were likely omnivorous, incorporating meat into
Features: Key features include a small face, large their diet and showing signs of early tool use, such as
brow ridges, and a forward-projecting face typical simple stone tools used for hunting and scavenging.
of early hominins. Stone Tools and Cultural Behavior:
Significance: Homo habilis is associated with the first evidence of
Early Hominin Evolution: stone tool usage in the archaeological record. The
The Taung Child provided early evidence stone tools were crude choppers, made by removing
of hominin evolution in Africa, suggesting flakes along one side of a pebble to create an irregular
bipedalism (walking on two legs) as an early cutting edge. These tools were likely used for
adaptation among hominins. butchering and processing animal carcasses.
Controversial Hypothesis: The use of tools for hunting and processing meat
Raymond Dart controversially proposed that suggests a shift towards more advanced hunting
Australopithecus africanus was a direct ancestor and scavenging behaviors, which might have played
of modern humans, challenging prevailing ideas a significant role in the evolutionary success of Homo
38 habilis.
 They likely lived in small bands or groups with stable
camp sites, showing some degree of social organization.
Chimpanzee Homo sapiens Homo

Homo habilis showed early signs of cultural behavior, Present neanderthalensis

including the division of labor based on sex and Homo erectus

communication through visual signals and simple 1 Paranthropus

Paranthropus boisei
audible sounds. robustus Homo habilis

2
Phylogenetic Status: Australopithecus

Millions of years ago

garhi
Paranthropus
Homo habilis is considered a transitional species aethiopicus Australopithecus
africanus

between Australopithecus and early members of the 3

genus Homo. Australopithecus afarensis

Its fossils represent the first appearance of the human 4

Ardepithecus Australopithecus anamensis
ramidus
genus Homo and are significant in the evolutionary
history of hominins. 5

The discovery of stone tools in association with Homo

habilis fossils suggests a shift in behavior, with a greater 6
Hominin ancestor

reliance on technology and adaptation to changing

environments.

Coexistence with Other Hominins:

Homo habilis likely coexisted with other hominin species, such as Australopithecus africanus and Paranthropus robustus,
in Africa during the early Pleistocene.
The coexistence of these species might have led to competition for resources and ecological niches, contributing to
evolutionary changes and adaptations in the human lineage.

Cultural Advancements:
The use of stone tools and hunting behavior
demonstrated by Homo habilis marked a significant
step in cultural and technological advancements in
early human evolution.
The development of stone tools was a critical milestone
in human history, leading to further innovations and
cultural complexity in later hominin species.

39
 (C) Homo erectus:
Homo erectus is an extinct species of early hominins that
first appeared about 1.6 million years ago and is believed
to have lived for at least 600,000 years. Homo erectus
emerged during the Pleistocene interglacial period. This
species is considered an important transitional form
between Australopithecus and Homo sapiens.
Biological Features
Homo erectus displayed several distinctive biological
features:
Brain Size: Homo erectus had a larger brain compared
to earlier species, with cranial capacities ranging
from 775 to 1,100 cubic centimeters, closer to the
size of modern human brains (1,130 to 1,260 cubic
centimeters).
Nasal Structure: They possessed a nose with
downward-facing nostrils, similar to modern humans,
which might have been an adaptation to colder
climates, warming cold air before it entered their lungs.
Sexual Dimorphism: Although there was sexual
dimorphism in Homo erectus, it was less pronounced
than in earlier species, with males being only 20 to 30
percent larger than females.
Facial Features: Homo erectus had a prominent brow,
a face that pointed downward, and a more primitive
skull compared to Homo sapiens.
Homo erectus Javanicus (Java Man)
Fossils of Homo erectus javanicus were found in Java,
Indonesia.
Their cranial capacity ranged from 775 to 900 cubic
centimeters.
They were approximately five feet tall and weighed
around 70 kg.
Physical characteristics included a low and slanting
forehead, prognathic face, massive jaws with large
teeth, and heavy bony eyebrow ridges.
Homo erectus javanicus used stone tools for hunting
and butchering animals.
Homo erectus Pekinensis (Peking Man)
Fossils of Homo erectus pekinensis were discovered
near Peking (Beijing), China.
They had a larger cranial capacity, ranging from 850 to
1200 cubic centimeters, compared to Homo erectus
javanicus.
Lived approximately 1.5 to 5,00,000 years ago.
Similar to Homo erectus javanicus, they also used
stone tools for hunting and butchering animals.
Cultural Development
Homo erectus populations were hunters and gatherers,
and evidence of organized hunting has been found in
Europe.
They learned to use fire for cooking purposes, as
evidenced by findings in Hungary and China, which
improved their diet and provided warmth.
40
 Nomadic in nature, they roamed widely in small
groups or extended families, adapting to changing
environments.
Some Homo erectus groups began to use animal skins
for clothing, providing protection from adverse weather
conditions.
They likely used rudimentary visual signals and simple
audible sounds for communication.
Tool-Making Ability
Homo erectus displayed advanced tool-making abilities,
representing a significant technological advancement
compared to earlier hominin species.
The chopper tradition, witnessed in Java and Peking
Man, involved striking stone flakes from a core and
shaping them further by chipping on one side.
Development of the biface core tool, or hand axe,
was another significant advancement, enabling more
efficient skinning of animals and preparation of skins.
Homo erectus used stone tools for hunting and
butchering various animals, including deers, antelopes,
bears, wild oxen, and elephants. They also used bone
and wooden tools.
Two main stone tool industries, the Olduwan and
Acheulian industries, characterized their tool-making
culture.
Phylogenetic Status of Homo erectus:
Homo erectus, an important transitional species in
human evolution, emerged around 1.6 million years ago
and lived for about 600,000 years. It bridged the gap
between Australopithecus and Homo sapiens.
4. The presence of home bases and organized campsites
With a larger brain size, reduced sexual dimorphism, indicates a level of social organization and territorial
and advanced tool-making skills, Homo erectus showed behavior in Homo erectus populations.
significant biological and cultural advancements. They
5. Natural selection likely acted on specific traits in Homo
were hunters, used fire, and made sophisticated stone
erectus, favoring increased body size, longevity, and
tools.
the development of cultural adaptations such as the
Phylogenetic studies suggest that Homo erectus is use of fire and advanced tool-making.
a direct ancestor of later hominin species, including 6. Homo erectus’ intelligence was intermediate between
Neanderthals and Homo sapiens. Their migration out apes and modern humans, suggesting cognitive
of Africa was facilitated by their adaptive abilities. developments over earlier hominin species.
Although no longer extant, Homo erectus’s impact on
7. Their skills as efficient tool-makers and cooperative
human evolution and cultural development remains
game hunters set them apart from their predecessors,
profound. Understanding this species sheds light on
contributing to their success and long-lasting existence.
our ancient past and the origins of our species.
8. Homo erectus is considered the characteristic species
Significance of Homo Erectus of the Lower Paleolithic age, representing a significant
1. Homo erectus fossils provide evidence of the transition stage in human evolution.
from opportunistic scavenging to cooperative and 9. By the time Homo erectus started to decline around
organized big-game hunting, marking a crucial 275 thousand years ago, many of the salient features
development in human behavior. found in modern humans had already become
2. They are the first hominin species known to have established in this species.
discovered and used fire, which had profound 10. Homo erectus is the first hominin species known to
implications for their survival and cultural development. have migrated out of Africa, spreading to various
3. The development of systematic tool-making skills in regions across the globe. Their successful migration
Homo erectus marked a major advancement in human and adaptation to different environments demonstrate
technology, enhancing their ability to interact with and their capabilities as a highly adaptable species.
manipulate their environment.
41
 DISPERSAL OF H. ERECTUS
Dispersal of species happens for many reasons but essentially H. erectus probably drifted across northern Africa, across
the Sinai Peninsula into Asia, when environmental changes meant suitable habitats and food sources stretched that far.
For example, sabre-toothed cat remains were found alongside H. erectus fossils in Georgia. The cats apparently
dispersed from Africa. These specialised carnivores lacked the teeth to strip a carcass clean of its meat, so might have
provided scavenging opportunities for early humans following them out of Africa.
It is likely that the spread of H. erectus as far as Java, across what are now islands of Southeast Asia, was possible
because these were connected at the time.
42
(D) Neanderthal Man:
Neanderthal man lived during the late Pleistocene
period and was found in the Neanderthal Valley,
Germany.
Their existence began around 150,000 years ago,
thriving in Europe, Asia, and North America until they
went extinct approximately 25,000 years ago.
Key Fossil Discoveries:
Significant Neanderthal fossil findings include Le
Moustier, Shanidar 1, La Ferrassie 1, La Chapelle-aux-
Saints, and Mt. Carmel (Tabun Cave, Skhul Cave, El-
Wad Cave).

