Crop production technology -II

(Oil seed crops, Fibre crops, Sugar crops and Fodder crops)
Course code: 22AGRO202

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 Lecture 1
Importance of oilseed crops - edible and non – edible oils – nutritional value– importance in Indian economy –
constraints in oilseed production – need for improvement of productivity and production.

The crops that are cultivated for the production of oils are known as OILSEED CROPS. Oilseeds are the raw
materials for vegetable oils and they are energy rich crops. Oilseed crops are the most important commercial crops in
India. Edible oils are next to food grains in Indian diet. The Rapeseed and Mustard, Sesamum, Sunflower,
Safflower, Linseed, Soybean, Niger, Ground- nut and Castor are the most important oil seed crops of India.

Classification:-
The oilseed crops are classified according to the nature of oil produced as follows:

EDIBLE OILSEED CROPS:-

The most important source of supply of edible oils are the seeds known as edible oil seeds and the crops belong to
this category are known as edible oil seed crops.
E.g., Rapeseed & mustard, sesamum, groundnut, niger, sunflower, safflower, soybean etc.

NON-EDIBLE OIL SEED CROPS:-

The most important source of supply of non-edible oils are the seeds known as non-edible oil seeds and the crops
belong to this category are known as non-edible oil seed crops.
E.g., Castor, Linseed etc.

Nutritional Value o f Oilseeds :-

The bio-chemical composition and quality of the oilseeds and their products are important for the food and feed
purposes.
Edible oils are the concentrated sources of energy. The energy content of oil is much higher (39.80 MJ/kg) than
protein (23.88 MJ/kg) or carbohydrate (16.76 MJ/kg).
They contain useful carbohydrates, essential fatty acids and vitamins A,D,E and K. and provide essential fatty acids.
Oil cakes/ oil meals are rich sources of protein (40-60%) to human and animals. They can
also be used as organic manures.
Oil quality for food purpose can be described in terms of Saturated Fatty Acid (SFA), Mono- unsaturated Fatty Acid
( MUFA) and Poly Unsaturated Fatty Acid ( PUFA) .

Saturated Fatty Acid (SFA) - Palmitic and Stearic acid

They have direct relation with blood cholesterol and coronary heart diseases as it increases low density lipoprotein
that is harmful .

Unsaturated Fatty Acid (SFA) - Oleic, Linoleic , Linolenic and Erucic acids.
Linoleic & Linolenic acids (Poly Unsatutated Fatty Acids – PUFA) are Essential fatty acids (not synthesized by
human body and are to supplied from outside) and if they are absent, it leads to physiological disorders.They
increase high density lipoprotein, which
is beneficial.

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Groundnut, coconut, sesame and sunflower oils have moderate amounts of saturated fatty acid but lack in one
essentia l fatty acid i.e. linolenic acid.
Soybean, safflower and mustard oils have both essential fatty acids as Linoleic and Linolenic acids.
Rapeseed and mustard oil have high amount of erucic acid, an anti nutritional factor
and leads to coronary diseases.

Keeping Quality of Oils :

The ratio of oleic to linoleic acid affects the storage ability of edible oil and hence affects the nutritional quality. It
shuld be greater than 1.6 for longer shelf life.
Sunflower and safflower oils cannot be stored for longer periods.
Soybean oil looses its original flavour after once deep frying.
Groundnut oil has very good stability due to the presence of tocopherols (vit E) and can be stored at room
temperature even upto 18 months without any quality deterioration.
Sesamum oil – highly stable due to the presence of ‘ Sesimol’, anti-oxidant
Mustard oil is also rich in vit.E and has good stability at high temperature also.

IMPORTANCE OF OIL SEED IN INDIAN ECONOMY :

In terms of vegetable oils , India is the fourth largest oil economy in the World after USA, China and Brazil.
India is one of the major oilseed producing countries in the world accounting for about 16% of the area and 10%
of world oilseed production.
In India oil seeds occupy nearly 14% of country’s gross cropped area and contributes to 5% of the GNP and 10%
of the value of the agricultural products.
The oil seeds contain 20 – 60 % oil, which is chiefly consumed as food and energy source. They are energy rich
and cash value crops.
The edible oils are used as cooking oil, vanaspati and proteins.
The oil seed crop earn lot of foreign exchange of 1,300 crores of rupees is saved during 2008-09 by exporting oil
seed.
The oil seed cultivation also provides employment to rural people. It is estimated that in India 35 million people are
engaged in oilseed production and one million in their processing.
The oldest non-food use in lamp oil and as a lubricant which are used in textile and leather industries.
Vegetable oils and its derivatives are biodegradable and eco-friendly thus they can be used as diesel substitutes.
Vegetable oils have a number of industrial uses such as plastic films, metallic foils, Soaps, Detergents, Condiments,
Cosmetics, Plastic, Polymers, Organic coatings, Printing ink, Oiled cloth, linoleum, rubber additive as substitutes to
hydraulic & brake oil & chemical intermediates.
Oil seeds contain useful carbohydrates, essential fatty acids, vitamins like A, D, E and K and also contain 18
essential aminoacids & trace elements.
Oil seed crops can serve as pasture, cover and green manure crops. They are also used as fodder and for
silage.
The oil seed cake which has 40-60% protein is worth while as animal feed and organic manure.
In India, direct export of cakes has earned foreign exchange of INR 2,200 crores but can be upgrade as valued
human food.
Vegetable oils have medicinal and therapeutic value and also used as laxatives. E.g., Castor, Safflower & Sunflower
oil.

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Safflower tea – prevents cardiovascular diseases and gynecological disorders
- if consumed daily, it reduces blood pressure
Certain oil seed cakes have vermicidal action & it is used for pest cont rol purposes.
E.g., Mustard, Castor
Lecithin is a co-product in oil industry which is used as emulsifier in pharmaceutical products, bakery products
& other food stuffs.
Thus, oilseed crops can be viewed as producers of high quality edible oils and at the same time they are efficient low
polluting chemical factors that can be metamorphosed to produce value added products, including the substitute for
fossil fuel.

CONSTRAINTS IN OIL SEED PRODUCTION:-

There is an imbalance between demand and supply in edible oils due to low productivity of oil seeds. The
constraints in oil seed production are:-
Oil seeds are energy rich crops, but are grown in energy starved conditions. More than 85% of the area under oilseeds
is rainfed, often cultivated with low input and poor management practices.
Most of the oil seed crops are raised in marginal and sub marginal lands which are having poor fertility status.
Oil seeds are subjected to the vagaries of the monsoon resulting in lower yields as compared to irrigated crops.
Lack of suitable HYV or hybrids which are having higher levels of oil content.
Most of the cultivars of oil seed crops are drought susceptible and HYV are generally long duration (> 100
days).
Small and margina l farmers generally cultivate the oil seed crops which are still not well adapted to new farm
technologies.
In India, most of the soil seed crops are grown as monocropping in traditional areas without crop rotation
which results in perpetuation & development of inoculum of pests and diseases, without crop rotations. Yield
losses due to diseases and pests accounts for 40%. The attack of insect pest mainly aphid is one of main causes of
low yield of oil seed crops, particularly rapeseed & mustard.
Inadequate supply of best quality seeds to the farmers when compared to cereal crops.
Failure of hybridization and seed multiplication programmes in oil seed crops compared to cereals.
Seed multiplication ratio is very very low in case of oil seed crops.
The progress in respect of oil seeds has not been substantial, mainly because food grains were given first
priority in research & development.
Supply of desired inputs and transfer of technology from farm institutions to the farmer is very very poor.
Lack of farm implements and machinery for sowing and post harvest processing
Lack of suitable post harvest technology to prevent post harvest losses & also to avoid the deterioration of quality
of oil seed.
Lack of storage, grading and marketing facilities in rural areas mainly due to future trading.
The efficiency of oil extraction units or expellers is very poor.
Scarcity of short, high yielding input responsive drought/insect/pest resistant crop varieties.

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NEED FOR IMPROVEMENT OF PRODUCTIVITY AND PRODUCTION :

In India edible oil consumption is growing at the rate of 6-8% annually due to the rapid economic growth and
increasing consumption.
The country,s demand for vegetable oils is expected to increase to 18.3 M.t and 21.8 M.t by
2015 and 2020 respectively. This is roughly equivalent to about 55 and 66 M.t of oilseeds

The Indian Central Oilseed Committee (ICOC) was established in 1947 to increase the oilseed production through
co-ordiated research effort.

All India co-ordinated Research Project on Oilseeds (AICRPO) was set up in 1967 to carry out location specific
research o different oil seed crops.

Directorate of Oilseed Research (DOR) was established in Hyderabad on 1st August,1977 to guide the research &
development in nine mandate crops.

The oilseed scenario in India had undergone dramatic change with the initiation of TMO (Technology Mission on
Oilseeds) in 1986. The highest oilseed production was achieved by 24.75 M.t during 1994-95 against 11.0 M. t
during 1986-87. This dramatic change of Indian oilseed production from a net importer to a status of self sufficiency
and net imported during early nineties has been popularly known as Yellow Revolution.

In post WTO regime, there is a great need to adopt multifaceted strategy for improving oilseed production through
increase in area (38%) and productivity improvement (62%) including processing facility. There is a great scope
for increasing the yields of oil seed crops.

A no. of oil seed de velopment projects such as NODP (National Oilseed Development Project) (1984-85) , Oilseed
Technology Mission etc., have been in operation & they are essentially an extension of intensive oil seed development
programme. The GOI launched ISOPOM (Integrated Scheme for Oilseeds, Oilpalm, Pulses and Maize Development
Programme) to provide flexibility to the states in implementation based on regionally differentiated approach to
promote crop diversification.

STRATEGIES FOR INCREASING THE OIL SEED PRODUCTION IN INDIA:-

Following measures/strategies should be taken for increasing the yield of oil seed crops:
Bringing more area under irrigation. (as drip & sprinkler irrigation)
The good quality seed of recommended varieties for the specific area & situations should be chosen and cultivated.
The seed should be treated with fungicide, bactericide etc. as recommended before sowing
of seed in the field.
It is most important to select a levelled field as far as possible and good drainage should be provided for the oil
seed crops, especially for the kharif crop. Water logging condition is harmful for these crops.
A fine seed bed free from weeds and clods should be prepared to facilitate good germination & stand.
The sowing of the seed should be done at appropriate time with proper row spacing in
case of line sowing crop and the optimum plant population should be maintained by

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thinning at 15-20 days after sowing. Early sowing escapes the attack of many diseases and pests. Under Paira
cropping, sowing should be done at the dough stage of paddy.
The suitable variety for each crop must be chosen for the tract and season.
Adoption of improved crop production technologies.
The recommended doses of fertilizer for the specific crop should be applied at appropriate time.
The field should be kept free from weeds particularly during first 20 – 30 DAS.
The protective irrigation should be provided wherever possible during kharif season and irrigation should be
applied at critical stages for rabi / summer crop.
The plant protection measures should be under taken, if needed.
Harvesting should be done at right time to avoid capsule shattering and reduction in oil content of seed.
The seed should be cleaned and dried well before storage.
Oil extraction from sources such as rice bran, cotton seed and corn apart from flora under utilized plants of forest.
Introduction of oil seed crop as intercrops along with cereals in non-traditional areas and also in double/multiple
cropping sequences.
Extending oilseed cultivation i.e safflower, sunflower, seasame etc to under utilized
situations like rice fallows.
Strengthening of research and extension system.
Strengthening of processing facilities as crushing, solvent extraction, oil refining and hydrogenation for value
addition to products in the context of WTO.
Provision of favourable Govt. policies such as price and credit policies etc. strenghthening
of farmers support system through supply of all inputs.

India (2009 -10) - Total oilseeds

Area – 26.1 1 M .ha Production – 24.93 M .tProductivity -- 955 kg/ha

On Global basis, India ranks first in the production of castor, safflower, sesame and niger, second in groundnut,
rapeseed and mustard, third in linseed, fifth in soybean and sunflower.

The major oilseed growing states in India are :

Madhya Pradesh (20.3%)
Rajasthan (18.9%)
Maharashtra (13.3%)
Gujarat (12.6%)
Andhra Pradesh (10.5%)
Karnataka (10.3%)
Uttar Pradesh (3.9%)
Tamil Nadu (2.5%)
Others (9.7%) of the total oilseed area of the country.

Rajasthan produces 21.3% of total annual oil seed crops followed by Madhya Pradesh
(20.5%) , Gujarat (16.7%) and Andhra Pradesh(7.3%).
India per capita consumption of oil is 11.6 kg/head/year considerably lower than in developed countries as 17.8
kg/head/year. ICMR recommendation is 14 kg/head/year or 35 - 40 g/head/day.
Indian edible oil market is the largest after China & European Union. Each year India consumes around 10 mt of
edible oils.
Consumer oil preferences in India

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North India -- Mustard, Rapeseed East India -- Mustard, Rapeseed West India -- Groundnut
South India -- Groundnut & Coconut
The expected demand of oilseeds production is 44, 55 and 65 mt by 2010,2015 and 2020 respectively.

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 Lecture 2
GROUNDNUT

Botanical name : Arachis hypogaea

Family : Leguminosae
Common name : Groundnut, Peanut, Monkey nut, Earth nut,
Manila nut,moong fali (Hindi).
In Greek language ‘Arachis’ means legume and ‘hypogaea’ means below ground, referring to formation of pods in
the soil.
Groundnut is an important oil and protein source to a large portion of the population in Asia, Africa and the America.
It is a self -pollinated, annual, herbaceous legume. Groundnut, KING OF VEGETABLE OIL SEEDS in India,
occupies pre-eminent position in national edible oil economy.

Economic uses :
Groundnut oil is the cooking media for preparing different food items. It is the primary source of vegetable oil
requirement to the Asian people.
The groundnut seed contain 47-53% oil and 26% protein and 11.5% starch.
The groundnut kernels are good source of all B-vitamins except B12 and vitamin E.
Groundnut kernels are rich in P, Ca & Mg including micronutrients like Fe, Zn.
Nearly 81% of the kernels are used for oil extraction 12% used for seed purpose
6% - raw materials
1% - exported in terms of Hand picked selections (HPS).
Groundnut kernels are also used for the preparation of food products like chikkis, G.nut milk, G.nut butter, curd
including diff. bakery products
G.nut oil is a major source of edible oil in India. The inferior quality oil is used for making soaps, detergents,
Cosmetics, paints, candles, Lubricants and some of the medicines.
G.nut oil is used for medicinal purposes especially for massaging polio patients & it is also used as a substitute
for olive oil and also for preparation of glycerin.
The oil cakes are used as valuable organic manures & feeding material for live stock. It consists of 7.3% N; 1.5%
P2O5 & 1.3% K2O.
The peanut haulms contain crude protein 8– 5% lipids 1– 3% and minerals 9– 10%. These
are used as cattle feed either in fresh or in dried stage or preparing hay or silage.
The peanut shells or pod walls which constitute nearly about 25% of total pod weight are used as bedding
material for poultry or as mulching material during summer season to reduce the evaporative losses.
Shell material is also used as filler material for making mixed fertilizers and as insulation material for buildings or
as fuel in boilers.
G.nut crop add sufficient quantity of organic matter to the soil as most of the leaves are
shed just before harvesting. In some areas, G.nut is used as a green manure crop.
G.nut is able to fix atmospheric nitrogen @ 60 – 100 kg N /ha within 1 season.

ORIGIN:

Center of origin of G.nut is South America i.e., Matograsso a place in Brazil. It appears that Portuguese introduced the
groundnut plant from Brazil into Africa. At the beginning of 16th century, groundnut was introduced into India by
Jesuit fathers who followed Vasco De Gama shortly after his first landing in India.

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AREA AND PRODUCTION:-
Major groundnut producing countries are China, India, Nigeria, USA, Indonesia, Argentina, Sudan, Senegal and
Myanmar. India ranks first in area and production contributing to 40% of the area 36% of the world production.