Diversity:
Recent studies indicate the presence of three distinct
Neanderthal sub-groups, with minor variations, and a
potential fourth group in western Asia.
Migration between these sub-groups occurred, and
the size of the Neanderthal population fluctuated over
time.
Interbreeding with Modern Humans: Environment:
Analysis of the Neanderthal genome confirms limited Neanderthals inhabited diverse environments across
interbreeding with early modern humans. Europe and the Middle East, coexisting with changing
Europeans and Asians share about 1-4% of climatic conditions.
Neanderthal DNA, while Africans do not possess any Ice Ages and full glacial conditions occurred around
Neanderthal genetic contributions. 40,000 years ago.
The interbreeding most likely took place in the Levant Tool Culture:
region between 50,000 to 90,000 years ago.
Neanderthals transitioned from the Abbevillian and
Physical Characteristics: Acheulian cultures to the Mousterian tradition.
Neanderthals exhibited human-like features with They crafted symmetrical and sharp tools made from
distinctive facial attributes and a robust physique, well- stone flakes and utilized long wooden spears with
adapted to cold climates. stone tips for hunting.
Their average height was shorter than modern Evidence suggests group hunting, butchering of
humans, and they had larger brain sizes, around 1500 animals, and use of fire for cooking and warmth.
cubic centimeters.
Cultural Development:
Notable features included a thick, low and slanting
Neanderthals demonstrated cultural advancement by
forehead, prominent brow ridges, no chin, and a
using animal hides for clothing and burying their dead.
rounded brain case.
Evidence of symbolic abilities, such as cave paintings
They had strong limb bones with large joints, indicating
and flower cultivation, points to concepts of life and
a powerful musculature.
death and rituals.
43
 Extinction:
Fossil and climatic evidence indicates a decline in Neanderthal diversity and inbreeding.
Challenging environmental conditions and limited adaptability contributed to their extinction.

Controversies Regarding Classical and Progressive Varieties:

Feature La Chapelle-aux-Saints (Classic Type) Mount Carmel (Progressive Type)

Brow Ridges Pronounced ridges over eye sockets Less pronounced brow ridges
Facial Features Robust facial structure Transition towards modern human
Nose Shape Flatter and broader noses Less flat and refined noses
Cranial Capacity Larger brain size (around 1600 cc) Brain size similar to modern humans (around 1400-1600 cc)
Chin Receding chin, lacks definition Less pronounced receding chin, showing some development
Geographical
Europe (Correze, France) Mount Carmel region, Palestine, Middle East
Distribution
Late Pleistocene (around 40,000 years Earlier periods (some remains dating back to 250,000 years
Time Period
ago) ago)
Mousterian culture (stone tools like Levalloiso-Mousterian industry with evidence of cultural
Cultural Artifacts
scrapers and points) sophistication (burial practices and rituals)

The variation in physical features between the Neanderthals were less different from modern humans
Classic and Progressive Neanderthals is a significant compared to Classic Neanderthals. Some suggest that
controversy. Classic Neanderthals from Europe Progressive Neanderthals may represent a transitional
exhibited pronounced brow ridges, robust facial phase in human evolution towards modern humans,
features, a muscular build, flatter noses, and larger while Classic Neanderthals adapted to Ice Age Europe’s
brains than modern humans. In contrast, Progressive harsh climate. However, climate and morphological
Neanderthals from the Middle East had less pronounced studies indicate coexistence and intermingling of both
features, a less massive build, and less prominent brow varieties in the same region.
ridges. Phylogenetic Relationship: The evolutionary relationship
44 The controversy arises from whether Progressive between Neanderthals and modern humans has sparked
speculation and debate. Originally considered intermediate
ancestors between Homo erectus and modern humans,
Neanderthals’ distinctive features and limited geographic provides evidence of altruistic behavior. It suggests
range led to their exclusion from this category. that these prehistoric humans could extend
compassion and support to more vulnerable
Three interpretations of their relationship exist:
members of their societies. This indicates a
a. Unilinear Evolution, viewing Neanderthals as capacity for empathy and community care.
intermediate ancestors;
b. Separate Lineages, where Neanderthals are Homo
sapiens with unique features, yet selective pressures
remain unclear; and
Significance of Tina in Understanding
c. Pre-Neanderthals, suggesting a pre-existing
Homo sapiens population migrated and underwent Neanderthal Social Structure
natural selection in Europe, leading to Neanderthal The fact that despite severe hearing loss, frequent
characteristics. vertigo, and significant mobility challenges, Tina lived
for at least six years, points to following inferences:
Group care and support:- Given the high mobility
lifestyle of Neanderthals, survival of a disabled child
suggests continuous and extensive care from the
community, apart from the mother.
Compassion:- Group care for Tina went beyond
reciprocal selfishness, suggesting a genuine sense
of compassion among Neanderthals, since Tina
had not been able to reciprocate.
Sedentary lifestyle possible:- Survival of Tine
indicates presence of more or less sedentary life
as nomadic life would have not allowed survival of
Recent genetic testing of Neanderthal DNA supports a Tina
shared common ancestor with modern humans about Social diversity:- Tina being the oldest known case
500,000 years ago. While the Neanderthal genome is of Down’s syndrome suggests that the diversity
almost identical to modern humans, ongoing research observed in modern humans were already present
continues to shape our understanding of their precise in prehistoric times.
phylogenetic status.
The discovery of “Tina,” alongside findings like Shanidar
and La Chapelle-aux-Saints, has reshaped our
CASE STUDY understanding of Neanderthal social structures,
emphasizing their cognitive and social capabilities and
their significance in human evolution.
Recently, the skeletal remains of a Neanderthal
child were unearthed at Cova Negra. This cave,
located in Valencia, Spain, has a rich history of
(E) Rhodesian man:
significant Neanderthal discoveries. The child is The Kabwe cranium, also known as the Broken Hill
affectionately named “Tina.” cranium, is a fossilized human head discovered in 1921
Micro-computed tomography scans of a near Kabwe, Zambia. It was the first premodern Homo
small fragment of Tina’s right temporal bone, fossil found in Africa and is often referred to as Rhodesian
containing the ear region, were used to construct man.
a comprehensive three-dimensional model for Composition: The Rhodesian man skull closely resembles
measurement and analysis. the Neanderthal skull but exhibits some unique features.
The findings showed Tina suffered from a The presence of a prominent forward nasal spine
congenital pathology of the inner ear associated characteristic of modern humans suggests it may be a
with Down syndrome, leading to severe hearing new species, Homo rhodesiensis.
loss and disabling vertigo.
Characteristics:
Despite this, Tina survived to at least 6 years of
Greater average brain volume (1212 cm3)
age, a feat that would have required substantial
care from other group members. Rounded parietal bones giving the skull a barrel-like
appearance
This discovery is even more remarkable as it
Cranial capacity ranging between 1250 and 1400cc
Inflation of maxillary bones leading to midfacial 45
 prognathism and large noses The cranial capacity of Cro-Magnon Man was about
1600 c.c. They were swift-footed, cave-dwelling forms,
Formation of a retromolar gap in the mandible
considered expert hunters.
Significance of Discovery: The discovery of Rhodesian Their stone tools demonstrated high technological
man provided valuable insights into the early stages of precision, and they were known for their art, creating
human evolution in Africa. It prompted discussions about cave paintings, ornaments, and engravings.
the relationship between Neanderthals and modern
humans and whether Neanderthals could be considered Grimaldi:
ancestors of Homo sapiens. The Grimaldi fossils, discovered in France and Italy, are
Conclusion: The Rhodesian man, represented by the around 45,000 to 35,000 years old.
Kabwe cranium, is an important fossil find that sheds light They display a cranial capacity of 1530 c.c. and exhibit
on the phylogenetic status and characteristics of early physical features with affinities to the Negroids.
hominids. Its unique combination of features indicates The Grimaldi people were conversant with art, creating
it may be a new species in the human evolutionary tree. stunning cave paintings of animals, and practiced
Further research and discoveries are needed to fully ceremonial burials.
understand the significance of Rhodesian man in the
broader context of human evolution. Chancelade:
The Chancelade fossil, found in France, dates back to
(F) Homo sapiens—Cromagnon, Grimaldi and the Upper Paleolithic age.
Chancelede.
This specimen exhibits a long and narrow skull, a cranial
The transition from Homo erectus to Homo sapiens,
index of 70.9, slightly marked supraorbital ridges, and a
marking the emergence of modern humans, is a
vertical forehead.
significant event in human evolution. While the exact
timeline of this transition remains uncertain, the first The Grimaldi and Chancelade fossils are considered to
Homo sapiens fossils date back to at least 300,000 have resemblances to modern Eskimos.
years ago.
Homo sapiens sapiens:
Early Homo sapiens populations were initially identified The fully modern humans, Homo sapiens sapiens,
under different names like Homo neanderthalensis, originated in Africa around 200,000 years ago, later
Homo heidelbergensis, and Swanscombe man. spreading to West Asia and beyond.
However, due to their striking similarities, these
populations are now classified under Homo sapiens. They exhibited adaptability to various climates, allowing
them to colonize different regions across the globe.
Fossils of Homo sapiens exhibit reduced brow ridges, These modern humans introduced innovations such
a steep forehead, a high rounded cranial vault, a short as cave art, advanced tools, tailored clothing, and
face, and a pronounced chin. They were robust but not controlled use of fire.
as tall as Neanderthals.
They marked the completion of morphological
Transition from Homo erectus to Homo sapiens: evolution, with further progress related to culture and
language.
Several fossils have provided insights into the transition
from Homo erectus to Homo sapiens. For instance, The journey from Homo erectus to Homo sapiens
the Steinheim skull from Germany displays a cranial represents a remarkable transformation in human
capacity of about 1,000 c.c. and features puffy eyebrow evolution. Fossil findings provide valuable insights into this
ridges with a low forehead, showing characteristics of transitional phase, showcasing a blend of characteristics
both Homo erectus and Homo sapiens. from different species. The emergence of modern
Similarly, the Swanscombe skull, with a cranial humans, Homo sapiens sapiens, marked a turning point
capacity of approximately 1,320 c.c., exhibits traits in human history, as they demonstrated a higher level of
resembling Homo sapiens. Another crucial discovery cultural advancement and adaptability that allowed them
is the Ehringsdone skull from Germany, with a cranial to thrive in diverse environments. Their art, tools, and
capacity of 1450 c.c., displaying features akin to both social practices highlighted their cognitive capabilities,
Neanderthal man and Homo sapiens, indicating an making them distinct from their predecessors and paving
intermediate phase. the way for the development of complex societies and
civilizations.
Cromagnon Man:
Around 33,000 years ago, Homo sapiens close to
modern humans lived in Europe and other parts of the
world, known as Cro-Magnon Man. They were about
180 cm tall with a large skull, broad face, rounded
forehead, narrow nose, and a prominent chin. Unlike
their predecessors, they lacked eyebrow ridges.
46
 Brain size Known date
Species Characteristics Height Physique Skull form Jaws/teeth
(ml) (years ago)

Homo habilis Relatively small 1 c.1.5 Relatively long 500-650 Small face; nose Thinner jaw; 2.1-1.6 million
face; nose arms developed smaller, narrow
(small)
developed molars

Homo habilis Larger, flatter face c.1.5 Robust but 600-800 Flat, thick skull with Robust Jaw; 2.1-1.6 million
‘human’ skeleton large occipital and large narrow
(large)
brow ridge molars

Homo Robust but ‘human’ 1.3-1.5 Robust but 750-1250 Flat, thick skull with Robust jaw 1.8-0.3 million
skeleton ‘human’ skeleton large occipital and in larger
erectus
brow ridge individuals;
smaller teeth
than H. habilis

Neanderthals Reduced brow 1.5-1.7 Robust but 1200-1750 Small or no ridge; Teeth smaller 150000-30000
ridge; thinner skull; ‘human’ skeleton; shorter, high skull except for
large nose; mid Adapted for cold incisors; chin
face projection development in
some

Early modern Small or no ridge; 1.6-1.85 Modern skeleton; 1200-1700 Small skull Shorter 130000-60000
shorter, high skull adapted for jaws than
Homo
warmth Neanderthals:
sapiens teeth may be
smaller

Human evolution path as per current stage of research

Approaches to Understand Modern Human Origin: 2. Partial Replacement Model:

1. Complete/Total Replacement Model: Majority of scholars believe modern humans evolved
Proposed by British Anthropologists Christopher in Africa and later migrated to other regions.
Stringer and Peter Andrews (1988). Unlike complete replacement, this model suggests
Homo sapiens evolved in Africa around 200,000 some interbreeding occurred between African
years ago. emigrants and pre-modern populations in other
Anatomically modern humans emerged exclusively regions.
in Africa through a speciation process. Supporters argue that no speciation occurred,
Migrated Homo sapiens did not interbreed with and resident pre-modern populations were also
non-African human populations in other continents. members of H. sapiens.
Populations in other continents, like Neanderthals, Proponents include Günter Bräuer, John Relethford,
were considered different species (e.g., H. and Fred Smith (Relethford, 2001).
Neanderthalensis). 47
 3. Regional Continuity Model/Multiregional Evolution
Model:
Proponents argue that local indigenous populations
in Africa, Europe, and Asia continued their
evolutionary development from Middle Pleistocene
to modern human.
Anatomical and genetic similarity among different
population groups is explained by gene flow during
the Pleistocene period.
Mixing and gene flow prevented speciation, leading
to the evolution of H. sapiens as a polytypic species.
All hominins following H. erectus are classified as H.
sapiens.
Accepts the influence of African emigrants
throughout the world.
Critical Appraisal of the Models of Modern Human
Evolution:
Recent discoveries, palaeoanthropological findings,
and data from sequenced ancient and contemporary
human DNA suggest a consensus view is emerging.
The strong multiregional model is inadequate to
explain modern human evolution.
Evidence supports the potential for at least some
amount of interbreeding between African emigrants
and indigenous populations in other regions.
Both complete replacement and multiregional
models are insufficient to fully explain modern
human evolution.

The biological basis of Life: The Cell, DNA structure

and replication, Protein Synthesis, Gene, Mutation,
Chromosomes, and Cell Division:

Important Note:
This is to inform all students that Chapter 1.7 in our
Anthropology course covers topics that have been
extensively addressed in other sections of our course
material. Hence, no separate coverage is required here.

48
Chapter: 2
THE NATURE OF CULTURE &
SOCIETY
SYLLABUS Questions
for Discussion
The Nature of Culture:
The concept and characteristics of culture and William Ogburn and Cultural Lag (10 M, 2023)
civilization;
Critically evaluate different types of social
Ethnocentrism vis-a-vis cultural relativism.
stratification with suitable examples (20 M, 2021)
Human rights and cultural relativism (10 M,2020)
Discuss Erving Goffman’s concept of total
institutions and its relevance in contemporary
society (15 M, 2020)
Discuss Social stratification according to any three
major approaches. (20 M,2019)
Short notes on Cultural Relativism (2019, 2016,
1995, 1987)
Is culture unique to human beings? Critically
examine (15 M, 2014)
Why the concept of Culture Relativism been so
dear to Anthropologists? (20 M,2013)
Bring out the distinguishing features of culture and
civilization. (15 M, 2013)
Cultural relativism and subsequent violation of
Human rights?(15 M, 2010, 2006)
Components of culture vast and varied”. Explain
this statement. (2002, 2007)

SYLLABUS Questions
for Discussion
The Nature of Society:
Concept of Society; Society and culture (10 M, 2015)
Society and Culture; Define Status & Role. Distinguish between Ascribed
Social Institutions; and Achieved Status. (15 M 2014,2017)
Social groups; and What is the basis of social stratification? Discuss
Social stratification. with examples (20 M 2012)
Explain the concept of status and role in
anthropology (20 M,2012)
Write a detailed note on polyandrous societies,
citing Indian examples (20 M, 2009)
Social stratification (2000)
49
 Is learnt - Kroeber and Kluckhohn have defined culture
Culture and Civilization as the totality of learnt human behaviour, transmitted
by social inheritance.
The concept and characteristics of culture and Is a system - As per Tylor, culture is a complex whole
civilisation consisting of elements integrated with each other.
Definition: Is symbolic-Culture is based on symbols. As per McIver,
a symbol for humans is something representing
Clifford Geertz in his book, The Interpretation of
something else by arbitrary human invention and
Cultures (1973) has defined culture as “Culture is a
understanding. Example: Use of symbols is language
system of symbols and meanings that people use to
which is an essential part of culture.
construct their world and to communicate with each
other.”
Enculturation
E.B. Tylor, in his book, ‘Primitive Culture (1871),
defined culture “as that complex whole which includes It is the process of learning one’s own culture. It is
knowledge, beliefs, customs and any other capabilities similar to the process of socialisation (process through
and habits acquired by man as a member of society.” which an organic human being is transformed into a
Nature of Culture: social human being).
Is unique to human beings: Herskovits has defined The process of enculturation has two kinds of people
culture as the man-made part of environment. Animals taking part:
do have societies, but their behaviour is based on 1. Carrier: The carrier can be parents, grandparents or
instinct, and is not learnt. They lack the capability to distant relatives or peers or caretakers. In case of
change their environment purposefully. tribes, these carriers are not only the eldest group
Our bipedal locomotion is also responsible for our but also the immediate elders like elder brothers
spinal structure by which we were able to hold and sisters and even caretakers.
our head, freeing our larynx and thus, allowing us 2. Receiver: The receiver usually a child or any culturally
the power of speech. This is the beginning of our inexperienced member of the group or society.
cultural journey. Language has been called as the
Youth dormitories among tribes play an important
vehicle of transmitting human culture, as it has
role in enculturation.
made communication between two human beings
comprehensible Subculture
Is diverse: As per Franz Boas, culture is present in all Refers to the culture of homogenous unit within the
human societies, but each society has its own unique heterogenous whole.
cultural elements adjusted to its own particular set of 1. Each culture is a compound of subcultures. They
circumstances. This makes it diverse, and gives rise to are distinguishable from one another and from the
the concept of cultural relativism. dominant culture forms by characteristics such as
Is universal: It was postulated in the theories of language, clothing, gesture and etiquette.
evolution by the early anthropologists like Herbert 2. There are also differences in norms and values.
Spencer and E.B. Tylor who had stated it as ‘the psychic The differences are usually because of ethnic,
unity of mankind’. This view regarded the similarities occupational or regional heterogeneity over a
indifferent cultures as owing to the similar capacities large area. Despite such differences at micro-level,
of human beings. For example in almost all cultures subcultural units of each culture exhibit enough
be it a preliterate or developed society the institutions similarities to put them into one culture.
of family, marriage and kinship are seen, though the
patterns may vary. Ideal, Real Culture and Culture Construct
Is shared - Culture is of the society, and not of an
Concepts developed by Ralph Linton of the Culture-
individual. It is the manifestation of the historical
Personality School of thought
processes the entire society has undergone.
1. Ideal Culture - Is the standard of the society, i.e.
Is not genetically inherited: Culture is a process that
reflects the philosophical traditions of the society
is acquired via learning and understanding symbols.
embedded in its ethics and epics.
For example: If an Indian origin child is brought up in
Japan by a Japanese couple, the language that the 2. Real Culture - Refers to the cultural processes that
child would learn to speak would be Japanese and s/he the society actually follows in reality
would learn the Japanese tradition and be a part of the 3. Culture construct - Refers to the idea of culture of
Japanese culture. Thus, culture is learned behaviour any society as presented by a scholar. It is usually
and not genetically transmitted, it is inherited and extracted from both ideal and real culture
passed on from one generation to the other via the
medium of learning and symbols wherein, language
50 plays an important role.
 CASE STUDY