Area Production Productivity

India(2008-09) 6.0 M .ha 5.5 M.t 920 kg/ha
A.P.(2008 -09) 13.01L.ha 10.07 L.t 774 kg/ha

G.nut accounts for 28% of the total area & 36% of total oilseed production in the country.

The major G.nut producing states are Gujarat, A.P., T.N., Karnataka & Maharashtra. as per 2008 – 2009 statistics
Area Production Mt Productivity (t/ha)
1st Gujarat Gujarat T.N
2nd A.P A.P. Gujarat

CLASSIFICATION:-
Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea ) consists of two sub – species each containing two botanical varieties

Subspecies hypogaea
Variety hypogaea (Virginia type) Variety hirsuta
Subspecies fastigiata
Variety fastigata (Valencia type) Variety vulgaris (Spanish type).

COMPARATIVE CHARACTERS OF VIRGINIA & SPANISH/VALENCIA :-

CHARACTER Virginia Valencia/Spanish
Seed size Medium to very large Small to medium
Seed per pod Usually 2, occasionally 3 Usually 2-4, rarely 3
Seed dormancy Moderatly present Little to none
Branching Moderate to profuse Sparse to moderate
Flower bud on main axis Present Absent
Flowering pattern Alternate Sequential
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1 – lateral branches Longer than main stem Shorter than main stem
Growth habit Spreading to semi-spreading Bunch
Growth period Long ( 130-175 days) Short (90 – 105 days)
Peak flowering 8-12 weeks 6 – 10 weeks
Leaf color Dark green Pale green
Leaflet size Small Large
Leaflet apex Pointed Rounded
Pod distribution Scattered Close to the base
Ability to growth after seed Retains growing point if pods Usually dies
Setting are detached
Linoleic acid Low High

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COMPARATIVE CHARACTERS OF VALENCIA AND SPANISH TYPES:-

Characters Valencia Spanish

20 – lateral branches Absent Present irregularly to
10 –branches
Stem and petiole color Purple Green
Hairiness Less More
Leaflet color Dark green Light green
Inflorescence Single Compound
Seeds per pod Usually 3 -4 Usually 2
Constriction, reticulation & Less prominent More prominent
beak on the pod
Shell thickness Thick Thin
Testa color Red to purple Rose
Maturity 90 – 95 days 100 -105days

VARIETIES:-
Groundnut var. now under cultivation fall under

Three botanical groups: Spanish, Valencia, Virginia. Three habitat groups: bunch (Spanish/ Valencia)
Semi spreading (Virginia bunch)
& spreading (Virginia runner)

The recommended var. of groundnut are JL – 24 (Phule pragathi), TAG -24, Greeshma, Prasuna,
Abhaya,Apoorva,ICGV-86590,K – 134, TPT-2, TPT -3, ICGV 86325, DRG 12, Kadiri 4,5,6, Jcc-88,
ICGS 11,ICGS - 44 ICGS – 76, Kalahasti, Narayani, TG 26, TMV 2, J-11, Gaug – 1 etc.

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 Lecture 3
CLIMATE AND SOILS

Climate:

Groundnut is predominantly a crop of the tropics. The approximate limits of present commercial production are
between latitudes 400N and 40 0S and up to an attitude of 1065 m, where rainfall during the growing season exceeds
500 mm.

Rainfall:
The crop can be grown successfully in places receiving a minimum of 500 mm and a maximum of 1250 mm.
From the productivity of groundnut in several countries, it is evident that semi – arid and arid regions with 500 –
700 mm rainfall during crop period are ideal for groundnut production.
Rainfall should be adequate during flowering and pegging stages.
Ideal RF for successful groundnut crop would be
80 – 120 mm ? during summer to facilitate preparatory cultivation 100 – 120 mm ? at sowing
200 mm ? from flowering to peg penetration
200 mm ? early pod development to pod maturity
Rainfall is the most important factor limiting the productivity of rainfed groundnut due to variability in amount and
distribution of RF.
Continuous rains leads to excessive vegetative growth resulting in poor pod yield.
Rains at harvest cause germination of kernels in non-dormant Spanish and Valencia cultivars besides problem in pod
drying.

Temperature:

Soil temperature <180c delays emergence of seedlings. The embryo is killed above 540c.
G.nut performs well in dry temperature range b/n 240c & 330c. but it can s urvive up to 450c.
Ideal temperature for reproductive stage is b/n 24 – 270c
Rate of pod growth will be maximum b/n 300c & 340c.

Light :
Groundnut is day length insensitive plant.
About 60% solar radiation for 60 days after emergence appears to be critical.
Low light intensity
Prior to flowering ? slow down the vegetative growth and increases the plant height. At early flowering ?
leads to flower abortion.
At pegging ? reduces peg and pod number & pod weight.
Flowering phase is more sensitive to reduced light intensities.
In the absence of soil moisture stress, clear days have greatest potential for opt. growth and development leading to
high pod yield.

SOILS :
Groundnut can be grown on all types of soils such as sandy, sandy loam & heavy black soils. It thrives best on
sandy loams.

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Most suitable soils for groundnut production are well-drained light sandy loams with an ample supply of calcium
and moderate organic matter.
Heavy and stiff clay soils are not desirable as they tend to become hard during dry weather
thereby interfering with peg penetration into the soil and also makes the harvest extremely difficult.
Groundnut is one of the most acid tolerant crops with a critical P H range of 5 – 5.5.
It is moderately sensitive to soil salinity & highly susceptible to waterlogging. Gujarat, Southern Rajasthan
(Chitorgarh, Udaipur & Jhawar)

TILLAGE:-
Land preparation for groundnut depends on the soil type and onset of monsoon for rainfed crop and on the previous
crop grown for irrigated crop.
Light red soils are usually ploughed twice with the summer rains followed by 2 – 3 harrowings.
In general, deep ploughing of light soil once or twice results in higher pod yield than repeated shallow ploughings for
rainy season crop as deep ploughing aids in higher rainwater storage in root zone to minimize the adverse effect of
drought during the crop season.
In A.P. , black soils are only harrowed (4 – 5 times) several times without any ploughing.
For irrigated crop, one light ploughing (even at high soil moisture content to hasten soil drying) followed by
harrowing for 3 – 4 times at 2 – 3 days interval.
Optimum depth of ploughing is 15-20 cm. If too deep ploughing is done, it leads to development of pods in deeper
layers which makes the harvesting difficult.

SEASONS:-

The crop growing season should be ideal for growth and development of crop for opt. yield.

Kharif :- 90% area is under groundnut is during kharif under rainfed conditions.
Average yields are comparatively low due to erratic behaviour of monsoon i.e late onset of monsoon, dryspell during
critical crop growth stages, heavy rains at later stages or early withdrawl of monsoon. Pest & disease incidence is also
high in kharif. The climate will be cloudy with lesser sunshine.
season extend from April to August.
In black soils, sowings may be delayed even upto August/September to avoid heavy rains effect on germination.
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Rabi :- G.nut cropping during rabi is limited to areas where winter is not severe & temp. do not grow below
150c. It is confined to states of T.N, A.P, Karnataka, Orissa, Maharashtra and Gujarat.
It is grown under irrigated on uplands or with supplemental irrigation in rice fallows.
Sowing period extend from October to December.
Second half of November is the ideal sowing time.
Summer :-
G.nut yields are three times higher during summer than kharif due to ideal climate as clear sky, good light intensity
and less incidence of pest and diseases. It is also grow completely under irrigation althrough the crop period.
Drymatter production is nearly 25.7 g/day as against 14.8 g/day in kharif.
- sowing period: mid – Dec. to mid-Jan is ideal for higher yield.

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Optimum time of seeding:- In A.P.
Kharif Rabi Summer
North coastal I F.N. of June II F.N. of November 15 Dec. to 15 Jan.
Telangana I F.N. of June II F.N. of November 15 Dec to 15 Jan.
Rayalaseema 15 June to 7 July II F.N. of November !5 Dec to 15 Jan.

SEEDS AND SOWING

Seed selection:-

Germination < 85% is not considered satisfactory.

Selected pods are thoroughly cleaned, dried, packed preferably in gunny bags & stored in a well ventilated place.
G. nut pods for seed purpose are usually hand shelled about a week in advance of sowing. The viability of
seed will be lost if shelled long before seeding .
Shellers are also used for shelling the pods to minimize the cost of groundnut
production.
After shelling, shrivelled and damaged seeds are rejected by hand picking.
Seeds retained on 5mm sieve (100 Kernel wt. above 27g) germinates early and produce vigorous plants for high
pod yield.

Seed treatment:-

Seed treatment against seed and soil born diseases is essential for stand establishment by preventing damage to
seeds and seedlings emerging from soil.
Seed treatment with Thiram @ 3g/kg,
Bavistin (2g/kg) or DM – 45 (3g/kg)is effective for about 20days from sowing.
Most of the chemicals used for seed treatment against fungal & bacterial diseases also affect Rhizobium, thus
rendering the inoculation in effective for a short time.
When both seed treatment & inoculation are essential, seeds may be treated with fungicides & rhizobium culture
is sprayed into seed rows & covered with soil.
Rhizobium strains for kharif - NC – 92 Tal -1000& THA -205 Rabi – IGR – 6
Summer – IGR – 40
Granulated Rhizobium strain can also be sown with seed in the furrows.

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SEED RATE AND SPACING:-
Cost of seed constitutes 37-50% of total cost of cultivation. Hence, it is essential to follow good seeding practices.
Seed rate (kg/ha) Spacing
Bunch type Semi-spreading & Bunch type Semi spreading &
spreading spreading
Kharif (rainfed) 120 150 30 x 10 cm 30 x 15 cm
Rabi (irrigated) 150 180 22.5 x 10 cm 30 x 10 cm
Summer (irrigated) 150 180 22.5 x 10cm 30 x10 cm

Gap filling, if necessary, should be completed within a week taking advantage of moisture at the time of sowing the
seed.
Method and depth of sowing:
Groundnut seed can sown either by using mechanical or bullock drawn seed drill or by dropping the seed in plough
furrow behind the country plough. Hand dibbling is also adapted to a limited extent.
Kharif:- drilling or dropping seed in plough furrows at 5 -7 cm soil depth. Rabi & summer: - Dropping seed in
plough furrow at 4 – 5 cm soil depth.
Depth:- In light, soils, the seeds are sown to a depth of 5 -7 cm and in heavier soils to a depth of 4 -5 cm

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 NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT

For every tonne of pods & 2t of haulms about 63 N, 11 P2O5, 46 K2O, 27 cao & 14 Mgo kg/ha are removed by the
groundnut crop. A balanced fertilizer programme with particular emphasis on p, k, ca & mg is essential for opt.
yield.

Apply 10t well decomposed FYM and incorporate it into soil just before the onset of monsoon.

Nitrogen:-
The necessity for fertilizer nitrogen to groundnut is reduced because of being a leguminous crop, it fixes atmospheric
‘N’ into the soil with root nodules. Around 200 kg N/ha can be fixed under ideal conditions. Number of cowpea cross
inoculation group strains are available as NC-92 & TAL 1000,THA 205.
In general, 20 kg N /ha – entire dose as basal is recommended for rainfed G.nut 30 Kg N/ha – in 2 equal splits at
seeding & 30 DAS – irrigated crop.
However the nitrogen fixation process of plant starts working at about 20-30 days after sowing, when
the nodule apparatus is fully formed. Till that time to meet the requirement for plant growth, an initial boost as
starter dose of 10 kg/ha is necessary for rainfed groundnut. D epending on the number of nodules, another 10 kg/ha
at 30 DAS can be top dressed depending on the rainfall.
Nitrogen should be preferably applied in the form of Ammonium Sulphate as it also supplies the sulphur.

Phosphorus:-
The total amount of ‘P’ uptake by groundnut plant is relatively small compared to N & K. It promotes root growth and
multiplication of Rhizobium. phosphurus is applied when the available phosphorus is < 35 kg/ha
Opt. doses are
Rainfed – 40 kg P2O 5 /ha irrigated – 50 kg P2O5/ha
Entire dose should be applied at sowing along with N by placement preferably using ferti seed drill.
Single super phosphate is the best source as it contains 16% P2O5, 19.5% Ca & 12.5% Sulphur along with some
traces of Zn & other micronutrients traces. Therefore response to SSP is higher than with DAP at equal nutrient basis.
Phosphobacteria as Pseudomonas striata and Bacillus polymixa solubilises the native phosphorus and recorded 13-
20% increase in groundnut yield.
Mychorhizal fungi inoculations have been beneficial in field tests in India and quantification of yield benefits are yet
to be made in terms of phosphorus fertilizer economy and production.

Potassium:-

As most of the Indian soils are rich in K, groundnut in general will not show any significant response to applied
potassium.
 There is no necessity for potassium application to rainfed gr oundnut yielding around 1 t/ ha. Response is observed
only when the available potassium in soil is < 150 kg/ha.
For rainfed groundnut - 40 kg/ha
For irrigated crop - 50 kg K2O/ha provided N is applied at recommended rate.

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Calcium & sulphur:-
These two nutrients are absorbed by pegs & developing pods and the common source of supply is gypsum.
Adequate calcium is essential in root and pod zones for yield and quality of kernels.
Calcium deficiency lea ds to unfilled pods called pops and darkening of plumules of embryo.
Sulphur is highly essential as it is directly involved in the biosynthesis of oil. It improves nodulation of Rhizobium
and prevents the premature leaf fall & increase the pod & oil yield.
Ca & S are supplied to crop through cao or gypsum & it has been observed to increase
the yield by more than twice depending on its availability in the soil.
About 1 meq / 100 g soil in the root zone depth and 3.0 meq/100g soil in pod zone are threshold values for
calcium sufficiency.About 100 ppm of heat soluble sulphur is the critical limit of available sulphur for groundnut.
Gypsum application @ 500 kg/ha near pegging zone as top dressing at flowering (30 DAS) appears to be ideal .
If heavy rains occur within 2weeks after application then a second lighter application of gypsum is necessary
around 3weeks after first applicatio n.

K: Ca: Mg ratio :-
G. nut is sensitive to imbalanced nutrient supply. The K:C:Mg ratio is more important than the total amount.
Increase in conc. of Mg in nutrient solution decrease K uptake by G. nut & also decreases Ca uptake.
There is a mutual antagonistic effect on the uptake of K, Ca & Mg.
The ideal ratio is 4 : 4 : 2.

Zinc, Boron & Iron:-

ZINC: Zn def. is common on sandy & sandy loam soils. The critical limit of available Zn in soil is
<0.6 ppm.
Application of Znso4 @ 2 kg /ha once in 2 years corrects the def iciency. If it is observed in standing crop, foliar
application of 0.2% ZnSO 4 along with 0.2% lime can correct the deficiency.
BORON: ‘B’ def. leads to HOLLOW HEART. Deficiency has been reported in light soils of Punjab & T.N.
The threshold level of boron is 0.25 ppm.
Deficiency can be corrected by soil application of 5–10 kg/ha of boron. In standing crop, corrected by 0.1% borax
spray.
IRON: Iron chlorosis is largely due to its reduced availability in the soil. Immobilization of iron in the soil may be
due to high levels of lime, high PH (>7.6) or high levels of bicarbonates in soil or irrigation.
spraying of ferrous sulphate mixed with 1% of ammonium citrate around 50 DAS corrects iron deficiency.
In Andhra Pradesh
Kharif 20 -40 – 50 kg N, P2O5, K2O/ha
Rabi & summer Irrigated -- 30 – 40 – 50 Kg N, P2O5, K2O /ha

16
 Lecture 4
WEED MANAGEMENT

Weed competition is critical upto 35 DAS.