Malinowski while studying Trobriand people National Culture

enquired elders about incest taboo and got
the ideal definition (‘ldeal Culture’). Later some
youngsters too gave the ideal definition, but
afterwards they got informal with Malinowski. Sub-culture
When Malinowski asked them whether it really
entails the sanctions as prescribed, they told
him that not necessarily and that youngsters Occupation
do repeatedly indulge in it as it is romantic and
spicy. This is “Real culture.” What Malinowski
Familly
presented in his book, ‘The Argonauts of the
Western Pacific (I922),’ would be equivalent
to ‘Culture Construct.” Self

Figure: Sub-culture
Culture Trait and Complex
As per Hoebel, a cultural trait is the smallest irreducible
unit of learnt behaviour pattern or material product Summing up with the thoughts of Mclver, it is fairly
thereof. A culture complex meanwhile is a larger reasonable to say that the nature of culture is such
cluster of cultural traits organised about some nuclear that it is a manifestation of what we are as human
point of reference. beings.

Complex Acculturation and contra-acculturation

Multi-ethnic Acculturation:
Culture The concept of acculturation was first developed by
Subcultures R. Redfield, Linton and Herskovits in their joint paper
entitled, ‘Memorandum for the Study of Acculturation
(1936)’.
Figure: Cultural complex They defined it as the process of cultural change and
adaptation that occurs when individuals or groups
from different cultures come into direct continuous
contact.
ENCULTURATION VS.
It results either due to self-interest or under pressure.
ACCULTURATION For peaceful acculturation, both the groups
Must have close and continuous contact
Enculturation is the Acculturation is the Should have similarity in their culture pattern
acquisition of one's amalgamation of two
own culture. cultures. Should have similarity in their objective
Key Aspects of Acculturation
It involves a two-way exchange where both cultures
Enculturation is an Acculturation is not an influence each other.
essential requirement essential requirement
for survival. for survival. It can occur at individual, group, or societal levels,
affecting personal identities, community practices, and
broader social structures.
Enculturation is the Acculturation is not Stages of Acculturation
very first familiarization the first but second or
process to a particular third familiarization to Contact: Initial interaction between different cultures.
culture. various cultures. Conflict: Possible friction and resistance to new
cultural elements.
Crisis: A period of adjustment and possible identity
struggle. 51
 Adaptation: Gradual acceptance and integration of
cultural elements. CASE STUDY
Assimilation or Integration: Long-term incorporation
of new cultural traits, either blending into a new culture
(assimilation) or maintaining distinct cultural identities Tribal revolts like Birsa Movement were a
while coexisting (integration). reaction against the cultural contact with
Christian missionaries and Hindu outsiders.
Maori people of New Zealand and Native
CASE STUDY American tribes of the United States
have adopted some aspects of Western
culture, such as Christianity and Western
1. The Kubu tribe is a forest-dwelling tribe education. However, they have also resisted
in Indonesia that has been traditionally some aspects of Western culture, such as
hunter-gatherers but after coming into the loss of their traditional land and the
contact with mainstream Indonesian erosion of their cultural identity.
society have started wearing clothes and
going to school
2. The San Tribe of Botswana were
traditionally nomadic but have started
working as wage labourer after contact CASE STUDY
with mainstream society.

The Santal tribe has experienced

Outcomes of Acculturation significant acculturation due to interaction
with mainstream Indian society. Santals
Assimilation: Full adoption of the dominant culture’s
have adopted agricultural techniques,
traits, often leading to the loss of the original culture.
educational practices, and religious beliefs
Integration: Blending of cultural elements where from neighbouring communities. Many
individuals maintain their cultural identity while Santals have converted to Christianity or
participating in the dominant culture. Hinduism, integrating elements of these
Separation: Rejection of the dominant culture in favour religions with their traditional animist
of preserving the original culture. beliefs. Despite these changes, they
Marginalization: Loss or rejection of both the original continue to celebrate traditional festivals
and dominant cultures, leading to social isolation. like Sohrai and maintain their unique
musical and dance traditions.
Contra-Acculturation
If a common agreement is not reached between the
cultural norms and values, one group may develop hatred,
jealousy or rivalry against the other. This process is known
as contra-acculturation. It is essentially a revolt against CASE STUDY
acculturation. Thus, acculturation may or may not be
advantageous.
The Jarawa tribe of the Andaman Islands
represents a case of forced acculturation
CLIFF NOTE due to increasing contact with the outside
world. Traditionally isolated, the Jarawas
have faced significant changes due to
infrastructure development and tourism
in the Andaman Islands. Government
policies and interactions with settlers have
led to shifts in their subsistence practices,
health, and social structures. Efforts are
being made to balance integration with
the preservation of their unique cultural
identity, but the impact of acculturation
remains a critical concern.

52
 Contemporary Significance: The Superorganic(Summary)
Today, both the terms are used to describe the near
one-way influence of modern societies on simple/ Pertains to the structure of cultural elements
native populations, along with its implications on within society conceived as independent of and
applied anthropology. superior to the individual members of society

Individuals have very little, if any, impact on

culture's development and change
Super Organic View of culture
The term “superorganic” was probably first used by Culture plays a determining role in human
the early sociologist Herbert Spencer in the late 19th behavior
century, in contrast to “inorganic” or “organic.”
Culture has an existence outside of people and
The superorganic view of culture was first put forward
compels us to conform to patterns
by Emile Durkheim. However, it is A.L. Kroeber whose
name is most recognised with this view of culture.
The notion of the superorganic was brought into
anthropological discourse in 1917 in a debate between This concept was also adopted by other American
two students of Franz Boas viz. Alfred Kroeber and anthropologists like Lowie and White and in British
Edward Sapir, in the American Anthropologist. anthropology by the structural functionalists.