Yield losses may be to the extent of 70%. , especially under rainfed conditions.
When once pegging begins (40 DAS ), there should not be any disturbance to pegs through manual or mechanical
weeding.
Important weed flora in the groundnut crop are
Cyperus rotundus ; chloris barbata, celosia argentena, commelina benghalensis; Boerhaavia diffusa etc.
Cultural management:
Hand weeding is done twice, first around 20 DAS & 2nd at about 35 DAS.
Inter cultivation usually starts around 10 days after emergence & continues upto 35 DAS at 7
– 10 days interval till pegging begins.
Cost effective weed management under rainfed conditions is , repeated intercultivation (harrowing) upto 35 DAS
followed by hand weeding.
Use of herbicide:-
A mixture of oxadia zon & Dinoseb each @ 1.7 kg /ha gives excellent control of weeds besides reducing stem rot in
G.nut.
Fluazifop (150 – 250 g) is a promising post herbicide for controlling grasses, particularly cynodon dactylon, 35 – 40
DAS
IWM involving the above two appears most effective & economical, provided the crop is not subjected to
prolonged drought or soil moisture stress during the crop period.
Pre-plant incorporation of Fluchloralin @ 1.25 – 1.5 kg/ha
Pre-emergence application of Pendimethalnin @0.6-1.5 kg/ha or Alachlor @ 1.5-2.0 kg/ha.

Water management:-
Groundnut crop is mostly cultivated during kharif under rainfed conditions. Irrigated groundnut accounts for
over 20% of the total area under the crop in the country & it yields around
t/ha.

Critical stages:-
The period from peak flowering to early pod development (45 – 75 DAS) is the most sensitive to soil moisture stress.
In other words, flowering, peg penetration and pod development stages are the 3 moisture sensitive stages for pod
yield.
Very early growth phase (upto 20 DAS) is least sensitive. Scheduling of irrigation:-
On sandy loam soils, scheduling irrigations at 25% DASM throughout the growth period results in high pod
yield.
Irrigating the crop at
25% DASM – from pegging to early pod development
50% DASM – at other stages appear to be ideal for high WUE without significant reduction in pod yield.
An IW/CPE ratio of 1.0 at moisture sensitive stages and
0.6 during other stages leads to high WUE.
The water requirement of groundnut, on an average., ranges b/n 450 & 650 mm & WUE is
0.6 to 0.8 kg /m3 (pod yield per unit of water evapotranspired ).
If irrigation water is not limiting , then a total of 8 irrigations are adequate for optimal yield. pre – sowing
irrigation followed by an irrigation at 25 DAS, 4 irrigations at 10 days interval & final two irrigations at 15 days
interval.

17
At times of deficit supplies, an irrigation at 25 DAS followed by 2 at 15 days interval b/n 45 & 75 DAS appears to
be minimum requirement & it can minimise yield losses due to soil moisture stress.
The first irrigation is given at 25 DAS to create moisture stress in the soil which is
desirable.
 to get the good root system.
 to reduce excessive vegetative growth.
 Encourage the better nodulation
Induce heavy flowering in a single flush (synchronous flowering) METHOD:
The crop is usually irrigated by check basin method. Border strip is more suitable than other methods
Sprinkler irrigation is ideal for g. nut crop on sandy soils.

CROPPING SYSTEMS:-
At national level, a major cropping systems have been identified. The groundnut crop is predominantly raised as
intercropping or sequence cropping depending upon on the type of component crop & R.F, distribution.

SEQUENCE CROPPING:-

In general, g. nut crop is rotated with cereals commercial crops & oilseed crops. Yield of cereals following g. nut is
usually increased by 25%.
Promising crop sequences for A.p., are:-
Rainfed Stored soil moisture Irrigated
2 years 2 crops/year 2 – 3 crops/year
G .nut – sorghum G. nut – Chick pea G. nut – Maize
Pearlmillet Safflower - onion
Sesame Sesame
Tobacco

INTERCROPPING:-
Imp. Cereal crops grown with g. nut are pearlmillet, sorghum & maize. Other long duration crops grown with g.
nut as intercrops are pigeonpea, cotton and castor.short duration intercrop with
g. nut are sesame, sunflower, cowpea, green gram, black gram. Suggested intercropping systems in
A.P.  G. nut + pigeon pea  7:1 to 15:1 + Cowpea  6:1
+ Castor  5:1, 7:1 + Pearlm illet  3:1.

HARVESTING:-
Generally bunch and semi- spreading type comes to maturity by 100 – 105 days where as spreading type it is 125 -
135 days.
The prominent symptoms of maturity:-
Yellowing of leaves .
Necrotic spotting on the leaves
Dropping of older leaves / leaf fall.

18
The pods become very hard & tough, they give cracking sound when split open with fingers.
The inside of the shell turning dark, with netted venation
Seed coat develops pink or red colour (normal colour of the varities)
Raising of the soil to the base of the stem is observed .
Generally harvesting is done by pull ing or lifting the plants from the soil with pods intact.If soil moisture is adequate,
then hand pulling. If soil is dry, tractor or bullock drawn blades are used for lifting the vines with pods.
Harvesting before maturity reduces yield & oil % & seeds are highly susceptible to afflotoxins. If delayed, results in
increased incidence of stem rot, weakening of gynophore/peduncle & some of the pods may remain in soil itself at
the time of harvesting.

Stripping: - The process of separating pods from haulms in bunch type, if vines are still green, plants is knocked
against a cross bar to dislodge the pods.

The most common method is stripping pods with hand.

At the time of harvest, pods usually have moisture content around 40 – 50% & hence need to be dried to 10%
moisture content for safe storage.

Drying should be done rapidly to prevent fungal moulding

Sun drying is the usual method of drying.
Summer g. nut should be dried in shade to prevent loss of viability, if it is for seed purpose.

Storage:-

Storage at farmer level is invariably in the form of pods. Farmers usually dispose of groundnut pods within a
month from drying yard itself. A few store it for 6 months (till kharif seeding) in anticipation of high price.
Pods for seed purpose are stored for 7 – 8 months.
Pods for seed purpose are stored in earthern pots, mud bins or bamboo baskets or Gunny bags having polythene
lining.
If the seed moisture content is above the critical level of 9% then Aflatoxin production due
to Aspergillus flavus just before the post – harvest drying & mould growth at later stage takes place.

Yield Attributes:-

Groundnut kernel yield is the product of pod number, number of kernels per pod and weight of kernels. Kernels
per pod vary from 1-5, pods per plant from 5-105 and 100 kernel weight from 28 – 62 g (ICRISAT 1987).
There is a high positive correlation between the number of mature pods and pod yield.

Yield:-
Rainfed: - 10 – 15 q/ha
Irrigated: - 20 – 25 q/ha.

19
Harvest Index : The harvest index in groundnut varies between 0.35 and 0.50 in groundnut.

QUALITY CONSIDERATIONS:-
Quality of groundnut is largely determined by volume weight of pods, shelling %, 100 kerenel weight, oil
content, free fatty acid content, colour of pods & testa colour.

Volume weight of pods:-

It is the wt. per unit vol. of pods, which indicates maturity & development of kernels when the pods are
disposed by volume.
Small pods have high volume weight than those of bigger pods .
The avg. 100 pod weight varies from 73g (7 MV – 2 , Spanish bunch) to 107 g (M -13- Virginia runner)
Volume weight is influenced by RF distribution at pod development & Ca & S in pod
zone.
Shelling percentage:- Shelling – se paration of kernels from pods.
It is the % of kernels to pods by weight.
It ranges from 68% in M13 to 76% in TMV-2.
Irrigated crop has lower shelling % than that of rainfed crop.
It depends on thickness of the shell, development of kernel & following pattern during the crop period.
It is influenced by genotype, Rainfall distribution & Ca in pod zone.
100 Kernel weight:-
It is an indication of proper kernel development.
Average 100 kernel weight ranges from 30 g (TMV 2) to 78 g (in M13).
It is a varietal character with marginal influence of RF distribution, nutrient management & ability of translocation
of photosynthates from source to sink.
Oil content :-
It generally ranges from 48 – 51 %
It depends on temperature during first 3 weeks of pod development, maturity of kernels which is influenced by
RF during development stage & ‘S’ content in soil root zone.
Virgina runners have higher oil content than Spanish bunch types.
Oil quality :- The free fatty acid content in oil will decide the shelf life of oil. Higher the free FA content lesser is
the quality & faster is the deterioration of oil quality.
Oil etracted from runner type have best quality due to higher concentration of TOCOPHEROL.
The ratio of saturated to unsaturated fatty acid also decide oil quality. The ratio of oleic acid
to linoleic acid should be > 1.6 to have long shelf life.

Colour of pods and testa of kernel :-

Attractive colour of the pod & testa gets higher price in the markets especially for direct consumption. In general,
light golden yellow colour of pods are preferred & fetch more price in market.
Kernels with pink , rose or light brown testa are preferred.

Grading :-
For easy marketing of pods & kernels the grading is done. Pods are graded into 3 categories & kernels into 4
categories based on size.

20
PODS KERNELS
Large/bold 1) Extra large
Medium size 2) Large
small size 3) Jumbo(shrivelled)
Splits(ill filled)
EXPORT POTENTIAL:-

HPSK & G.nut oil cake are exported to other countries. But in recent years export of these products are drastically
reduced due to increase afflatoxin load in the products & increasing demestic demand.
China is the largest exporter of HPS kernels followed by USA & india.
The Indian share for the export of Hps is only 2%
G. nut cake is a good veg. protein & poultry feed. India is exporting large quantity of GN cake in western countries
till 1980. Later on the export of G.nut cake was significantly reduce d due to higher levels of Aflatoxins.

21
 Lecture 5
SESAME

ORIGIN : Ethiopia

Sesamum indicum
DISTRIBUTION:- Major sesame producing countries are India, China, Myanmar, Sudan, Pakisthan, Mexico,
Ethiopia, Srilanka and Burma.
 In India, major sesame cultivating states are Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Tamilnadu and
Maharashtra
 Major exporting countries are Sudan, Nigeria.
 India stands first in both area and production.
AREA PRODUCTION & PRODUCTIVITY:-
World India Andhra Pradesh
Area (M.ha) 8.80 1.74 0.132
Production(M.t) 2.80 0.60 0.018
Productivity(Kg ha -1) 3.82 3.40 140

VARIETIES:- Popular varieties in Andhra Pradesh  Gauri, Madhavi,YLM-11, YLM-17, . Latest Variety in
Andhra Pradesh  Chandana (ICS-94)
Brown seeded varieties  Grown in Coastal areas.
Gauri, Madhavi, YLM-11, YLM-17, Varada, Usha, TMV-6 etc.
White seeded varieties  Grown in Telangana area
Rajeswari, Swetha, Pratap, RT-125, Mrug-1, TG-22, T-12, T-78 etc.,
Black seeded varieties  Krishna, Soma, etc., Reddish brown variety  Rama.

CROP ROTATION:-
Andhra Pradesh  R ice / Groundnut – Sesame
Sesame – Horse gram – Chickpea. Rice / Potato – Sesame.
Cotton – Sesame – Wheat.
Sesame – Groundnut / Cotton / Maize
CROPPING SYSTEMS:- INTER CROPPING:-

Sesame + Greengram (1:1) Sesame + Pigeonpea (2:1) Sesame + Soybean (2:1) Sesame + Cowpea (8:1) Sesame +
Groundnut (1:1)

22
SOILS:-
Sesame comes up well on soils with slightly acidic (or) neutral reaction. It can be grown on well drained soils and
performs well in light loamy soils.
 It is highly sensitive to water logging.
 Very sandy, saline and alkaline soils are not suitable.

CLIMATE :-
Sesame is essentially a tropical crop grown in arid and semi-arid areas.
 It is generally cultivated in tropical and sub-tropical countries.
 It’s main distribution is between 250 s and 250 N Latitudes
 Its altitude range is normally below 1250 m although some varieties locally adopted up to 1500 m.
 Generally, it requires fairly hot conditions during growth for optimum yield.
 Ideal optimum temperature for growth is 25-270 C
.Extremely low temperatures of 100 C, there is a complete ceasing of growth.
 Temperatures >40 C seriously affect the pollination when there is less number of capsules.
 Sesame is a short day plant.
 High light intensity increase number of Capsules / plant.
INFLUENCE OF RAINFALL:-

 Sesame is capable of with standing a higher degree of water stress.

 The crop can be grown entirely on stored soil moisture.
 A rainfall of 600-1000mm results in optimum yield.

SEEDS AND SEEDING:-

SEED RATE:-
Rainfed Irrigated
Under broadcasting (Kg/Ha) 6 5
Row seeding (Kg/Ha) 5 4

Mixed (or) Intercropping  1 Kg/Ha

SPACING:-

30 X 10 Cm in Andhra Pradesh (all seasons) 45 X 15 Cm is also recommended.

23
SEED TREATMENT:-

Seed treatment with Thiram (3g/kg) is effective against seed borne diseases. Seeds may be soaked in 0.025% solution
of Agrimycin-100 for 30min. prior to seeding will minimize bacterial leaf spot.
SEASON – TIME OF SOWING:-
Season Time
Coastal A.P. Kharif  First fortnight of May.
Summer  Second fortnight of January.
Telangana Kharif  Second fortnight of July.
Rayalaseema Kharif  May to June
Rabi  Middle of January.
METHODS OF SOWING:-

Broad casting is usually most widely used in all situations. Seed is mixed with sand in equal quantities (or) 3 times
to facilitate uniform distribution of yield.
 After sowing, seed is covered by shallow ploughing and planting by cultivators
and harrowers
Line sowing (or) Row seeding is done with seed drills to promote higher yields.
 Optimum depth of sowing is 2-3 cm.

MANURES $ FERTILIZERS:-

N-P-K REQUIREMENT:-

Rainfed Irrigated
½ basal
N 40 60
P 60 60 ½ (30-35 DAS)
K 40 40
 Application of sulphur @ 50 Kg/ha increases the yield if soils are deficient in sulphur.

METHOD OF APPLICATION:-
Placement of fertilizer at seeding using seed drills is more effective than broadcast application.
INTEGRATED NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT:-

Integrated nutrient management consisting of 5 t ha-1 of FYM, 40 Kg nitrogen, 20 Kg Phosphorous and seed treatment
with Azospirillum has given encouraging results at several situations.

24
INTERCULTIVATION:-
Sesame is sensitive to weed competition during the first 15-25 DAS. A minimum of two weedings, one after 15 DAS
and another 35 DAS are required to keep the field relatively weed free. Row seeded crop facilitates use of blade
harrows for intercultivation. Two intercultivations, 15 DAS and 35 DAS followed by one hand weeding keeps the
field free of weeds.
WEED MANAGEMENT:-
Use of Herbicides:-

Herbicides use, especially under rainfed conditions, is very limited due to low yield, which may not compensate for
the cost of herbicides. If necessary, Alachlor (1.0kg/ha) or Thiobencarb(2.0kg/ha) can be used as pre emergence spray
for effective control of weeds. Use of pre emergence herbicides followed by one hand weeding around 30 DAS is the
most appropriate way of weed management in sesame.
IRRIGATION:-
Water requirement is 300-350mm. For rabi crop 5-6 irrigations are required. 1st irrigation  at sowing
2nd irrigation  3 WAS 3rd irrigation  6 WAS 4th irrigation  8 WAS 5th irrigation  9 WAS
CRITICAL STAGES FOR IRRIGATION:-

For rabi / summer sesame, a presowing irrigation is necessary for optimum seed germination and adequate stand
establishment. Flower initiation and capsule filling stages are most sensitive to water deficits.
SCHEDULING IRRIGATION:-
Scheduling irrigations at 50% DASM is adequate. If irrigations are scheduled based on IW/CPE ratio, a ratio of 0.6
is optimum under most situations. Depending on soil type, weather conditions and crop duration, irrigations may be
given once in 12 to 15 days. If irrigation water is not a limiting factor, flower initiation, maximum flowering and
capsule filling results in optimum seed yield. Depending on the duration, sesame water requirement ranges
between 350 and 450mm. The crop is usually irrigated by check basin method of irrigation.
HARVESTING:-
Depending on the variety, sesame crop takes 80-150 days for maturity. The crop is harvested when the leaves, stems
and capsules begin to turn yellow and the lower leaves start shedding. To prevent shedding of seed, the crop should
not become dead ripe in the field. The ripe plants are cut at the ground level carried to threshing yard, stacked for a
week in the sun with the cut ends upwards.

25
QUALITY CHARACTERS:-
Sesame is the oldest oil seed crop of the world. The seed has high food value because of the higher contents of
good quality edible oil and nutritious protein
SEED COMPOSITION:-
Sesame seed protein content varies from 20-28% with an oil content ranging between 48- 55%. Its mineral content
is around 6%..
Among oilseed proteins, sesame seed proteins are more nutritious It is rich in methionine and tryptophane. Like other
oil seeds, it is also deficient in lysine. The other limiting amino acids are thionine, isoleucin and valine. Sesame seed
contains 21-25% carbohydrates, 1% calcium and 0.7% Phosphorous
Sesame oil has two constituents namely sesamin and sesamol. They are responsible for very high stability of oil at
room temperature, and frying temperatures. The sesamin content ranges from 0.07 to 0.6%.

26
 Lecture 6
SUNFLOWER

Scientific Name : Helianthus annus Family: Asteraceae

It is an important oilseed crop contributes 14% of the total oilseed production from nine major oil seed crops. The
genus Helianthus (Helio=Sun, anthus= flower). Sunflower is known as a “suryajmuki” as it is grown for ornamental
purpose. It is the third most important oilseed crop of world after soybean, Rape seed& Mustard in India . The helio
tropic movement is of great importance.
The area and production of sunflower crop significantly increased due to following merits of the crops.

Short duration (90-100 days) as it is fit well in multiple and intercropping systems.
Photo insensitivity of crop enables its cultivation in all seasons i.e kharif, rabiand summer
Wide adaptability: it comes well up in any type of soils.
Drought and saline tolerant: suitable for the best component crop in dry land farming.
High productivity per unit area per unit time with respect to yield of oil.
High seed multiplication ratio (1:80) with low seed rate requirement.
It is the best substitute for groundnut crop in contingency crop planning.
Due to cross pollination nature, there is a great scope for evolution of high yielding composites and hybrids.
Good quality oil with high level of poly unsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) content i.e linoleic and oleic acids.
Llinolenic acid is absent.
Availability of good quality of hybrid seeds and varieties.
It is the best catch crop when the land is left otherwise fallow between two seasons.

USES/ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE

The oil content varies from 48-53% and it is premium oil with pale yellow in colour used for cooking and
margarine.
Sunflower is a rich source of linoliec acid (64%) which helps in reducing the cholesterol
deposition in the coronary arteries of the heart. All most of 90% fat is good for human.
Sunflower oil has high oxidative stability and it is more useful as frying oil.
Sunflower oil is used as industrial feed stock for manufacturing cosmetics, soaps and pharmaceuticals.
Oil contains high level of alpha tocopherol, a form of vit. E.
Oil cake contains 40-50% high quality protein and it is ideally suited for poultry and livestock.
The roasted kernels are used as food for human beings.
Sunflower is grown as green manure, fodder crop.
The bast fibre of the stem is source for making rough quality paper.
Recently sunflower oil is recognised as an alternative source for diesel engines with octane rating of 37 and it is
rated as number 2 diesel oil.
ORIGIN: Southern USA (Peru) & Mexico

In 1972, commercial cultivation of sunflower was started in our country with the introduction of Russian cultivars
namely; EC 68413, EC 68414, EC 68415 and Sunrise.

27
AREA AND DISTRIBUTION:
It is mainly grown in USSR, USA, Argentina, France, Italy and China. V. S. Pustovit of USSR is responsible for
increasing oil content of sunflower from 30% to 50% by breeding methods.

Area Production Productivity (

kg/ha)
India 1.80 M.ha 1.04 M.t 580
AP 3.51 lakh.ha 2.69 lakh tonnes 771

Karnataka ranks first with respect to area (1015 th.ha) and production (549 th.t) followed by AP. The highest
productivity was recorded by UP (1650 kg/ha) followed by T.N during 2008-09.
In AP, Kurnool, Ananthapur, Mahaboobnagar, Medak, Nalgonda and Karimnagar are the major sunflower growing
districts.
AICRP on sunflower - Bangalore.
ARS on sunflower – Rajendranagar
RARS on sunflower - Nandyal.

CLIMATE:-
Basically sunflower is a temperate oil seed crop but it is adapted to tropical and subtropical
climate.

The crop requires a cool climate during germination seedling growth and warm weather from seedling to flowering.
Warm and sunny days during flowering to maturity are most favourable.
Minimum temperature for germination is 8-10o c but it can germinate even up to 400c.
Night temperature of 18-200 and day temp. of 24-260c are ideal for growth, yield and higher oil content.
The growing degree days for sunflower have ranged from 1042 to 1300 with base temperature of 100c. Lenoleic
levels decreases at higher temperature.
The crop is photo insensitive as it flowers at wide range of photoperiods. Optimum day length for better yield
should be >12 to 14 hours.
High humidity accompanied with cloudy weather and ra infall at the time of flowering results in poor seed set.
Fairly drought tolerant with deep root system and comes up ni rainfall of 500- areas receiving minimum
700mm upto an altitude of 2500 MSL.
Latitudinal effect was more significant. Generally it is grown between 40 0 S to 550 N latitudes but most of the
production is concentrated between 200S to 500N latitude.
Sunflower grown in Northern USA/Canada has higher linoleic acid (poly unsaturated) due low temperature. On
contrary, sunflower grown in southern USA had high percentage of oleic acid due to higher temperature.

28
SOILS:-
Sunflower can be grown on wide range of soils but it does best in medium black to black soils with high moisture
retention capacity. Sunflower does not with stand waterlogging. Good drainage is preferable for cultivation of crop.
Yield and quality is drastically reduced when soil salinity reaches 10 to 12 ds/m. Optimum soil pH for sunflower
in 6.5 to 8.5.
Varieties: Maruti, KBSH 44, Pro Sun 09, NDSH – 1, DRSH – 1, MSFH – 8, APSH – 11,
Jwalamukhi, Sungene 85
Hybrids : TNAUSUF 7, DRSF 108, EC 69874, EC 68413, EC 68414 (Russian)
Sunrise selection (Canadian )
Cropping systems:
Development of early and medium duration varieties with thermo and photo sensitive cultivars is useful in multiple
cropping systems.
Intercropping systems :
Sunflower + groundnut (2:6) or (2:4)
Sunflower + fingermillet (3:6)
Sunflower + soybean (3:3)
Sunflower + green gram/Bengal gram (1:1)
Sequence cropping under rainfed conditions is possible when rabi crop can be grown on stored soil moisture.
Under irrigated conditions, it can be grown in kharif and rabi.
Rainfed
Sunflower - mustard (2 Y)
Sunflower – groundnut (2 Y)
Sunflower – Maize (2 Y)
Sunflower – wheat ( 1 Y)
Sunflower – Sorghum (1 Y)
Irrigated conditions :
Rice -groundnut-sunflower
Rice – Rice - Sunflower
Rice – Sunflower – pulses
Rice – fingermillet – sunflower
Rice – sunflower
Cotton – sunflower
Mustard - sunflower
Sunflower residues in soil have inhibitory effect because of certain allelochemicals which cause inhibition of
growth of succeeding crops.

Field preparation:
Sunflower requires a well pulverised seed bed for better germination and growth. One/two ploughings with soil
turning plough (or) M B plough followed by 2-3 harrowings and planking are sufficient to bring desired soil tilth.
Seeds and sowing:
For quick germination, under rainfed condition the seed should be soaked in fresh water for about 14 hours
followed by shade drying as sunflower seeds have thic k hulls and imbibes water at slow rate. This process is called
seed hardening.
Sunflower seeds cannot be used as seed, immediately after harvest of crop since seeds will
have dormancy period ranging from 40-50 days. To overcome the dormancy, treat the seed with ethereal solution for
6 hours.

29
Time of sowing:
Sunflower being a photo insensitive can be grown irrespective of the season.
Kharif: Telangana and Rayalaseema: First week of August.
Coastal: last week of August.
Rabi (rainfed): First F N of step. - First F N of Oct.
(Irrigated): November – December.
Summer: second FN of January - First week of February
The sowing date of Sunflower can be adjusted in such a way that flowering period does not coincide with heavy
rains because it affects pollination and seed set.
Seed rate:
Rain fed (kgha -1) Irrigated (kgha -1)
Varieties: 8-10 6-7
Hybrids: 5-6 4-5
Spacing: varieties: 45 × 30 cm
Hybrids: 60 × 30 cm
METHOD OF SOWING:
Line sowing by seed drill is recommended (or) behind the plough. Direction of rows preferably North – South as
the sunflower head in phototropic from emergence to flowering. The head and leaves face east in morning and
west in evening. Phototropic nature ceases one day before the ray florets open.
Depth of sowing: optimum depth of sowing is 4-5 cm.
Seed treatment: Captan/ Dithane M- 45 @ 3g/kg seed.
Thinning: Done at 15 DAS to avoid competition and to maintain single plant/ hill.
Manures and fertilizers:
Sunflower crop producing 2.0 t/ha seed and 3.2 t/ha stover removes 82 kg N, 30 kg P2O5 and 72 kg K2O, 9.4 kg
Sulphur and 37 kg Ca. It deprives soil fertility besides producing allelochemicals.
Nitrogen is essential for vegetative growth and Phosphorus to improve seed size with proper filling.
Sunflower crop is supposed to deplete the soil fertility besides producing allelochemicals. Nitrogen is most limiting
element in sunflower production. The response to N, P and K is higher than other crops.
FYM @ 5-10 t ha-1 2-3 weeks before sowing.

Rainfed crop: 60: 40: 30 kg N, P2O5 and K2O / ha

½ N as basal and ½ N at 30 DAS
Irrigated crop: 80: 60: 40 kg N, P2O5 and K 2O / ha Hybrids responds upto 120 kg N ha-1
1/3rd N, 1 P 2O5 &1 K2O as basal 1/3rd N at 30 DAS (Button stage) 1/3rd N at 55 DAS (flowering stage)
Sulphur is essential for increasing oil yield; addition of elemental sulphur at 25 @ kg ha -1 is recommended to soil at
last ploughing. The response of sulphur is 13 kg seed/ kg sulphur applied. Synergistic interaction was observed
between sulphur and nitrogen. SSP is the best source for phosphorus as also supplies required sulphur.
In Zinc deficit soils, foliar spraying of ZnSO 4 @ 1% is beneficial.
Borax @ 0.2 % to Capitulum at ray floweret opening improves the seed filling and oil content.

30
Irrigation:
Sunflower is highly responsive to irrigation. The total water requirement of sunflower is 500- 600 mm.
It has the ability to withstand short periods of drought as the crop root system extending up to 2 m depth. One of the
reason for preferring sunflower than other crops like groundnut, sorghum and cotton by the farmers was mainly due
to stable yields even under low rainfall situations and its physiological plasticity i.e. it completes life cycling
tailoring the growth and development to available moisture.
Under moisture stress conditions, centre portion of head is not filled properly and reduce the yield
significantly.
The critical stages for moisture in Bud initiation (30 DAS), flower opening (45-50DAS)
(most sensitive to moisture stress) and seed filling (60-75 DAS)
The total number irrigations depend up on seasons i.e. 3-6 for kharif and 4-8 for Rabi.
Irrigation should be stopped at 20 days before harvesting.
Sunflower is an excellent indicator plant for identifying the moisture stress.
Irrigation should be given at 50% DASM at all growth stages except at critical stage where irrigation is given at
30 DASM.
Irrigation at IW/ CPE of .5-1.0 is ideal.
On an average WUE is 50 -60 kg seed ha-1cm-1.
The crop is irrigated by ridge and furrow method.
Weed control:
Sunflower has slow growth rate during 4-6 WAS hence weed free condition during the period results in better
yields. The crop weed competition in sunflower is 30-45 DAS i.e. 4-6 WAS.
Two inter cultivations or hand weedings at 15 & 30 DAS is recommended.
PPI: Fluchloralin @ 1 kg a.i ha -1
PE: Pendimethalin @ 1 kg a.i. ha-1
Alachlor @1-1.5 kg a.i ha-1
Post Emergence: not recommended since the crop is sensitive to most of the herbicides and pollinating agents are
also damaged, however Nitrofen @ 0.5 kg ha-1 is recommended.
Earthing up at knee high stage is recommended to avoid lodging the crop before flower opening.

Harvesting:
The sunflower crop is ready for harvesting when the moisture content of seed is 20%. The sunflower head is mature
physiologically at 35-40 Days after flowering. It ranges from 90-100 DAS.
The heads are ripe when back of the head turns yellowish brown and lower leaves become brown to dark brown.
The harvesting should be done with the help of sickle by removing the head. The
harvested head should be thoroughly sun dried and threshed by beating the centre of the head with small stick or
threshers are also useful. Then winnowing, drying and storage of seeds.
Delay in harvesting leads to losses due to birds and shattering in the field itself.

31
Yield:
Rainfed: 10-15 q/ha
Irrigated: 20-25 q/ha
Stalk yield: 10-12 q/ha

Quality : Oil content in kernel is 48-53% and oil content in seed is 28-35%. Protein is 14-19%, crude fibre – 16-
27% .
Sunflower oil is of premium quality because of its colour,flavour and good nutritional quality.
It contains high levels of linoleic acid whereas saturated fatty acids as palmitic and steiric acids are of only 15%.
Being free of any toxic constituents, it is an excellent edible oil.
Amino acid composition : Sunflower protein contains higher proportion of essential amino acids. It
contains higher methionine. Sunflower protein is highly digestable and has high biological value.

32
33
 Lecture 7
Rapeseed and Mustard (Brassica sp)

Rapeseed and Mustard are the major rabi oilseed crops of India. It is next to Groundnut in area and production,
meeting the fat requirement of about 50 per cent population in all the northern states. It is one of the most edible
oilseed crop of Indo-Gangetic plains.
In India rapeseed and mustard account for about 27% of total oilseeds and 31% of total vegetable oil production. In
common Indian language, ‘Raya’ refers to mustard while sarson, toria and taamira are rapeseed.
It is grown as oilseed crop as well as condiment and for their medicinal use. The young plants are used as vegetable as
they supply enough sulphur and minerals in the diet. In the tanning industry, mustard oil is used for softening leather.
It is used in the preparation of hair oils, medicines, soap making, greases etc...
The oil cake is used as a cattle feed and manure. It is a rich source of protein(40%).
Refined oil is called colza is used in Europe.

Origin and distribution

The growing of rapeseed and mustard were known from time immemorial in India and these were mentioned in all
Ayurvedic Samhitas. It seems that Rai (Indian mustard ) (Brassica juncea ) was introduced into India from China.
Its probable origin is Africa. It is extensively grown in Europe,Africa and Asia.From India it spread to Afghanistan
and other countries. China is the largest producer of these crops. Afghanisthan together with adjoining areas of N-W
India is one of the independent centres of origin of brown sarson.
India accounts second position in area and third position in production. China, India and Pakistan
accounts for 90% of world production. Other major producing countries are Canada, Germany and France.

Area Production Productivity

India 58.00 L. ha 63.5 L.t 1142 kg/ha
A.P. 4 thousand. ha 2 tthousand .t 333 kg/ha

Classification
There is lot of confusion and misunderstanding about the names and kinds of rape and mustard that are grown in
India. The same local vernacular name may be used for forms and different local names are used for the same form
in different areas. Singh (1958) tried to remove this confusion by giving the following description of Indian rape
and mustard.

Rape and mustard belonging to the family Cruciferaeand genus Brassica. Brassica includes the following
important oilseed species.