Underlying Concept:
This view argues that culture and cultural change cannot
be explained by reference to any other discipline. such as CASE STUDY
biology

Alfred Kroeber Totemism among indigenous cultures,

such as the Australian Aboriginals,
Understanding Culture as
Superorganic demonstrates the super organic aspects
of cultural beliefs and practices.
Historical Approach
Clifford Geertz’s study of Balinese
Deterministic
cockfighting illustrates the super organic
First American Textbook in
nature of cultural symbols and meanings.
anthropology (1923)

For Kroeber, culture constitutes a separate realm of

phenomena and as such it should be explained only in
terms of its own laws. This does not mean culture is
CASE STUDY
inorganic, but that it is simply more than organic, that
is, super organic.
It develops in an organic structure, but since it The caste system in India is an example of
possesses qualities like changeability, collectivity, a super organic cultural system that has
value pattern and transferability, therefore it should persisted for centuries, influencing social
be called superorganic. structure and individual behavior.
Thus, to Spencer, and other cultural-determinist Example: Despite various social and
sociologists and philosophers like Durkheim and Comte, political changes, the caste system
human society is superorganic since it exists at a higher continues to impact social interactions,
level of complexity than physical things or biological marriage patterns, and occupational
organisms. roles. It is a cultural framework that
Criticisms: individuals are born into and navigate,
but it operates as an overarching
It is argued that since cultural phenomena occur in
structure independent of any single
association with other psychological or ecological
person.
phenomena, it is untenable to separate them
analytically.
Critics suggest that cultural phenomena do not have
an independent existence and cannot be studied as if
they had.
The superorganic view of culture continues to evoke
regular debates in anthropology even to this date. 53
 Culture Pattern Example
Example of of cultural
cultural pattern
pattern
Definition: Culture Pattern: American Music
A culture pattern is formed when many traits and
complexes of culture become integrated into a functional Culture Complex: Culture Complex:
whole. Reggae Rap

History: Trait: colorful clothes, Trait: baggy/tight

dreadlocks pants, chains, tattoos
The concept of culture pattern has been known since Trait: Sean Paul, Bob Trait: Jay Z
long. Eminent scholars like B. Malinowski and A.L. Kroeber Marley Trait: bass, track
have dealt with universal patterns of culture. However, it Trait: Rasta lifestyle
was Ruth Benedict, who for the first time, attempted to
study the culture patterns of a particular group.
Culture Complex: Country
Ruth Benedict explanation of cultural pattern: Trait: Cowboy hats, boots
In her famous book, Patterns of Culture (1934),’ she Trait: Blake Shelton
has described the concept of culture pattern through Trait: slow bass/piano
the lens of configuration of culture.
Integration in any culture is due to the arrangements Benedict concludes that cultural patterns determine the
of its content in a particular style or design. This behaviour of human beings and culture pattern of a group
arrangement is called pattern by Benedict. is always contrasted to another group’s pattern. Thus, any
These separate culture patterns together present study on the development of culture has to factor in the
a grand design of culture as a whole, called the culture patterns of the group.
configuration of culture.
Is culture unique to human beings?
Example:
Definition of culture by different anthropologists:
Indian cultural pattern consists of spiritualism, joint
family system, caste system etc. Each of these is a culture Bronislaw Malinowski defined culture as “the integral
complex consisting of several cultural traits. whole consisting of implements and consumers’
goods, of constitutional charters for the various social
The Levels of Culture groupings, of human ideas and crafts, beliefs and
customs.”
Leslie A. White’s definition, from his work “The Science
of Culture” (1949), highlights the symbolic nature of
culture and its role in organizing human behavior and
thought.
Ruth Benedict has defined culture “as is the lens
through which man sees the world.”
Thus, as evident from above definitions, anthropologists
for a long-time defined culture as unique to humans.
However, Scholars like McGrew (1998) observed that
non-human primates engage in social activities that show
Culture all basic characteristics of human culture.
Several studies till date have shown that higher primates
Culture Pattern have the capacity to learn symbols.
Culture Complex Studies include:
Culture Trait Tool usage by Apes
Figure: cultural pattern Gestural Communication in Chimpanzees, by Jane
Goodall (1986)
Japanese Monkey Potato Washing, by Kawai (1965)
Ai Project of Kyoto University (Japan) observed
CLIFF NOTE
chimpanzees who were able to play computer games
and even help others to learn
Combining these and more such observations, it can
be said that apes are showing the prevalence of several
characteristics of culture, such as its acquired and learnt
54 behaviour, transferability, symbolic nature.
Yet, it does not mean that apes or any other animal is a
cultured being: How apes use gestures
As per Leslie White the ability to symbolise does not
simply mean to learn a few symbols but to freely
and arbitrary bestow meanings upon things and to
comprehend such meanings.
Thus, animals including apes, lack symbolic
interpretation of things and phenomena. They often
express themselves in sign language which is more
instinctive than learned. "Groom me" "Let's mate"
Michael Tomasello has observed that humans are the Scratching their chest Shaking a tree
only ones capable of pooling their cognitive resources
both in contemporary and historical time, bringing
about modifications in their cultural traditions.
All the studies done on apes are carried under lab
conditions. If the results of the lab can hold true in
natural surroundings and that too after considerable
long gaps in between the studies then only can this
discussion be taken forward. "Come here"
Beckoning with fingers pointing down

Leslie White (1900-1975)

Student of Sapir -
Unilineal evolutionary theory was
fundamentally sound.
Evolutionary development from simple
to complex, with increasing
specialization of the parts was just as
valid for cultures as it was for biology.
Problem was to develop a universal
standard of measurement.
1943 - Energy and the Evolution of
Culture

Figure: Tool Usage by Apes Thus, it is best to conclude that PRESENTLY culture is
unique to human beings

Comparison between Cultures with Civilísation

Definition:

Definition of culture: Definition of civilization:

Edward B. Tylor in his book, “Primitive Culture” (1871) J.L. Gillin (An Introduction to Human Culture, 1948):
has defined “Culture, or civilization, taken in its broad, “Civilization is a more complex and evolved form of
ethnographic sense, is that complex whole which culture”.
includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and Arnold Toynbee (A Study of History, 1934–1961):
any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a “Civilization is a state of society in which the chief
member of society.” concern of the people is not to live but to live well.”
Max Weber (A Study of History, 1934–1961): “Civilization
is the rationalization of life.”
Lewis Mumford (City in History,1961): “Civilization is the
art of living”
Relationship between the culture and civilization:
They are both interdependent and interactive. Culture needs civilisation for further growth and civilisation needs culture
as its vital force and thus, its survival.
As per evolutionists like Tylor, Morgan and Frazer civilisation is the apex stage of cultural development.
55
 The objects of civilisation, after a period of time,
acquire a cultural significance. Example: Articles like CHARACTERISTICS OF A
coins, tools., clothes etc. become symbols of a society’s CIVILIZATION
culture. Early cities slowly developed into
civilizations. Civilizations had all of the
Civilisation tries to put t certain limitations on culture, following characteristics:
by determining the degree to which cultural activities
can be pursued.
Art and Architecture Specialized Workers
Civilisation is the driving force of society, and culture is
its steering wheel. This means that change in culture Social Classes Organized Government
results in change in civilisation.
Formalized Religion Record Keeping and Writing
Differences:
Developed Cities
Following Mclver, the differences include:
Figure: Elements of Civilization
Civilisation has a precise standard of measurement,
but not culture. This means that we can compare the
Summing up by the words of Mclver “civilisation is
products of civilisation, but not of culture. Example: We what we have, and culture is what we are.”
can say that a car runs faster than a bullock cart. But
we cannot say conclusively whether modem paintings
are better than those of earlier times. Culture as extra corporal behaviour of man is
dependent on the biological preconditioning
Civilisation is always advancing, but culture may or may
Language Acquisition: Broca’s and Wernicke’s
not. Example: We cannot assert that thoughts of today
Areas in the brain are biologically preconditioned to
are superior to those of the past.
facilitate language production and comprehension.
Elements of civilisation can be borrowed without This neurological basis allows for the complex cultural
change, loss or protest. The same is not applicable development of languages. Noam Chomsky’s theory
to cultural elements. Example: Railway system was of a “universal grammar” suggests that the ability to
borrowed as it is from one country to another, but acquire language is biologically ingrained, but the
certain elements of culture such as art or religion, have specific languages and linguistic structures we learn
never been borrowed in their original character. are culturally determined.
Civilisation is transmitted without efforts, but not Tool Use: The development of the first stone tools by
culture. The transmission of culture across generations Homo habilis was influenced by the species’ anatomical
depends on the personality and nature of the people, features, such as opposable thumbs and increased
and thus needs efforts. brain size, which allowed for precision grip and complex
Civilisation is external and mechanical, while culture is thought. Variety of tools in different regions represents
internal and organic. cultural innovation, but the ability to create and use
them was preconditioned by biological evolution.
Cognitive Abilities: The human brain’s complex
structure allows for abstract thinking, language, and the
Attitudes ability to create and transmit culture. Anthropologist
Art/
Drama/ Clifford Geertz emphasised the “symbolic nature” of
Beliefs
Music human thought, which is a result of our neurological
capacity.
Food
Bipedalism: The evolution of bipedalism freed the
Language hands for tool-making, a critical cultural development.
Culture The work of Raymond Dart and subsequent
anthropologists on Australopithecus africanus
Faith/ demonstrated how bipedalism and tool use are linked
Religion to cultural advancements.
Customs
Food Preferences: Humans have taste receptors that
prefer sweet and fatty foods which provide essential
Behaviour Rituals nutrients in the human evolutionary past. However,
cultural factors determine which foods are considered
desirable or taboo, leading to diverse culinary practices.
Figure: Elements of Culture Example: Biological adaptation of lactase persistence in
adults has led to cultural prominence of dairy products
such as cheese in European cuisines.
Social Behaviour: Human social behaviour is
56 profoundly influenced by biological factors such as
 genetic makeup, hormonal regulation, and neurological inculcates tolerance.
structures. However, these biological foundations are Understand human differences: It has helped
moulded and expressed through cultural practices. For understand the diversity among us, and thus busts
example, the biological response to grief, such as crying, sever myths like racism and the supposed ‘savage
is universal, but cultural practices around mourning nature of tribes.
differ widely. In some cultures, public displays of grief Applied anthropology: Anthropologists having a
are encouraged, while in others, they may be restrained cultural relativistic view can understand issues such
or even discouraged. (Rosenblatt P. C., 1976) as tribal unrest and Left-Wing Extremism in a better
Mating and family structures: Mating behaviours and manner. Their developmental solutions are often more
family structures are influenced by a combination of efficient, as they are compatible with the culture of
biological and cultural factors. Human reproductive their target groups.
strategies, such as monogamy or polygamy, are not Preserve human culture: Cultural relativists
solely determined by biology but are shaped by cultural understand that every culture is a treasure house of
norms and economic conditions. Example: Monogamy, knowledge. For instance, they insist on conservation
widely practised, is often seen as a cultural adaptation of tribal languages, irrespective of the number of
that ensures parental investment in offspring. While speakers.
humans may have a biological inclination toward pair
Help reform societies: Paul Rosenblatt says cultural
bonding, the cultural institution of marriage formalises
relativists are aware of values and understanding of
and regulates this behaviour.
a society. Thus, they know what arguments may work
Culture is a complex phenomenon that emerges from the in order to persuade a society’s members to give up
interaction between biological and environmental factors. practices that violate basic human rights.
While humans share common biological traits, cultural
Criticism:
diversity arises from the unique ways in which these traits
are expressed and adapted to different ecological and Elizabeth Zechenter has criticised cultural relativists,
social contexts. saying that they justify traditional practices that often
violate human rights, all in the name of cultural uniqueness.
Cultural relativism and why it is dear to
anthropologists.
CASE STUDY
Definition of Cultural relativism:
Franz Boas (The Mind of Primitive Man 1911): “Cultural
relativism is the principle of understanding another 1. Yanomami tribe of Venezuela and Brazil
culture on its own terms. believe that they are the only true people,
Ruth Benedict (Patterns of Culture 1934): “Cultural and that all other tribes are inferior. They
relativism is the attempt to understand the values and often refer to other tribes as “those who
standards of another culture in terms of that culture eat monkeys” or “those who eat fish.
itself, rather than evaluating them in terms of one’s 2. Massai tribe of Kenya and Tanzania believe
own culture. that they are the chosen people of God,
Margaret Mead (Coming of Age in Samoa 1928): and that all other tribes are inferior. They
“Cultural relativism is the recognition that all cultures often refer to other tribes as “the dirty
are equally valid and that no one culture is superior to ones” or “the foolish ones.”
another.”
History:
The concept originated with the emergence of the
historical particularism school of thought led by Franz ETHNOCENTRISM VERSUS
Boas, in the late 19th century. CULTURAL RELATIVISM
Boas argued that every culture owes its particular state ETHNOCENTRISM CULTURAL RELATIVISM
to the historical processes through which the society William Graham Sumner, in his Cultural relativism is the notion
evolves. book Folkways (1906) refers that a culture should be
Ethnocentrism to “judgement of understood on its own terms,
Since these processes are unique, therefore every other people’s cultures, values not using standards of another
culture must be seen independently, and not in the or customs through the prism culture
context of another. of one’s own.” It arises due to
each group considering its Involves looking at another
culture as the most natural and culture by its own perspective
The first use of the term is believed to be done by Alain instead of one's own culture
Locke in 1924. best way of living.
Involves looking at another A person who believes in
Why it is dear to Anthropologists: culture from the perspective of cultural relativism understands
one's own culture that one culture is not better
Promote tolerance: Cultural relativism promotes than another
observation of different cultures from their perspective An ethnocentric individual will
believe that his culture is better,
and not ours. It adds an impartial objectivity, and thus 'correct' and 'normal 57
 Example Studying indigenous Criticizing non-
CASE STUDY rituals with respect Western traditions
as backward
Implications Can foster global Can foster conflict
Case studies of Cultural relativism:
tolerance and and cultural
1. Nuba tribe of Sudan has a tradition of body coexistence dominance
scarification which may seem strange to
people from other cultures, but it is an Similarities:
important as scarification is seen as a way Both present an extremist view: While ethnocentrism
to show beauty and to mark important life leans toward intolerance, cultural relativism leans
events. towards incredibly high tolerance of cultural features.
2. Mosuo tribe of China practices matrilineal Both have negative connotations: Extreme
society as it is seen as a way to ensure that ethnocentrism gives rise to racism, while extreme
women have a strong role in society. cultural relativism justifies traditional practices that
often violate human rights, all in the name of cultural
uniqueness.
Due to issues in both approaches, anthropologists
Comparison between cultural relativism and employ what is sort of a middle ground. This is
ethnocentrism. because it is almost impossible to be unbiased while
Cultural relativism is an anthropological approach that comparing cultures. This biasness may be due to one’s
emphasises on understanding any particular culture own cultural affiliation or due to one’s understanding
through the logic and meanings of that culture only, and perception of human rights and ethics. Hence, it
which is under observation. is important for anthropologists today to understand
In contrast with cultural relativism, ethnocentrism another culture without the need to approve or
refers to judgement of other people’s cultures, values disapprove of it.
or customs through the prism of one’s own. Human Rights and Cultural Relativism:
Understanding through an example: Human rights and cultural relativism are two important
but often conflicting concepts in anthropology and
Khasa tribe of Jaunsar-Bawar region of Uttarakhand
international discourse. Human rights refer to the
practice polyandry. An ethnocentric view from the
universal rights and freedoms to which all humans are
mainstream society would view this practice as derogatory.
entitled, while cultural relativism is the view that cultural
Reasons for practice: norms and values are context-specific and should be
Khasas live on hill slopes and their agro-productivity is understood within their own cultural framework.
very low. They practice polyandry to lower the economic Tensions between Human Rights and Cultural Relativism:
costs involved in marriage.
The conflict between human rights and cultural
A cultural relativist view would look at this perspective relativism arises when practices that are culturally
of Khasas and understand their practices. sanctioned come into direct conflict with universal
Comparison: human rights standards. For example, practices such
as female genital mutilation (FGM), child marriage,
Aspect Cultural Relativism Ethnocentrism and certain forms of punishment can be deeply
rooted in cultural traditions but are condemned by
Definition Understanding Belief in cultural international human rights law.
cultural practices in superiority Cultural relativists argue that imposing universal human
context rights standards can lead to cultural imperialism,
Attitude Tolerant and non- Judgmental and where dominant cultures impose their values on less
judgmental often dismissive powerful cultures. They caution against a one-size-fits-
all approach to human rights, advocating instead for
Approach Contextual and Comparative and
a more nuanced understanding that respects cultural
empathetic biased
differences.
Focus Cultural diversity Cultural On the other hand, human rights advocates emphasize
and specificity homogeneity and that certain rights are fundamental and should be
superiority protected regardless of cultural context. They argue
Outcome Promotes Leads to prejudice that cultural relativism should not be used as a shield
understanding and and discrimination to protect practices that cause harm or perpetuate
respect inequality and discrimination.
58
 lag occur when there is a delay between the introduction
CASE STUDY of new technological innovations (material culture) and
the adjustments in societal norms, values, beliefs, and
institutions (non-material culture) that are necessary to
The Maasai and Female Genital Mutilation accommodate these innovations.
(FGM): Material vs. Non-material Culture:
Background: The Maasai, an indigenous Material Culture: Physical objects, resources, and
ethnic group in Kenya and Tanzania, have spaces that people use to define their culture. These
traditionally practiced FGM as a rite of include technology, tools, buildings, and all other
passage for girls. tangible cultural elements.
Conflict: International human rights Non-material Culture: Intangible aspects of a culture,
organizations consider FGM a violation of such as beliefs, practices, aesthetics, values, and
women’s and girls’ rights to health, security, norms.
and bodily integrity. Examples of Cultural Lag:
Resolution Efforts: NGOs and local activists Technological Advancements: The rise of the internet
have worked within Maasai communities to and social media has outpaced the development of
educate about the health risks of FGM and appropriate regulations, privacy norms, and ethical
promote alternative rites of passage. These considerations.
efforts aim to respect Maasai culture while
Medical Innovations: Advances in medical technology,
protecting girls’ rights.
such as genetic engineering and cloning, have led to
Outcome: Increasingly, Maasai ethical and legal debates that society has struggled to
communities are abandoning FGM in favor resolve.
of alternative ceremonies, demonstrating
Environmental Changes: The development of
how cultural practices can evolve to align
industrial technology has significantly impacted the
with human rights standards.
environment, but societal adjustments to mitigate
these impacts, such as the adoption of sustainable
practices and policies, have been slow.
Balancing Human Rights and Cultural Relativism:
Achieving a balance between respecting cultural diversity CASE STUDY
and upholding universal human rights requires dialogue
and a context-sensitive approach.
Interventions to promote human rights should be In the early 2000s, India experienced a
culturally sensitive and involve local communities in rapid increase in the availability and use of
the process. Efforts should be made to understand smartphones. This technological advancement
cultural practices and find culturally appropriate ways significantly impacted various aspects of
to advocate for change. Indian society, highlighting the concept of
One approach is to work with local leaders and cultural lag as non-material culture (norms,
communities to reinterpret cultural traditions in ways values, regulations) struggled to keep pace
that align with human rights principles. For example, with the new material culture (smartphones).
promoting alternative rites of passage that do not
involve harmful practices can help bridge the gap
between cultural traditions and human rights.
Implications of Cultural Lag:
The interplay between cultural relativism and human rights Cultural lag can lead to social problems and conflicts
is complex, requiring a nuanced approach that respects as society grapples with the implications of new
cultural diversity while advocating for the protection technologies and innovations.
of fundamental human rights. Through intercultural
It highlights the dynamic nature of culture and the
dialogue, culturally sensitive advocacy, and the contextual
challenges in achieving equilibrium between material
application of human rights, it is possible to navigate these
and non-material aspects of society.
tensions and promote a more inclusive and respectful
global human rights framework. Criticisms and Relevance:
William Ogburn and Cultural Lag: Some critics argue that the concept of cultural lag
oversimplifies the complex interactions between
William Fielding Ogburn was an American sociologist different elements of culture.
known for his concept of “cultural lag.” Cultural lag refers
Despite criticisms, the concept remains relevant in
to the period of adjustment when the non-material culture
contemporary discussions about the impact of rapid 59
is struggling to adapt to new material conditions. Cultural
 technological advancements on society. underscores the challenges that arise when non-material
William Ogburn’s concept of cultural lag provides a useful culture struggles to keep pace with material culture,
framework for understanding the temporal gap between leading to social tensions and the need for ongoing
technological innovations and societal adaptation. It adjustments in norms, values, and institutions.