Rapeseed: (Brassica compestris var. Sarson and toria): It is a herbaceous annual plant. The plant is shorter than
mustard (rai). The height of the plant ranges between 45 and 150 cm. The stems are generally covered with waxy
deposit. Plants of rape are easily distinguished from mustard (rai) by the character of leaves. In rape leaves are
born sessile and are glabrous and hairy. The lower part of blade (lamina) grasps the stalk partially or completely.
Fruits are thicker than those of mustard (rai) and are laterally compressed, with a beak of one – third to half their
length. Seeds are either yellow or brown with a smooth seed coat.

34
Mustard (Brassica juncea ): It is known as rai . The plants are tall (90-200 cm), erect, and branched. The leaves are
not dilated at the base and not clasping as in the case of rape but are stalked, broad and pinnatified. The fruits
(pods) are slender and only 2 to 6.5 cm long, strongly ascending or erect with short and stount beaks. The colour of
the seed is brown or dark brown. Seed coat is rough.
Table: Classification of kinds of rapeseed and mustard grown in India

Indian International Species Common Local name Chromosome

group commercial name name number

1.Sarso n Indiancolza, colza, a) Brassica compestris Turnip rape Yellow sarson 20

rape var.Yellow sarson

b)Brassica compestris Turnip rape Brown sarson 20

var.Brown sarson
2. Toria Rape a) Brassica compestris Indian rape Yellow 20
var.Yellow toria toria
a) Brassica compestris Indian rape Black toria 20
var.Black toria or Lahi
3. Rai Mustard a)Brassica juncea Indian Rai or Raya 36
mustard or Laha
a)Brassica juncea var. Rugosa Pahari rai 36
Rugosa
a)Brassica nigra Black Banarsi rai 16
mustard

Crop Rotation and Cropping Systems :

Mixed cropping: It is grown as a mixed crop with wheat, barley during winter season.
Intercropping: Brassicas are generally intercropped with rabi crops. Some Profitable systems are Wheat + Mustard
4:1
Gram + Mustard 4:2
Barley + Mustard 6:1
Intercropping in autumn planted (adsali) sugarcane has increased the net returns without affecting the yield of
sugarcane.

Rotations: Brown sarson and mustard (rai) are usually cultivated as pure crops in rainfed areas. During rainy season
no other crops should be sown, rather moisture should be conserved as much as possible by ploughing. In regions
where irrigation facilities are available, following crop rotations may be followed.
Toria being a catch crop, maturing 90-100 days can easily adjusted in the following crop rotations.

35
Irrigated conditions :
Rice – Toria
Rice – Toria – mung Maize - Toria - Wheat Maize - Toria - Sugarcane Maize - Toria - Cotton
Maize - Toria - Sugarcane - Ratoon Moong – Brown or Yellow sarson or Rai Soybean - Mustard
Guar (green manure) – Sarson or Rai Maize – Sarson or Rai
Early paddy – Sarson or Rai

Rainfed : Pearlmillet - Mustard

Sesame - Mustard Jute – Toria

Climate requirements:
Rapeseed and mustard are of the tropical as well as the temperate zone crops. Grown as rabi crop. It requires
relatively cool temperature and a dry harvest period. Cool temperature, clear dry weather with a plentiful of bright
sunshine accompanied with adequate soil moisture increases the yield. These favourable conditions are existing in
northern India. It is grown in rabi season from September-October to February –March.
They prefer moderate temperature of 24-28oC with an optimum of 20 oC. Brassicas grow well in areas receiving 350-
550 mm of rainfall.Sarson and Taramira are preferred in low rainfall areas where as raya and toria are grown in
medium to high rainfall areas respectively.
Toria is more liable to suffer from frost and cold is, therefore, usually sown earlier and harvested before the
onset of frost.
Rape seed and mustard are long day plants. These crops neither tolerant to drought nor water logging.

Varieties:
Toria : Agrani, Bhawani, Parbati, Anuradha and T-22( Punjab selection)

Mustard : Pusa Agrani, Pusa Jaikisan. Geeta, Kranti, Jagannadh, Jawahar Mustard 2,
Vasundhara,Varuna, Vardhan, M-27
Soil:

Brassicas can be grown on wide range of soils as Alluvial,medium loam, sandy loam or
heavy loam soils .. Heavy clay soils, subjected to water logging are not desirable.

36
Land preparation:
A fine seed bed requires to ensure good germination. In rainfed areas where toria, brown sarson or raya are taken
as a pure crop after kharif fallow seed bed preparation should be started during mansoon rains. For getting good
yields the field should be well prepared first by ploughing deep with soil turning plough followed by two cross
cultivations. Every ploughing should be followed by a light rolling or planking so that soil is finely pulverised and
levelled. Care should be taken to see that weeds and stubbles etc. are removed from the field and that the soil
contains adequate moisture to ensure good germination.

Seeds and sowing:

Planting time is the single most important variable affecting the seed yie ld of rape and mustard to a great extent.
Since the rate of development of oil in seed is greatly influenced by variation in atmospheric temperature,
humidity and other biotic factors, sowing either too early or too late have been reported to be not desirable.
In case of mixed cropping they are generally sown in rows 1.8 to 2.4 meters apart in the main crop. 5 to 6 kg seed
should be sown in rows at a depth of 2.5 to 3.0 cm in case of a pure crop. When sown mixed with some other crop,
1.5 to 2.0 kg seed per hectare is sufficient. Sowing could be done either behind the local plough or through seed
drill. Before sowing seed should be treated with thiram or captan @ of 2.5 g per kg of seed.
To ensure good seed germination and early seedling vigour, seed must be soaked in water before sowing. This is best
done by covering the seed with moist gunny bag. The seed can be mixed with equal quantity of sand for uniform seed
distribution at sowing.
Depth of sowing : 3 – 4 cm Spacing ; 30 x 10 cm or 45 x 15 cm

Time of sowing:

Toria: 1st fortnight of September

If wheat is to follow sow the crop by the end of August

Sarson: 3rd week of September to 2nd week of October

Raya: 2nd week of October to 2nd week of November.

Thinning of the plants at 20-25 days after sowing to maintain a plant to plant distance 10 to 15 centimetres.

37
 Lecture 8
Manures and fertilizers
12 -15 tons of FYM ha-1
Under irrigated conditions, if the preceding crop is heavily manured, brassicas can be grown on residual soil
fertility.
The nitrogen requirement varies from 20 – 160 kg/ha depending on the soil type, rainfed or irrigated and yield
potential of that variety.
The recommendation is 30-60 kg/ha under dryland condition and 100-120 kg/ha under irrigated conditions.
Based on the recommendations of ICAR – 40, 60, 80 kg N /ha for toria, sarson and raya respectively. One tonne of
rape/mustard removes 9 to 11.3 kg phosphorus. It seems 20 kg/ha P 2O5 is sufficient for rainfed and 50 kg/ha for
irrigated crop.
Response to potassium is uncertain. In highly K deficit soils, 20 kg/ha K 2O
Half of N at sowing and the remaining half at first irrigation. Whole P & K to be applied at the time of sowing.
Rape seed and mustard have higher re quirements for sulphur; therefore, nitrogen should preferably be applied
through ammonium sulphate and phosphorus from single super phosphate.In coarse textured soils, application of 20-
20 kg S/ha is suggested. But higher rates of sulphur application may increase the antinutritional factor
glucosinolates.
Among micro nutrients, Zn and Boran have positive role in increasing the yield of raya. In rice fallows, 25 kg
ZnSO4 applied to rice is sufficient for the succeeding brassica crop. Application of 2 kg boran/ha is sufficient to
meet the requirement especially on saline soils.

Irrigation:

Due to scanty winter rainfall, brassicas show favourable response to irrigation. About 60% of the total area under
brassicas is under irrigation. Among the brassicas, raya is most responsive to irrigation.
Rape and mustard have low water requirements.It ranges from 450 – 600 mm. Generally they are grown utilising
the residual moisture of the monsoon in medium to heavy soils. In toria, yellow sarson and raya, two irrigations
have been found to be beneficial.
With regard to the time of irrigation, it is recommended to dealy the first irrigation as much
as possible. This helps the plants to branch well, which in turn results in profuse flowering and fruiting. The
best time for first irrigation is when the flowering has sufficiently advanced. The second irrigation should be given
at fruiting stage.
Ridge and furrow system results in yield advantage with 20% saving in irrigation water.

Weed control:Brassicas are fast growing crops and rarely infested with second flush of weeds.

In early stages the crop should be kept free of weeds since the weed competition results in serious yield losses. 2-3
weedings are necessary. First weeding along with thinning, and remaining weeding at fortnight interval. One
Intercultivation at 3 weeks after sowing is beneficial.
PPI of Fluchloralin @ 0.5-0.75 kg/ha is also effective.
Pre emergence application of Isoproturan 0.75 – 1 kg/ha or Oxadiazon 0.5 – 075 kg/ha. Post emergence application of
herbicides is limited because of smothering effect of brassicas.

38
Harvesting and threshing:

Toria is the earliest brassica oil seed crop to be harvested. It takes about 80-100 days for maturity and thus this crop is
ready for for harvest from middle of December to middle of January depending upon the time of sowing and variety
used. Rai can be harvested in 110-180 days. Yallow sarson 130-160 days. Brown sarson 105-145 days.
When the crop is ripe, the leaves become yellow, the plants are uprooted or harvested with the help of sickles. Sarson
is less liable to shattering. But in case of mustard care should be taken to see that it is harvested just before the
pods open in order to avoid heavy losses from shattering of seeds. Threshing can easily be done by beating with
sticks. The pods easily shatter and give away seeds. The seeds should be dried for a couple of days before they are
stored.

Yield Attributes:No. of plants/unit area, No. of pods/plant, No. of seeds/pod and test weight

Yield: Average yield of rapeseed and mustard is about 500 kg ha-1. Toria gives an yield of 800-1000 kg ha-1. Rai
is the highest yielder of all. Average 12-15 q ha -1 have been reported.

Oil Quality Considerat ion : Seed colour could be yellow, black or white or brown depending upon the cultivars.
Yellow coloured seeds have lesser seed coats, hence higher oil content. The light coloured oil from yellow seeds of
brassicas are the premium oils to enter trade.
The brassica oilseeds have the oil content of 30-48% in air dried seeds. Colour of the oil is yellow to brown. Rapeseed
and mustard oils have anti nutritional factors like erucic acid. However, varieties are now being developed with
reduced erucic acid (<2%). The cultivars with <2% of erucic acid in oil and < 30 micromoles/gram of glucosinolates
in oil meal are called as Conola varieties suitable for edible purpose. It is also desirable to have less linolenic acid
(<3%) and higher linoleic acid(>30%) for prolonged cooking and higher shelf life. But brassicas destined for
industrial purpose should contain higher erucic acid (>60%) as it has high heat stability and used as lubricating
oil, fossil fuel and additive to diesel.

39
 Lecture 9
SAFFLOWER
Botanical name - Carthamus tinctorius
Family - Compositae

Safflower is an ancient oilseed crop grown in India for the orange red dye (Carthamin) extracted from it bright
coloured florets as well as seed oil. Due to the availability of synthetic dyes at present, it is used for extraction of
oil only.

The cultivated Carthamus tinctorius in supposed to originated either from

Carthamus lanatus - Saffron thirstle
Carthamus oxycantha- Wild Safflower
Safflower was known to ancient India and the poet laurate kalidas compared safflower to the “sakhis of
shakuntala” as kusum (or) kusumba in Sanskrit literature. Carthamus is derived from Arabic word “Quartum”.

USES :-
Safflower oil is rich in poly unsaturated fatty acids as linoleic acid up to 78% which playan important role in
reducing cholesterol content and it is a drying oil. It contains 24 -35% oil. So, it is also recommended for heart
patients.
The hot oil poured in cooled water, it become a plastic of thickness and used for adhesive in glass industry.
The oil is used in the preparation of “ROGHAN” which is used for preservation of leather and production of water
proof cloth. It is also used in manufacturing soaps and varnishes.
Safflower oil is the healthiest oil of all vegetable oil and its value is increased when it is blended with rice bran oil.
The Safflower cake is used as cattle feed which contain 20% protein.
Safflower was recognized as it remedies Rheumatism.
Dry pe tal is used in the preparation of herbal medicine and drugs. The Safflower also used to provide resistance to
inflammation.
In Ethiopia, decorticated seeds are pounded finely and mixed with water to prepare a
beverage “FIT -FIT”.
The yield of floret ranged between 70-100 kg/ha and it contains two colouring materials. Water soluble yellow
pigment “carthamidin” and orange red dye (2%) which is insoluble in water but readily soluble in alkaline solution is
known as “CARTHAMIN” .
Carthamin is of commercial importance and is used as additive in food, beverage, cosmetics

40
& paints. Also for dyeing of cotton and fabrics.
Carthamus +H2S o4+Phosphoric acid - Carthamidin & Isocarthamidin
Safflower is grown as border crop to protect the main crop of wheat in North India and is also green manure crop at
young stage.
Hull is used is manufacture of cellulose insolations.
The safflower cake is used as cattle feed which contains 20% protein but low in lysine. It is consumed domestically
and hardly enters international market.

ORIGIN:
Decondolle – Arabia. Vavilov – India
Spiny type of Safflower is having higher oil content than non spiny type. Yellow coloured flowers yielded higher
oil content. It is a xerophytic in nature.

AREA AND DISTRIBUTION:

India, China Mexico, USA, Ethiopia, Argentina and Australia are the major growing countries. China mostly
grown Safflower for medical purpose.
Safflower occupies seventh place in the area among nine oilseed crops.
In India 98% of the area comes from three states viz- Maharashtra, Karnataka and A.P. it is cultivated with an area
of 3.00 L.ha and production of 1.89 L.tons with a productivity of 630 kg/ha. India is the largest producer of Safflower
with 54% area and 40% production.

Area Production Productivity

India 3.00 L. ha 1.89 L.t 630 kg/ha
A.P. 0.16 L. ha 0.12 L.t 750 kg/ha

Maharashtra and Karnataka are the first and second with reference to area and production where as productivity is
highest in Gujarat (1000 kg/ha) followed by Karnataka ( 2008-09).
In A.P., it is cultivated in Ranga Reddy, Medak, Mahaboobnagar, Adilabad, Kurnool, and Naziabad. AICRP on
safflower – Sholapur (Maharashtra).ARS in Andhra Pradesh – Thandur.

41
CLIMATE:

Safflower is well adapted to wide range of climatic condition. However, the maximum production is confined up to
1000 MSL in semi arid tropic s and arid areas with latitude of 14 to 22°N. Important production factors are soil
temperature and soil moisture. Temperature is the most important climatic parameter as it is thermo sensitive and it is
mainly grown as rabi oil seed crop.
Optimum temperature of soil for seed germination 15-16°C. It may tolerate to temperature of 49° C, if sufficient soil
moisture is available.
Temperature more than 40°C reduced the plant height, dry matter production and seed set and test
weight. Day temperatures in the range of 24-32°C at flowering is the optimum. Higher temperature at flowering is
harmful to crop resulting in sterile heads.
Crop is tolerant to frost at seedling stage but sensitive at later stages. It is a day neutral plant, but a day length of
12-14 hour is essential for flowering and seed set. When compared to day length, temperature is more important.
It is a drought resistant and susceptible to water logging. It comes up well with a rainfall of 500-600 mm. It cannot
withstand excessive soil moist/ humidity at any stage due to damage from fungal diseases.

SOIL:
Being a drought resistant, it is cultivated in all type of soils, but well drained, fertile and deep soil with high water
holding capacity are the best. Safflower is mostly grown on residual soil moisture.
South India – Deep black soil (A.P, Karnataka, Maharashtra). North India – latosols (Laterite and sandy loam soil).
Commercial cultivation is extended on medium to deep black soils in peninsular India
Higher yield are obtained at neutral soil pH ranged of 5-8.0. It is salt tolerant crop i.e. up to 7ds/m. However, seedling
stage sensitive to salinity.
Varieties – Manjira, Sgaramuthyalu (APRR – 3), Parbhani Kusum, Phule Kusum,
A-1 (National Check)
Hybrids - DSH – 129, NH – 1 ( Firdt non-spiny hybrid in the world), NARI – 15, NARI – 38, Bhima, Girna, Sharda
and Sweta.

42
LAND PREPARATION:

Safflower requires fairly pulverized seed bed free from clods. Being a deep rooted crop it requires deep
ploughing. Crop raised for dye purpose require more and fine tilth than oil crop.
One deep ploughing with M.B. plough is sufficient followed by 2-3 harrowings with planking.

SEED AND SOWING:

Season – rabi
Time of Sowing –
Telangana: II. FN September to I. FN of October.
Coastal and Rayalseema – October. If the crop is delayed, Aphid damage is more common. Seed Rate – 8-10 kg/ha
pure crop.
4-6 kg/ha - Mixed crop/ Border crop.
Spacing - 45×20 cm.
Method of sowing – Broadcasting, behind the plough (pora method) and seed drill. Depth of sowing – 4-5 cm
(Normal). 7.5-10 cm (dry Land).
Thinning – 10-15 DAS.
Very high density of plant population significantly reduces the branching ability.

MANURES AND FERTILIZERS:

On an average safflower crop remove 60 - 65kgN, 30 kgP 2O5 and 40 – 45 kg K2O ha ?1.
One tonne of seed removes about 45 kg N. FYM @ 5-10 t/ha
Depending on rainfall, 30-40 kg N.
Band placement at 3-5 cm deeper in moist zone and 2-3 cm away from seeds. Under irrigated conditions, response
is found even upto 120 kg/ha.
Nitrogen is applied in two splits -- ½ as basal and ½ at flowering.
30-40 kg P2O5 /ha, 1/2 as Basal application. Response is 7-7.5 kg seed per kg P 2O5 applied. 20-30 kg K2O /ha basal
recommended in K deficient soil.
Under rainfed conditions, entire fertilizers is applied by drilling at sowing.
Under irrigated conditions, ½ N and whole P & K fertilizers are applied at sowing and another ½ N is topdressed
5 weeks after sowing.

43
WATER MANAGEMENT:

Water requirement 250-300 mm. Safflower is generally grown as rainfed in residual soil moisture and it is highly
drought tolerant as it is a deep rooted crop. The crops have the ability to extract moisture from deeper layer of the
soil. In light soil, 2-3 irrigations are given where as in vertisol residual soil moisture is sufficient. One life saving
irrigation should be given when drought condition occur.
Rosette stage (Early vegetative stage) is the most critical stage of safflower i.e. 21DAS or 4-6 leaf stage and yield can
be increased by 40-60%.
Poorly drained soil and water logged condition enhanced the problem of wilt and root rot. The WUE is 5.64
kg/seed/ha/mm. safflower is cultivated on saline soils by sowing on the slope of the ridge. Under high salinity, the oil
content is reduced by increasing hull percent. Broad bed & furrow at 1.5
– 2 m is suitable to minimise contact of water with above ground part & minimize root & stem rot in heavy soils.

WEED MANAGEMENT:

The growth habits of safflower make it extremely susceptible to weed competition. The critical period of crop
growth competition is Rosette stage to flowering stage.
The rosette stage - 25-30 DAS in Rabi and may be prolonged up to 60 DAS in winter situation.
The field should be free from weeds infestation during early growth stage depending on the length of the rosette
stage.
PPI of Fluchoralin @ 1 kg ai /ha. PE of Oxadiazon @ 1 kg ai /ha. PE of Alachlor @ 1.5kg ai /ha.
PE of Atrazine @ 1 kg ai /ha.
Pendimethalin @ 0.75 kh/ha + one hand weeding provides weed free environment and cost effective. Safflower is
sown in wide rows. So, intercultivation implements can be used for weed control.
Two harrowings at 25-30 DAS & 45-50 DAS in combination with one hand weeding in between
them can effectively check weed growth.

44
CROPPING SYSTEMS :
In low rainfall areas receiving 400-500 mm, safflower is superior to other winter crops as it extracts moisture
from subsoil.
Intercropping : Although sole crop of safflower is more profitable under conditions of adequate
moisture availability, it is grown as intercrop with traditional crops to overcome the risk of crop failure under
adverse conditions.
In Andhra Pradesh – Chickpea + safflower - 3 : 1 or 2 : 1
Coriander + safflower - 3 : 1 or 2 : 1 Karnataka - Linseed + Safflower - 6 : 2 Maharashtra -
Wheat + safflower - 3 : 1 or 2 : 1
Sequence Cropping : It is profitable in Andhra Pradesh where rainfall is 700 – 800 mm.
In Northern Telangana Zone - Maize – Safflower
Sorghum – Safflower Sesame – Safflower Mungbean – Safflower
Scarce rainfall Zone – Greengram – Safflower
Sesame – Safflower Soybean– Safflower
HARVESTING:
The crop comes to maturity within 110-120 days. As soon as the leaves and most of the bracteoles except a few of last
formed become brown and seeds are dried and easily separated from the head. The crop is harvested either by
uprooting the plant or cutting at the bottom.
Plants are thorny and harvesting is taken up at the early hours of the day and to be completed before
am when the spines will be soft. As the day advanced, spine becomes stiff causing inconvenience to harvesting. The
harvested plants are heaped for a day or two in the field and threshed by beating with stick, cleaned, dried and
stored at 8% moisture content. Combined harvesters used in wheat could also be used for harvesting and
threshing.

Oil Quality :
Traditional safflower seed contain 50% hull & 28-32% oil. It is pale yellow. Good drying oil. Fatt y acid composition
is - Linoleic acid 70-80%, Oleic acid – 6-8%, Stearic acid – 2-3% and Palmitic acid – 5-8%. Due to 90% of poly
unsaturated fatty acids, safflower oil is considered to be the best edible oil.

45
 Lecture 10
Soybean (Glycine max)

Introduction
The soybean (U.S.) or soya bean (UK) (Glycine max) is a species of legume native to East Asia
Grown for its edible bean which has numerous uses. The plant is classed as an oilseed rather than a
pulse
The English word "soy" was derived from the Japanese pronunciation of shoyu the Japanese word for
soya sauce ; "soya" comes from the Dutch adaptation
The word glycine is derived from the Greek - glykys (sweet) and likely refers to the sweetness of the pear-shaped
(apios in Greek) edible tubers produced by the native North American twining or climbing herbaceous legume .
Glycine max from soy-a or soya to soy plus bean or soybean or soyabean
Chinese pea, Japan pea and Japanese fodder plant, known as Bhat Bhatmer rumkut
Soybean accounts for “50%” total production of oilseed crops in world.
A very small proportion of the crop is consumed directly by humans. Soybean products do, however, appear in a
large variety of processed foods.
Soybeans, like most legumes, perform nitrogen fixation by establishing a symbiotic relationship with the
bacterium Rhizobium japonicum
U.S., Brazil, Argentina, China and India are the world's largest soybean producers and represent more than 90% of
global soybean production
Prior to fermented products such as Soy sauce, tempeh, natto, and miso, soy was considered sacred for its use in
crop rotation as a method of fixing nitrogen
Wild ancestor of soybean is Glycine soja a legume native to central China
Soybeans are one of the "biotech food" crops that have been genetically modified, and genetically
modified soybeans are used in number of products

Uses :

Soybeans are an important globalcrop, providing oil and protein

It contains about 20 per cent oil and 40 per cent high quality protein
It contains a good amount of minerals, salts and vitamins (thiamine and riboflavin) and its sprouting grains contain a
considerable amount of Vitamin C
A large number of Indian and western dishes such as bread, `chapati’, milk, sweets, pastries etc., can be prepared
with soybean
It can be used as fodder, forage can be made into hay, silage etc. Its forage and cake are excellent nutritive foods for
livestock and poultry. Soybean being the richest, cheapest and easiest source of best quality proteins and fats and
having a vast multiplicity of uses as food and industrial products is sometimes called a “wonder crop”.

Origin and distribution:-

Soybean is one of the important crops of the world.

Soybean is native of China
Spread to India and Nepal in 16th century
Soybean cultivation in India started during 1970’s
Area & Production : Globally, area is 65 m ha, production :130 mt, productivity :2 t ha -1
USA, Brazil, China, Argintina, are the important soybean producing countries.

46
USA has highest productivity of 2.2 t ha -1 followed Argentina
India : Area : 5 m ha, Annual production : 5 mt, productivity : 1000 kg ha-1.
Largely grown in Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh Maharashtra and Gujarat.
It is also grown on a small acreage in Himachal Pradesh, Punjab and Delhi .
Madhya Pradesh, ranks first both in area and production
Andhra Pradesh : Area : 1.7 lakh ha, production : 32.3 l tons, productivity 2000 kg/ha.

Climate :-

Basically it is a tropical crop but extends to subtropics and temperate climates.

Commercial production is between 25o and 45o N latitude at 1000 m altitude .
Soybean is short day plant, but response to day length varies with variety and temperature.
A temperature of 26.5 to 30°C appears to be optimum for most of the varieties.
Optimum temperature for germination is 30-35oC.
Maximum flowering occurs at 30oC.
Temperature of 18oC or less ,there is no pod setting.
Temperature below 24oC – delays flowering by 2-3 days.
Temperature of 40-46oC results in pod abscission .
A lower temperature tends to delay the flowering.
Day length is the key factor in most of the soybean varieties as they are short day plant and are sensitive to photo-
periods.
Most of the varieties will flower and mature quickly if grown under condition where the day length is less than 14
hours provided that temperatures are also favourable
Critical photoperiod for bud initiation is 14 hrs.
Maximum floret blossoming occurs at 10-13 hrs
Moderately salt tolerant (sal. Threshold 5 dsm-1).
Sensitive to water logging especially during early stages
Optimum soil PH range is 6-6.5
Growth and Development : Have two growth habits – determinate, indeterminate.
Flowering starts from 20 DAS, or even delays upto 50 DAS and continues for 4-6 weeks.
Pods are visible at 10-15 days after flowering
2-20 pods per inflorescence and upto 400 in single plant is observed.
2-3 seeds per pod at maturity.
Seasons :-

In Andhra Pradesh :
“ Kharif” : A rainfed crop is sown from June 15 to July 15th in light soils
“Rabi” : Irrigated crop is sown from November – December
“Summer” : Sown in January, and extends upto February
Seed rate of soybean : It depends upon germination percentage, seed size and sowing time. If seed is of 80 per cent
germination, 70-80 kg seed per hectare is required.
For late planting and for spring crop, seed rate should be 100-120 kg per hectare
Since soybean loose its viability in 2-3 months, hence higher seed rate: 75 kg/ha or 25- 30 kg/acre is to be given
Spacing: Heavy soils : 45 x 5 cm
: Light soils : 30 x 7.5 - 8 cm.
Depth of sowing should not be more than 3-4 cm under optimum moisture conditions
If seed is placed deeper there is crust formation just after sowing, the seed germination may be delayed and may
result in a poor crop stand.

47
Seed drills are used in large areas , and sowing in ridges are to be followed under irrigated condition.
Plant population : 40 plants / sq mt or 1,60,000 plants/acre
Thinning should be completed within – 3 weeks after germination.
Seed treatment : seed is to be treated with Thiram (2g) + Carbendazim (1 g) or Thiram (3 g) + Imidachloprid (5 g)
or Carbosulfan (30 g / 8-10 kg of seed)

Varieties
S.No. Vareity Duration (days) Yield (q/acre)
1. JS – 335 90-95 8-10
2. PK – 1029 100-110 7-8
3. MACS - 450 100-110 8-10
4. LSB – 1 65 6
5. LSB – 3 110-115 6-7

6. JS- 93 – 05 90 7-8

Fertilizer and Nutrient Management :-

For obtaining good yields, should apply 15-20 tones of FYM or Compost per ha. But soybean being a legume crop
has ability to supply their own “N” needs provided they have been inoculated .
Application of 20-30 kg N per ha as a starter dose will be sufficient to meet the “N” requirement of crop in initial
stage in low fertile soils having poor organic matter. Soybean requires relatively large amounts of phosphorus than
other crops.
Phosphorus is taken by soybean plant throughout growing season. Period of
demand starts just before pod formation and continues until about 10 days before seeds are fully developed.
With the application of phosphorus, the number and density of nodules are stimulated and the bacteria becomes more
mobile.
Soybean also requires a relatively large amount of potassium than other crops.
The rate of potassium uptake reaches to a peak during the period of rapid vegetative growth then slows down about
the time the bean begins to form.

FERTILISER SCHEDULE :

Light soils :- 20 + 40-60 + 20-40 + 20 kg N P K S /ha

Rhizobium culture @ 500 g / 75 kg seed/acre
Andhra Pradesh : Rhizobium + 30 + 60 + 40 + 8 kg N P K S/ha (Irrigated) The fertilizers should preferably be
placed, at sowing time, about 5-7 cm away from the seed at a depth of 5-7 cm from seed
In Light soils : 50% N and full dose of P & K is applied basally , and remaining 50% N is top dressed at 30 DAS
For Rabi crop : Entire fertilizer is applied basally at seeding.

48
Water Management

The soybean crop generally does not require any irrigation during Kharif season.
However, if there were a long spell of drought at the time of pod filling, one irrigation would be desirable.
During excessive rains, proper drainage is also equally important.
Basically it is a rainfed crop, in deep black soils for Kharif and rabi, the crop responds to irrigation in
intensive cropping system
Due to deep tap root system with 1.8 m deep withstands moisture stress for short periods
Under soil moist stress, Flower drops, but due to “extended period of flowering,” late formed flowers will
compensates early flower drop.
Critical stages : flowering and pod development stages are sensitive stages for moisture stress.
Scheduling irrigation : at 50 DASM or at IW/CPE 0.6
Irrigation in Light soils can be given once in 10-12 days, in heavy soil at an interval of 18-20 days
Irrigated by check basin or border method, but furrow method is ideal.
Under Water scarcity conditions, sprinkler irrigation and alternate furrow can be followed.
WUE is 0.4 – 0.7 kg m-3. and water requirement is 450 -750 mm.

Weed management
First 6-7 weeks after seeding is critical period, hence clean cultivation is essential.
Since crop is sown in lines/rows, intercultivation can be done 2 times ,first at 20-30, followed by second at 45 DAS
along with manual weeding .
For wide range of weeds in soybean, foliage herbicides provide excellent weed control
Pre plant herbicides (PPI) : Fluchloralin 1.0-1.5 kg ai/ha.
Pre emergence herbicides : Alachlor (1.5-2.0), Acetachlor (1-1.5) Metachlor (1-1.5) oxyflourfen (0.5-1.0)
Post emergence herbicides : Quizol fop ethyl (Turgasuper) @400 ml/acre Imzythpyr (250 mg / ac) (pursuit) for
broad leaved weeds.