The Nature of Society Concept of Society

Definition:
George H. McGee (Society: An Introduction to Sociology, 2006): “Society is the largest indistinguishable unit of
interacting individuals who share a pattern of social organisation that regulates their interaction.”
Bronislaw Malinowski Argonauts of the Western Pacific (1922): “Society is the way of life of a people, the totality of
their learned and transmitted behavior patterns, their customary ideas and values.”
Edward Tylor (Primitive Culture, 1871).: “Society is a complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, law, morals,
custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.
Clifford Geert (the Interpretation of Cultures, 1973): “Society is a system of symbols and meanings that people use
to construct their world and to communicate with each other

Development of the Society:

Classical evolutionists did not differentiate between
society and culture, using them interchangeably.
It was the development of social anthropology in Britain,
and cultural anthropology in America, that led to the
distinction between the two.
Functionalists believed that the necessity of fulfilling
needs makes us social, and thus gives rise to the concept
of society.

Characteristics: Value addition:

Mclver has called society a web of social relations. There
is always a mutual recognition of the members’ status
Caste
and actions. System
Likeness among members is an essential prerequisite
for a society. However, differences too are vital, for there
to be interaction. Cultural Joint
Lag Family
Members of a society are interdependent on each other. Characteristics
Cooperation is an integral element of society. of Indian Society
Parsons and LaPiere have remarked that society
consists of groups involved in reciprocal relationships,
Patriarchal Marriage
enabling them to fulfil their needs. Society System

Figure: Characteristics of Indian Society

It is today agreed that society, as a concept goes beyond the human world and is prevalent in several species of living
beings.

60
Comparison between society and culture:
Introduction:
The first to study culture and society were the classical evolutionists, who did not differentiate between the two and
used them interchangeably. With the gradual development of anthropology, in particular social anthropology in Great
Britain, and cultural anthropology in America, three main views emerged:

1. Culture as an all embracing phenomena

Anthropologists who define culture as an all-embracing
phenomenon, encompassing social organisation, Culture
structure and society as a whole.
Leading proponent of this view was Malinowski.
It means that culture not only includes but is largely Society
responsible for all human behaviour.
Environment

Economy

2. Culture as distinct from society As per Radcliffe-Brown, society deals with interpersonal
Anthropologists who dichotomise between the culture and inter-group relationships, while culture is the overall
and society. design of human behaviour.
This includes mostly British anthropologists like Radclife- As per Nadel, culture is a way of life of the people, while
Brown, Evans-Pritchard and S.F. Nadel. society is an organised and interacting aggregate of
individuals who follow a given way of life, that is, their
culture.

3. Culture and Society as two aspects of social realities Strauss defined society as “a system of relations between
Anthropologists who steer a middle course by accepting individuals” and culture as “the totality of the learned
both as two aspects of social realities viewed from and shared behavior patterns of a society.” He argued in
different dimensions. Culture mainly relates to action his theory of structuralism that society and culture are
and behaviour, while society to relationship and grouping. inseparable, and that they can only be understood in terms
of each other.
Leading proponent of this view was Levi-Strauss.

Today, it is widely agreed that culture and society are interwoven and interdependent concepts which cannot exist
without each other.

Social institutions:
Definition:
Mclver and Page, “Social institutions refer to established forms or the condition of a procedure characteristic of group
activity”.
Melville J. Herskovits (Man and His Works: The Science of Cultural Anthropology): “A social institution is a set
of customary ways of thinking, feeling, and acting in relation to one or more aspects of social life that have been
established in a society over a period of time.”
A. R. Radcliffe-Brown (Structure and Function in Primitive Society): “A social institution is a complex of customary
activities, organized for the satisfaction of some recurrent social need.”
Clifford Geertz (The Interpretation of Cultures): “A social institution is a system of established meanings and symbols,
organized for the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services, for the regulation of status and
role relationships, and for the socialization of new members.”
61
 Importance:
The functionalist view that institutions operate to Social Institutions
satisfy biological and psychological needs of individuals,
and society as a whole. Family Education Religion
The structural functionalist view that institutions
operate to maintain continuity and unity of the society. Government Economics

Characteristics:
Functions of a Social Institutions
Every institution has a definitive objective to be achieved
by its members.
1 Maintain order and security
They are a means of controlling individuals, and in this
effect, they are more stable than other means of social 2 Shape values and beliefs
control.
They are governed by rules and regulations. 3 Help society to function efficiently
They have some definite proceedings formed as per
customs and dogmas. 4 Act as agents of socialization
Their function and proceedings depend upon the
collective actions of the members.

Types of social institution:

1. Primary: Operate in five basic areas of life (shown in table). These are deeply rooted in human nature, and thus exist
almost everywhere, at least in rudimentary form.
2. Secondary : Are derived from each of the primary institutions

Primary Institution Area of operation of the primary institute Secondary Institutions corresponding to the
primary institution
Family Determining kinship Marriage, Divorce
Government/State Providing for legitimate use of power Democracy, Parliament
Religion Directs our relationship to the supernatural Temple, Church
Economy Regulating distribution of goods and services Trade and commerce
Education Transmitting knowledge School, College

According to Lester F. Ward, social institutions are the means for controlling and utilization of social energy. Thus, they
are the backbone of any society and its culture.
Understanding Mclver and Page’s definition: It means that institutions provide for systematic way of group activity, due
to their organised nature and defined set of proceedings.
Example: The institution of marriage is governed by certain norms and principles, which direct the way two families
associate with each other and the way the couple live thereafter.

CLIFF NOTE

62
Social groups
Definition:
Mclver (Society: A Textbook of Sociology): “A social group is any collection of human beings brought into social
relationships with one another”.
George H. Mcgee (Society: An Introduction to Sociology). : “A social group is a collection of people who interact with
each other on a regular basis and share a common identity.”
William Ogburn (Social Change With Respect to Culture and Original Nature) “A social group is a collection of people
who are bound together by common interests, values, and norms.”
Charles Horton Cooley (Social Organization: A Study of the Larger Mind): “It is a collection of people who are aware
of each other’s existence and who have some sense of shared identity.”
Characteristics: Value addition:
Members are involved in reciprocal relationships and
thus there exists interdependence. Characteristics of Social Groups
There is a sense of unity among the members, a type of Permanence beyond meetings of members.
“WE” feeling. Means for identifying members.
It is sustained due to the need to fulfil common interests Mechanisms for recruiting new members.
of the members. Goals or purposes.
It is governed by certain norms of the group, acceptable Norms for behavior.
to the members.
Means for controlling members' behavior.
It is dynamic and changes with the changing needs and
behaviour of the members.
Types of Social Groups: The most used classification has
been given by Cooley, who has divided social groups into: Differences between Primary
1. Primary social group:
and Secondary Groups
It comprises a small number of people, engaged in Primary Secondary
face-to-face intimate association and cooperation. Size Small Large
Example: family, childhood friends.
Relationships Personal, Impersonal, aloof
Primary groups are the nucleus of any social intimate
organisation. They are like a nursery where an Communication Face to face Indirect
individual’s behaviour and personality are shaped.
Duration Permanent Temporary
The individual’s need to remain in primary group is a
Cohesion Strong sense Based on
major factor in the maintenance of social order. of loyalty self-interest
2. Secondary: Decisions Traditions and Rules and
Such groups provide experiences lacking in intimacy. personal feeling rational thought
Membership is based on rules and norms, and Social Structure Informal Formal
is voluntary. These are characterised by formal
interactions, and generally, the aim of membership is
personal benefit. Example: class, workplace, political
parties
Due to the complex modern social life, the prominence of secondary social groups has increased. They are taking up
functions that were previously the exclusive domain of primary ones. Studies show that primary groups get formed even
in secondary groups. This is a further testament of the social nature of human beings. Example: workplaces.