Harvesting :-
When plants mature, leaves turn yellow, start dropping , pods dry out quickly.
There is a rapid loss of moisture from the seed. At harvest, the moisture content of the seeds should be 15 per cent
Harvesting can be done by hand, Plants are uprooted, or cut with sickle above ground level
After cutting , plants are heaped and sun dried for a day or two
Threshing is usually done by beating with sticks or using mechanical threshers.
Threshed produce is winnowed to separate seeds from chaff
cleaned seed is dried for 1- 2 days
Seed is stored in moisture proof bags / seed bins
For seed purpose – seed is stored after treating with thiram / captan (3 g/kg).
Quality consideration:-
It is protein rich oilseed and presently number one edible oil source globally.
Seed composition : Seed consists of Hull (8%) cotytyledons (10% ) hypocotyls (2%), oil content 14- 23%, protein
(32-50%).
Oil content and quality : Oil content influenced by temperature. High temperature increases oil content.
Oil contains neutral lipids (88%) phospholipids (10%) Glyco lipids (2%) saturated fatty acids (11-26%)
Commerical oil contains – Linolenic (5-9%) linoleic (43-56%)

49
Utilization:-

Soybean is used as processed products, soyflour, protein products, fermented food products.
Other products : are Beverage, whole milk, milk extender, Coagulated products like panneer
Fermented products : soy-sauce, yogurt, cheese etc
Sprouted cooked beans – fried and roasted nuts
Fortified foods like – bread, biscuits, cake etc.
Substitute products like bison, frozen desert
Textured products like nuggets, chunks etc
High protein biscuits + granules

Cropping systems

Mixed cropping of soybean with maize and sesamum has been found feasible and more remunerative

Intercropping : Soybean + maize (2:1, 2:2)

Soybean + pigeon pea (2:2, 4:2) Soybean + finger millet (2:2) Soybean + cotton
(1:3, 2:1),
Soybean + groundnut (1:4, 1:6)
Soybean + sorghum (1:2, 2:2)
Soybean + pearl millet (2:4, 2:6)

Some of the common rotations followed in north India are as given below:

Soybean – wheat
Soybean – potato
Soybean – gram
Soybean – tobacco
Soybean – potato – wheat

50
Crop growth stages Seedling stage

51
Crop under field conditions

Flowering Stage :

Pod Development stage

52
53
 Lecture 11
Linseed( Linum usitatissimum )
Introduction

Flax, is One of the oldest cultivated crops grown for seed from which oil is extracted
It is world wide cultivated commercially for flax, while in India it is cultivated for oil
Flax also known as common flax or linseed, (binomial name: Linum usitatissimum ) is a member of the genus
Linum in the family Linaceae.
It is known Tisi in Hindi, and Avishallu in Telugu.
Before the spread of the mechanical cotton gin in the early 1800s, most Americans had a choice of two clothing
fibers – wool or linen
In addition to being a fiber source, flax was also an important oilseed.
Linseed oil, squeezed out of flax seed, used as a preservative finish on wood.
Linseed oil is a "drying oil", as it can polymerize into a solid form.
It is an edible oil but, because of its strong flavor and odor, is only a minor constituent of human nutrition.
In parts of Europe, traditionally eaten with potatoes and quark (cheese).
It is rega rded as a delicacy due to its hearty taste, which spices the bland quark
Flax fiber is obtained from the stem of plants, from a blue flowered plant and woven into a fabric generally
known as linen Flax .
Flax is grown in modern times for two entirely different purposes (i) for fibre and (ii) for seed .The seed of the
flax plant is known as linseed
In India, flax is grown primarily for linseed oil which is not only used for human consumption but also
for commercial use as paint, varnish, finished leather and printing ink.
Flax oil is high in omega-3 fatty acid, which lowers cholesterol, in the diet
Flax seed is fed to chickens, eggs from those chickens, markete d as omega eggs.
India import the flax fibres from European countries and does not utilize the flax produces in India. The reasons
for this are, Indian flax does not match with the quality standards of imported flax.
But now a number of dual purpose varie ties including Gaurav, Shikha, Jeevan and Parwati released from Chandra
Shekhar Azad University of Agriculture & Technology (CSAUAT), Kanpur are suitable for both oil and fibre
purposes.
Among the four varieties, the white flowered variety (Linum usitatisimum album) produces stronger plants and are
resistant to diseases than the blue flowered vrieties (Linum usitatissimum vulgare) which yields fine fibres of high
quality

Origin and Distribution

Linen's history dates back to 7000 BC when Mesopotamians used flax
Romans and ancient greeks cultivated flax for fibre and seed and established Linen industry
As per Vavilov cultivated annual linseed originated from India and Ethiopia
It is native of eastern Mediterranean to India and was probably first domesticated in the Fertile Crescent.
Later on Egyptians, Babylonians, Greeks, Romans and other civilized people cultivated flax for fibre .
Major producers are Canada, Argentia, USA, Poland, Uruguay, Romania, USSR, China and India
Reported to have spun in countries like Belgium, Russia, Switzerland, Brazil, England, France and Argentina etc.
and is used in making fine quality fabrics called linen

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Area and Production
Flax is currently grown on about 12 million acres worldwide, with the majority of the production in northern Europe
and Russia.
India occupies 25 per cent of world acreage and ranks first in area (4.368 Lakh ha), fourth in production (1.725 Lakh
tonnes) and eighth in productivity (395.0 Kg/ha) of the flax crop.

Morphology
Flax is a broadleaf with small, narrow leaves that are less than an inch long.
Stems are slender,flexible, branched, near base of plant, with height 30 -36 inches., dividing at their tips
into inflorescences bearing attractive blue flowers.
Flowers are mostly self -pollinated, with some cross pollination by insects.
New flowers will emerge for a few weeks, each developing into a round seed capsule or boll about one-third
inch in diameter.
Each capsule contains 4 -10 seeds, Glossy in appearance, traditionally brown color.
However, a new variety of flax, Omega, is golden-colored to make it more acceptable in the food market.
If exposed to water, flax seeds will become sticky due to mucilage in the seed coat

Climate
Crop, grown for seed ,performs well in moderately cold climate, but the crops for fibre purpose , requires
cool and moist climate.
Linseed requires moderate or cool temperature during vegetative stage and dry weather during the maturity of the
crop.
Requires temperature of 25-300C during germination,15-200C during seed formation.
It requires high humidity.
Temperature above 320C along with the drought during flowering reduces yield, oil content and oil quality of
linseed.
Plants are susceptible to frost and causes injury to blossom
It is resistant to drought and grows well in areas receiving an annual rainfall of 450-750 mm.
Soils
Crops grows on well drained, moderately deep silt loam, clayloam & silty clays
Light sils area not suitable especially in low rainfall areas
Crop can tolerate soil acidity but ideal pH is 6.0.

Land Preparation
More sensitive to salinity, but fibre and oil content decreases at EC of 6.1dsm-1
Majority of linseed area is rainfed and grown in marginal and submarginal lands,
Hence adoption of soil & moisture conservation practices is important for good yie lds
Ploughing 2-3 times with cultivator, followed by 2-3 harrowings to obtain fine tilth,
Hoeing after each shower conserves the soil moisture

55
Varieties

State Utera Rainfed Irrigated

Himachal Pradesh Surabhi, Janki, Surabhi , Janki Janki, Himalini, Nagarkol

Himalini

Maharastra R-552 Kiran,Sheetal Jawahar -23

Madhya Pradesh R-552 Kiran,Sheetal Jawahar -23

Punjab LC-54,Himalini LC-54,

Himalini
Uttar Pradesh Swetha,Shubra Garima,
Shubra, Neelam

Sowing Time

Sowing time varies from October - N ov 15th in different states depending on availability of soil moisture,
irrigation and cropping systems
Early sowing helps to escape attack of powdery mildew, rust, and linseed bud fly
Pure “Rabi” crop should complete the sowings by Nov 15th .

Seed rate
The following seed rates are optimum under moist conditions

Under rainfed : Broad casting @ 40 kg/ha - 5 lakhs plants/ha

: Drilling @ 30kg /ha - 5 lakhs pla nts/ha

Under irrigated : Broadcasting @ 35 kg / ha 5 lakhs plants/ha

: Drilling @ 25 kg/ha 5 lakhs plants/ha

Under all situations : Dual methods @ 25 kg/ha - 4 lakhs plants/ha

Thinning should be done 15 days after emergence.

Seed Treatment
Seed treatment with thiram @ 3g/kg of seed or bavistin @ 1.5g or topsin M @ 2.5g/kg seed to protect the linseed
from seed borne diseases.

Sowing depth
Shallow sowing @ 2-3 cm with adequate soil moisture helps in early establishment.
Drilling facilitates even distribution, uniform depth of seeding result in better stand and good yields
In drier situations, where surface moisture is not adequate, sowing in deeper layers of 5-8 cm ensures germination

56
Spacing
Spacing between the rows : 25 - 30 cm
Spacing between the plants in a row : 7 - 10 cm

Nutrient Management
Application of FYM or compost @ 5-8 t/ha, final land preparation, improves water holding capacity of soil ,
improves soil structure, increases nutrient uptake there by leading to good yields.

Defeciency can be corrected by soil application of zinc sulphate @ 22.5 kg/ha once in 2-3 yrs or spraying of zinc
sulphate @ 0.25% after 2 weeks of emergence is recommended.

Fertilizer Schedule :
Under rainfed conditions : 40 + 20 + 20 kg N P K / ha Under irrigated
conditions : 90 + 40 + 30 kg N P K /ha

Weed Management
Weed free conditions upto 30-45 days is critical
Adequate tillage, prior to seeding, minimizes the weed growth.
Two intercultivations at 20 and 30 DAS with the manual weeding is ideal
Fluchloralin @ 1 kg ai /ha as PPI or Pre emergence application of alachlor @ 1kg ai/ha or Post emergence of
dichlofop methyl @ 0.7 kg ai/ha at 30 DAS is effective.
Pronamide @ 1.5 kg ai/ ha is effective in controlling Cuscuta infestation in linseed.

57
Irrigation
More than 90% of area under linseed is rainfed, where bold seeded and deep rooted varieties are preferred.
Small seed with the shallow rooted varieties are to be preferred under irrigated conditions
Frequent light irrigations are ideal and economical than heavy irrigations at longer intervals
Linseed responds well to irrigations.
Irrigations at critical stages like flowering and seed development is essentia l under moisture stress conditions.
Providing irrigations at 35 and 75 DAS has doubled the yields of linseed.
Moisture stress at stem elongation stage benefited the seed yields and adversely effected the straw yields
Sheduling irrigation at 50% DASM and IW/CPE is 0.6.
Harvesting
The crop should be harvested when the leaves are dry. A rule of thumb is to harvest when 90% of the seed capsules
are brown and shiny.
For fibre purpose, harvesting should be done at physiological maturity when the crop is still green.
Crop is harvested in March to April, cutting the plants close to the ground or pulling the plants.
Harvested crop is left in the field for few days for sundrying.
Threshing is done by beating the dried plants with the sticks or trampling under the cattle feet.
The seed is separated from chaff by winnowing.
Care should be taken in cutting the stalk and facilitate undamaged stalk in retting.

Quality considerations

Linseed contains 20-24 % protein, 37-42% oil, 15-29% CHO’s ,5- 9% crude fibre, 2-4% ash.
Linseed oil cake contains 30% protein, 7% fat, carbohydrate -42% which is a valuable protein source
to poultry and ruminants.

Uses
All parts of linseed plant are utilized for various purposes either directly or used for processing
Flax is roughly 40% oil by weight, about 55% of which is alpha linolenic acid (also called omega-3 fatty acid).
On a small scale seed is directly used for edible purpose and 80% of oil goes to industries. Oil is rich in Linolenic
acid (66% and above) and is a perfect drying oil and used in paint and varnishes
Its use is limited to animal feed because of undesirable compounds like phytic acid, cyanogenic glucoside
and goitorogen.
It is used in the manufacture of lit hographic inks and soaps
Oil cake is good feed for milch cattle and also as a manure having microbial activity
Linseed stem yields fibre of good quality having strength and durability. The fibres are lustrous and blend with the
wool and silk
The fibre is used in gloves, foot wear, netting sports, paper and textile industry, cigarette wrapping paper, strong
canvas, suitings and shirtings
Woody matter and short fibres used as raw pulp in paper industries.
One hundred kg retted flax yields the following c o product.

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Utera / Pyra cultivation

Pyra or utera cultivation is broadcasting linseed in standing kharif rice, when the crop is at is at flowering and dough stage
or 10-12 days before harvest of the crop.
This practice is followed for utilizing the conserved soil moisture in post rainy season, there by
utilizing the available irrigation sources judiciously in season.
In sufficient water available areas, a new method of utilizing available soil moisture ,Crack system of sowing linseed is
practiced.
This method involves development of deep 5 cms cracks, in the standing rice crop at the end of dough stage, followed by
watering/ irrigating the field.
Then sowing are done in October preferably with short duration varieties .
Varieties like R-7 (Jawar -7) & (R-552) resistant to rust, powdery mildew and wilt are preferred for utera cultivation.

Fertilizers : Linseed utilizes residual fertility of manures and fertilizers applied to the rice crop.
10 kg of Nitrogen is applied to rice crop itself at flowering or one week before sowing of linseed , which is beneficial for
establishment and growth.
Weeding : Once manual weeding is done in linseed crop after rice is harvested.
Utera method gives 50% higher linseed yield, without any adeverse effect on rice yields.
Double purpose linseed

Linseed when grown for fibre is known as fibre flax, when cultivated for seed known as seed flax/oil flax/linseed.
Linseed or seed flax : varieties are dwarf profusely branched & high seed potential.
Fibre flax : varieties are tall, scarcely branched, having low seed yielding, ability with high fibre yields. Commonly
cultivated in temperate regions.
Identification & development of the crop having both the characters of high seed & fibre yield is the concept of double
purpose linseed.
Total monetary returns per unit area or per unit time is an important consideration
Extraction of fibre from well grown linseed crop requires cooler temperature during retting process.
In India after the harvest of crop, temperature rises and alters quality of fibre and thus Indian fla x does not command good
price in international market.
Dry scotching machine was developed for oil and fibre extraction.
DPL 21, LCK 152 & RL 993 (Meera) are the promising double purpose linseed varieties.
Giza 5 and Giza 6 are high yielding double purpose varieties.

Yield: 12-15 q/ha

59
 Lecture 12
Niger (Guizotia abyssinica)

Niger crop is grown for seed used for extracting oil which is about 37 to 43 percent of the seed weight
The crop sheds a large quantity of dry leaves in the field and thereby adds lot of organic matter to the soil
Named after French historian “Guizot”
Known as “Kalatil” “Ramtil” and “surguja” in Hindi.
Seed resemble to sunflower seed in shape, but dark and small in size.
Tolerant to drought and less susceptible to attack by animals, birds, insects and diseases.
Niger is a minor oilseed crop in world and meets economy of India; still it is of considerable importance for rainfed
conditions on poor soils of coarse textured especially on hill slopes and shallow soils of marginal lands.
Gives good yield even with poor management.
Niger oil is similar to safflower oil in edible quality.

Description :
Herbaceous annual, 0.5–1.5 m tall; stems pubescent leaves opposite, sessile, subcordate to ovate- lanceolate, serrate,
subscabrous, to 22 cm long; involucre with ovate, biseriate scales;
Flowers yellow, conspicuous, in solitary or clustered heads to 2 cm across, arranged in corymbs; heads with 40–60
tubular hermaphroditic florets, surrounded by a marginal row of ligulate florets, flowering in each head lasting 7–8 days,
cross-pollinated, probably by bees.

Origin and Distribution

Niger is native of Abyssinia (Ethiopia)

It is originated from G scabre and sub-species G. Schimperi.
Migrated to East Africa and India through Persian Gulf traders along with other crops popularly known as Savanna
complex.
Grown in East Africa, India, Germany, Switzerland, France, USSR, Sudan, Uganda, Tanzania and Malawi.
India, chief niger producing country in world.
In India : Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu are imporatnt states cultivating niger crop

Area and Production

World statistics for Niger are scarce and unreliable.

World : Area : 2 lakh/ha
: Production : 1 lakh ton
: Productivity : 500 kg/ha
India : Area - 0.6 m ha
: Production - 0.2 mt
: Productivity - 300 kg/ha
Ethiopia is the the major niger produc ing country in the world

Maharastra ranks first both in area (0.21 m ha) and production (0.035 mt) in the country.

60
Productivity is highest (500 kg/ha) in Orissa.

Climate

It is a temperate region crop and also adapted to semi-tropical environment.

Niger is a short day plant
Requires moderate temperature of 18-23oC for its growth.
Temperature above 30oC growth rate and flowering are adversely affected and hastens maturity.
Frost will kill the young seedlings.
Rainfall of 1000-1300 mm is optimum although 800 mm will produce reasonable yield.
The peak flowering period of crop should not coincide with rainy periods as the honey bees, which are main pollinators,
are disturbed ,resulting in poor seed setting.
High wind or rain at seed maturity will cause severe maturity.
Temperature below 10oC, emergence is restricted – leading to in adequate stand establishment.

Soil

Niger is grown on all soils from sandy deep clay loam.