Social stratification
Definition:
Melville J. Herskovits: “The hierarchical arrangement of people into social categories based on their access to wealth,
power, and prestige.
A. R. Radcliffe-Brown(Structure and Function in Primitive Society): “The division of society into a hierarchy of social
positions, each with its own rights and duties
Clifford Geertz (The Interpretation of Cultures): “The unequal distribution of resources, power, and prestige in
society.
63
 Characteristics: Value addition:
It has its roots in social inequality. Perspectives of anthropologists:
These inequalities are institutionalized and legitimized Functionalists like Durkheim, Parsons and Merton opine
by the society itself. that stratification ensures group solidarity, political
Basis of inequality varies from time to time, and consolidation and economic cooperation. It thereby
geography. Example: India, caste is the said basis, while enhances the efficiency of operations within a society.
in West, it is often class. Marxists regard stratification, in particular class
It is always social in nature, not biological. stratification, to be the source of all conflict and
Members of a stratum tend to have common life style, revolution in a society. Stratification is often the source
distinguishable from other strata. of economic, social and political inequality, due to denial
of equal opportunities to all.
Power plays an important role in maintaining social
stratification.
Social stratification has its positives and negatives, but there is no doubt that it is a reality in almost all societies, even
amongst those which were previously nearly egalitarian.
Basis of Stratification:
Caste: A hierarchical, endogamous social group, whereby
a person’s rank and associated rights/obligations are
Brahmins
ascribed on the basis of birth in a particular group. In Priests,
the Indian society, caste has two connotations - Varna Academics
and jati.
Kshatriyas
Class: A group of individuals sharing the same economic Warriors, Administrators,
Rulers
status. Class has an orientation towards achieved
status. Ranking is value dependent. Example: In some Vaishyas
societies, prestige is more valued over money, and thus Artisans, Merchants,
Tradesmen, Farmers
they rank classes accordingly.
Estate - Associated with medieval European feudal Shudras
Commoners, Peasants, Servants
society.

Dalits (Untouchables)
Street Sweepers, Latrine Cleaners

Figure: social stratification on caste

There were three estates:
Clergy
Nobility
others (commoners) Aristocracy

Whose set of relationships revolved around the three

concepts of land (fief), lord and vassal. The system is not Clergy
existent today

Serfs

Estate Systems
Characterizes the status hierarchies found in Europe
prior to capitalism.
Membership in the Church (clergy) was not based on
ascribed characteristics.
However, highest rankings within clergy come from first
estate (aristocracy).
Like the caste system, position in an estate system is
determined at birth. Contact is permitted, but generally
impersonal.

64
Status and role
Status and role are two integral concepts related to society, which were first systematically detailed by Ralph Linton, in
his book, The Study of Man (1936).
Definition of Status:
ASCRIBED ACHIEVED
Ralph Linton: “A position in a social structure with its
accompanying rights and duties”. Daughter Friend
A. R. Radcliffe-Brown: “A collection of rights and duties.”
It has two connotations : Sister Worker
1. A person’s social position without reference to any
contrasting higher or lower ones Female Student
2. Designation of one’s ranking in the social system as lower
or higher than others
17 years Team
old member

African
American Classmate

Linton gave two types of status :

Ascribed Status Achieved Status

Definition Based on birth in a group, sex, age etc. It is Based on personal achievements.
accorded to an individual without any of his/her Example: class
efforts.
Example: caste system
Criteria Age, sex, race, caste etc. Qualities, capabilities, abilities
Nature Is rigid and stable. Its basis does not change Is flexible and fast-changing
easily. E.g. Indian caste system has been almost
unchanged since centuries
Pre-conditions for None Exist.
attaining status Example: Qualification is needed to become a
doctor.
Mobility Limits put on mobility from one status to Freedom of mobility
another
Issue (Davis) Rigidity and restricted mobility Excess specialisation, leading to uncontrolled
individualism, and thus loss of social cohesion

MASTER STATUS
In every society there is always one status that tends to overshadow all other statuses or is given more importance
by others. This is called the master status.
Gender, race and caste for instance often become master statuses in highly stratified societies. Conflict sociologists
often engage with ascribed statuses of gender and race as they argue that these often shape the individual’s life
chances including income, occupation, education, social networks and so on.
Similarly, mental or physical disability can also become a master status and govern the everyday behaviour of the
society towards the disabled.

65
 Definition of Role:
1. Ralph Linton: “The dynamic aspect of status; the part played by an individual occupying a status.”
Linton distinguished role from status by calling it the dynamic aspect of status. When one puts his/her rights and
duties associated with his/her status into effect, he/she is performing a role. Thus, role is a pattern of behaviour
associated with a particular status
2. Talcott Parsons: “The organized set of expectations (norms) defining the rights and duties of a given position
3. Banton (1965):- Roles are a “cluster of rights and obligations” and what is one individual’s obligation is his/her partner’s
right. So in a restaurant a waitress is obliged to serve and the customer has the right to be served. This way, “the
concept of role”, Banton writes, “provides one of the available means for studying elements of cooperation
”Meaning of a role is only found in interaction with other roles.
Example: father-son, teacher-student
Types:
Role is of two types: achieved and ascribed on the exact same lines as status.
Like ascribed statuses, the ascribed roles are the ones that are given at birth.
From the time an individual is born, role learning begins which is a part of what we know as socialization. These roles
pertain to one’s sex (gender), age, kinship, caste, class, and so on.
The achieved roles on the other hand are the ones that are largely acquired over a lifetime on the basis of merit such
as occupational roles of a farmer, salesperson, banker, shopkeeper, driver, lawyer, professor et cetera.
Scholars View:
Honigmann opines that role plays an important part in personality formation, through the interactions, expectations
and conflicts associated with a role.
Slotkin has further added that society regulates behaviour by establishing customary relationships between roles.
The structuralists (Linton, Banton, Parsons and Merton) view roles as norms and expectations associated with
statuses in the social structure where individuals are socialized into “role taking”. Linton (1936) writes: “…the more
perfectly the members of any society are adjusted to their and roles the more smoothly the society will function”. This
way the functionalist also assume consensus on part of the individuals.
The social interactionists (Mead, Turner) on the other hand argue that individuals though bound by the structure and
its given expectations interpret and evaluate their roles and engage in negotiation. For interactionists this is a creative
process of “role making” rather than just unquestioning internalization of given expectations.

Contemporary Significance:
No society is purely of ascribed or achieved status type.
Social interaction are not concerned with persons but their social status. Thus, social interaction is essentially ‘status
interaction.”
In today’s society, role conflicts have increased due to confusion over one’s status. This is due to modernisation, new and
conflicting cultural values and weakening kinship ties.

66
BASIC, GENERAL AND INDEPENDENT ROLES Social structure
Banton (1965:33) developed a scale giving a comparison Introduction:
of the extent to which particular roles are independent of
Social structure along with social organisation is one of
other roles.
the two main components of a social system. There is no
s 0 l universal definition for it.
0 100
independent
Basic roles general roles
roles Social Status
Social Structure
s = sex roles a = age roles o = occupational roles 1= leisure roles Institutions Role
a) Basic roles: Basic roles are mostly determined by sex
and age, ascribed to individuals at birth and these roles Definition:
shape conduct in a large number of social contexts. • Marxists define social structure as “a mechanism
b) General roles: General roles are mostly assigned on ensuring social continuity or conservation.”
the basis of merit of the individual. • Radcliffe-Brown (Structure and Function in Primitive
c) Independent roles: Independent roles are determined Society 1952),’ defined social structure as “the total
by merit and have very less implications for other network of social relationships in a society”. He called it
roles and on the way people respond to the person a continuing arrangement of persons and groups.
who occupies the independent role. Examples
It is generally accepted that social structure includes
of independent roles are leisure roles and many
institutions, status and role.
occupational roles.
Radcliffe-Brown opined that social structure has to be
Usually an individual’s sex role shapes the individual’s seen from the perspective of institutions, as institutions
conduct and the response of others towards him or her control and define status and roles.
more than any other role. Occupational roles also shape
the way people respond to an individual particularly in
work space or social gatherings. The leisure roles are
more independent and have limited influence outside of a CASE STUDY
partic