Crop prefers light textured soil, but well drained heavy soils can be used for cultivation.
Niger tolerates water logged soils, it is resistant to poor oxygen supply in soil by developing
Arenchyma cells
Can tolerate salinity to some extent, increased salinity delays flowerings.
Grows well in the soils having pH 5.2 to 7.3.

Tillage / land

Since a small seed, leveled seed bed is essential to ensure uniform planting and subsequent emergence.
Good tilth is obtained by 1 or 2 ploughings followed by 2 harrowings.
In hilly areas furrows run across the slope to avoid soil erosion.

Season

2 seasons : Kharif : June – July

Rabi : September (under stored soil moisture)

State Sowing time

Andhra Pradesh 2nd week of August – Mid of September

Madhya Pradesh 2nd and 3rd week of July

Maharas htra June end to early August

Karnataka June – August

Orissa 3rd week of July – first week of August

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Varieties

Recommended improved varieties are Ootacamand, GA 10, Phulbani, GAZ, GA 10, CHH4, RCR 317, TN 5 and Gujarat
Niger, Mature in 75-100 days.

Seed rate and spacing

Seed rate depends on method of sowing

Broadcasting : 8 kg/ha
Line sowing : 5 kg/ha
Spacing : 30 x 10 cm
Optimum plant population varies from 2,50,000 to 3,00,000 plants/ha.
Thinning should be completed within 20 DAS to maintain required plant density.

Nutrient management

Crop is mostly grown on marginal and submarginal lands without manure or fertilizers.
Niger – Responds to fertilizers
N recommendation varies from 10-40 kg/ha in different states
In Andhr a Pradesh : 20 kg N/ha
Soil ‘P’ levels are low in many areas where niger is grown.
Application of 40 kg P2O5 / ha is recommended for niger.
Since niger is continuously grown in same land every year in mixed cropping there is possibly of mycorrihzae root
relationship in the soils.
10 kg P2O5 / ha is used when the niger is rotated with well fertilized crops in rotation.
However recommended fertilizer schedule is 20 + 20 kg NP /ha
Recommended fertilizer should be applied by placement using seed drill.
Half of N + entire dose of ‘P’ should be applied as basal at sowing.
Remaining half dose of N should be top dressed at 30 DAS preferably coinciding with rainfall.

Water management

Niger is invariably grown in rainy season and it is not irrigated mostly.

It is reported that niger yields can be doubled under irrigation.
Irrigation is to be scheduled according to soil and climate conditions (as there is no much information available on
irrigation . )
Irrigation must be given at seedling stage for proper growth followed by based on the needs of the crop.
Check basin or border strip system of irrigation is ideal for niger.

Weed management

Niger grows rapidly once the seedlings are established and dense growth competes with weeds
Two weedings first at 15 DAS and second at 30-35 DAS before top dressing.

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Dodder (Cuscuta chinensis) is a parasitic weed in Orissa, on niger, which can effectively controlled by pre-emergence
herbicide – “Pronamide” @ 2 kg per ha and as Po-emergence as soil treatment @ 20 DAS.

Harvesting and threshing

Normally matures in about 80 -145 days after emergence.

Stage of harvest :- when leaves dry up, head turns brown or blackish or 45-50% of moisture content in buds.
After drying in the sun for about a week by stacking ,then the crop is taken to threshing floor and crop is manually
threshed.
Crop is also threshed by trampling under the feet of bullock.
Threshed produce is winnowed in the wind and clean seeds are obtained.
Yield : Pure crop : 400 – 500 kg ha -1. Inter crop : 150 – 300 kg ha-1
Storage

Seeds are sun dried for 2-3 days.

Stored in gunny bags in houses with good ventilation.
High humid coupled with moisture conditions prevailing inside store houses should be avoided.
For small farm seed storage – 200 litres oil drums fitted i.e., lids – have proved effective for
storage

Quality considerations

Niger seed contains 35-40% oil, ash 4 - 5.8%, 20% - protein, crude fibre content is 10%
Niger oil is pale yellow, nutty in taste and sweet odour, and low acidity in raw oil hence used in cooking.
Linoleic acid is major fatty acid, followed Oleic acid also.
Niger cake contains 24-34% protein, 4-14% oil, 8-24% crude fibre, 20-28% sugar and 8-12% ash.

Economic importance

75% of niger seed produced is used for extraction of oil in India, and rest is used for food in confectioneries making,
also Exported to western countries as cage bird feed
Consumed by sheep
Niger also used as green manure
Niger seed cake is a valuable cattle feed
Niger seed is used as human food
Oil is subjected to oxidative and rancidation , reducing its keeping quality poor, due to high Oleic acid (38%) and
linoleic acid (51.6%).
Oil is used for culinary purposes
Used for manufacturing paints and soft -soaps and cosmetics
Niger oil is used as a base oil in perfume industry
Niger oil is use for pharmaceutical purpose
Niger based agar medium which is required for brain ailment.

63
Crop in fie ld

64
 Lecture No - 13
Castor (Ricinus Communis)
Castor belongs genus : Ricinus, Family : Euphorbiaceae
Known as Erand in Hindi “Amudam” in Telugu plays an important role in country’s Vegetable oil economy.
Castor is one of the ancient important non-edible oil seed crop which has industrial and me dicinal value.
Ricinus is derived from latin term “ Dog’s Tick” because of the resemblance of mottling on the seed to the common pests
of dog.
Cultivated chiefly for trading, since it has no food value
Castor is coined by English Traders, who confused the oil with Vataxagnus castus.
Though generally known as castor bean plant, its seed is the castor bean which, despite its name, is not a true bean .
To many people the castor plant is just an overgrown, undesirable weed, and yet it produces one of
nature's finest natural oils
It is used as a lubricant in high-speed engines and aeroplanes.

Origin & Distribution

Castor is a native of east Africa especially Ethiopia
India, Brazil, China, Argentina, USA, Thailand, Queensland, Egypt and Sudan are the important countries producing
countries.
In India, important states producing castor are Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat and to some extent T.N,
Karnataka, Orissa Madhya Pradesh and Bihar.

Area, Production and Productivity

World India Andhra Pradesh
Area 1.5m/ha 0.72 ha 157 l/ha
Production 13 mt 0.9 mt 087 l/tons
Productivity 900 kg/ha 1221 kg/ha 511 kg/ha

Globally, India ranks first both in area and production.

Productivity of castor is highest in Gujarat (1650 kg/ha).

Morphology
Castor plants is of 2 types : Tall / Giant types with perennial habit,tap root system
: Short / Dwarf types with shorter duration
Stem : is Round, glabrous, bluish ,waxy gives resistance to jassids, hoppers.
Stem is solid in gaint types and become hallow with age in dwarf types.
Leaves are large, green in color, glossy and sometimes red due to anthocyanin pigmentation. Usually leaves consist of 5 to
11 lobes.
Inflorescence: Forms a pyramidal “ raceme, spike / candle ” born terminally on main lateral branches
Lower portion of raceme consists of male flowers and upper portion bears female flowers and the ratio between them is
varietal character and influenced by climate.
High temperature leads to maleness, spraying gibberellins tends to increase the female flowers

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Plant produces the flowers over an extended period through out the year.
Fruit : It is globular capsule, spiny becomes hard and brittle when ripened
Seed : Capsule contains 2-3 seeds, oval shape, shiny, brittle, white/brown /black/red with a mottling on testa. Seed size
varies with variety in diff. racemes on same plants
Seed has dormancy for many months. But dwarf type are non dormant and germinates with in 10-12
days
Climate
Basically a warm season crop grows in temperate and tropical regions throughout the world.
Can be successfully grown from 300 -1800 m above sea level
Castor production lies between 40o N and 40o S
In India successfully grown upto 1500 m
Temperature:- Requires moderately high temp of 200-260 C with low humidity through out growing season to give high
yields.
Low temperature extends emergence, making more liable to attack by fungal diseases & insects. High temperature 410 C
results in blasting of flowers & poor seed set.
A frost free growing period between 130-190 days depending on cultivar is necessary for satisfactory yields.
Day length : Basically a long day plant, fairly adaptable to day length from 13-18 hrs.
Rainfall :- 600-760 mm rainfall is required.
For optimum growth and development - 100 mm evenly distributed rainfall in first few months period is desirable.
Soils
Grows on any type of soil, well drained, sandy loams will produce optimum yields.
Crop is sensitive to excessive moisture.
In Andhra Pradesh grown in sandy loams and shallow black soils.
Prefers slightly acidic pH of 5- 6. 5, but can also grow upto pH 8.

Tillage / and land preparation

As castor crop is deep rooted plant with the trap root system extending beyond 2-3 meters for extraction of soil
moisture from deep layers, deep plouging (<45cm) and chiseling in shallow soils with sub surface hard pan is adopted to
support deep root system, reducing weeds.
Castor is a hardy crop for better crop insitu moisture conservation, summer tillage or offseason tillage with pre-monsoon
rains helps in removal of weeds for better infiltration and rain water retention.

Varieties

S. Variety Season Duration (in Yield Characters

No. days) q/acre
Kranti Kharif / Drought tolerant bold seed.
1. 90-150 5.6-6.4 Suitable for late sown
(P.C.S 4) Rabi conditions.
Haritha (P.C.S Kharif /
2. 124) 90-150 5.6-6.4 Wilt tolerant
Rabi

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 Kiran Kharif / Drought tolerant escapes Botrytis
3. 90-150 5.2-6.0 to some extent
(P.C.S 136) Rabi
Jyoti Kharif / summer
4. 90-150 4.8-6.0 Wilt tolerant
(D.C.S 9)

Jwala (48-1)
Tolerant to wilt and Botrytis
5. Kharif 150-180 4-4.8
disease

Suitable for rainfed conditions.

6. P.C.H. 1 Kharif/ Rabi 90-180 5.6-7.2 Tolerant to drought. 1st bunch
will come to maturity early.
15days earlier than GCH-4

7. G.C.H. 4 Kharif 150-210 5.6-7.2 Tolerant to wilt and root rot.

Tolerant to drought.

Kharif for
8. D.C.H 32 rainfed 90-180 5.6-7.2 Comes to harvest early
conditions

Kharif / Rabi for

9. D.C.H 177 rainfed 90-180 6.0-7.6 Drought tolerant
conditions

Aruna(220-280 days), and short duration varieties like Bhagya and Sowbhagya are the oldest varieties of cator.

Seasons and sowing time:

Kharif : with the onset on the monsoon, June 15th is a ideal time of sowing
Rabi : September to October
Summer : January

Seed Rate

Rainfed crop : 12 - 15 kg/ha : w ith plant population of 55,000 plants / ha

Irrigated crop : 5 - 6 kg/ha : with the plant population of 18,500 plants/ha

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Varieties

Kranthi, Haritha, Kiran etc released by ANGRAU

Jyothi, Jwala, DCH-177, DCH-519 relased by DOR Hyderabad.

Spacing
Regions Cultivar Spacing (cm)

All castor areas Improved var’s / Hybrids 90 x 20 or 60 x 30 (Rainfed)

Andhra PradeshHybrids90 x 60 & Gujarat

Delayed planting 60 x 15 60 x 30
(in want of rains) (Ideal to curtail veg. growth.)

Seed is sown in furrow behind plough furrow at 10-12 cm below soil surface.
Fertilized drill is preferred in rainfed areas and widely spacing of 90 cm in larger areas.
Dibbing the seed either in flat bed or at the base of ridge is common under irrigated conditions.

Nutrient Management

Crop yielding 2000 kg seed removes around 80 kg N, 18 P 2 05, 32 kg K2O, 12 kg Ca, 10 kg Mg ha-1
Nitrogen application is related to available soil moisture through rain/ irrigation.
For improved varieties under rainfed conditions, 90-140 kg N/ha is recommended
For hybrids under irrigated conditions, 200 kg N/ha is recommended

Phosphorus :- Under rainfed condition, 30 kg P 2 O 5 / ha is adequate

Improved cultivars responds upto 75 kg P2 O 5 / ha

Potassium : Tropical soils are well supplied with available K

But application of N & P may result in increased potassium uptake

Recommended fertilizer schedule:-

Rainfed conditions in Andhra Pradesh : 40-60 + 40 +30 kg N P K/ha.

Irrigated conditions in Andhra Pradesh : 80-100 + 40 + 30 kg/NPK/ha.
Under rainfed conditions nitrogen should be applied in three splits
50% of the dose at sowing time, 25% at 35 – 40 DAS, 25% at 65- 75 DAS.
Under irrigated conditions nitrogen should be applied in four splits.
30 kg N at sowing , 60 kg N splitted three times with 20 kg each time at 30-35 days, 60-65 days, and 90-95 DAS

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Entire dose of P & K should be applied basally at sowing time.
Use of Single Super phosphate as a source of P can meet the requirements of “S” Calcium, Magnesium.

Integrated nutrient management involving crop rotations with legumes, green manures, phosphate solubilising bacteria etc
will reduce the cost on fertilizers besides improving the soil fertility.
Alley cropping or Green leaf manuring with subabul, contributed to “ N” pool in soil

Water management

Castor is drought tolerant rainfed crop but responds well to irrigation.

Water requirement of castor crop is 500-700 mm.
Flowering and seed development stages are more sensitive for moisture stress.
Scheduling Irrigation: - Information on scheduling of irrigation is limited but it is desirable to give heavy irrigations at
longer intervals than the frequent irrigations.
In a crop duration of 180 days, require around 6 irrigations to obtain optimum yield
As the crop is sensitive to water logging, furrow method of irrigation is ideal as it drains out the excess water from the
field.
In Rabi, first irrigation should be given at 50 DAS after sowing, followed by irrigations at an interval of 20 days.

Weed Management

Castor crop is highly susceptible to weed competition in intital stages, has the growth of castor is slow initially
and larger area is exploited by weeds.
Hence, weed control is of paramount importance.
Critical period for weed free competition is 45-50 days.
Clean cultivation in terms of summer ploughing and thorough seed be d preparation eliminates weeds to a larger extent
before sowing of castor.
For rainfed castor : 2-3 intercultivation with blade harrow ,starting from 20 DAS along with manual weeding is ideal.
For irrigation castor : 2-3 hand weedings at an interval of 15 days starting from 15 DAS is ideal.
Herbicides are economical in irrigated castor.
PPI herbicides : Fluchloralin (0.75-1.0), Trifluralin (0.75-1.0), EPTC (2.0 – 2.5), Nepatalam (3.5-4.0)
Pre -emergence herbicides : Alachlor (1.0 -1.5), Metalachlor (1.0-1.5),
Pendimethalin (1.5- 2.0), Nitrofen (1.5-2.0)

Harvesting

Harvesting castor spikes should be done at right time

15-20% of yield is lost in the field due to dehiscence of capsules under rainfed conditions of A.P waiting for all the
spikes to come to maturity for single harvesting.
On an average, castor plant produces 4-5 sequential order spikes over a span of 180 – 240 days.
Main spike is ready for harvest within 100 days after seeding, subsequent harvest can be done at 30 days interval in
improved cultivars.
Optimum stage for harvest is capsules turning yellow and starts drying.

69
Pre-mature harvest should be avoided.
Dried capsules on the spike are plucked, /collected and threshed instead of cutting the entire spike from the plant.
Harvested spikes are usally placed in heaps around one week and than sun dried for a couple of days.
Threshing is done by beating with the sticks or trampling under the cattle feet or tractor or power operated threshers.
Castor seed can be stored in gunny bags without loss for three years.

Storage Of Seed
Castor-seed is very hard and does not require much care during storage.
No insect or fungus attacks the seeds.
Under ordinary conditions of storage in jute (gunny)bags, the oil and the free fatty acid content of the seeds are not
affected even after three years of storage.
Usually, castor - seeds are not required to be stored in warehouses over long periods.
Being an important industrial and export commodity, it is immediately crushed locally or exported.
In warehouses, castor seed is stored in gunny bags.
Sometimes, if the bags get wet due to high humidity or leakage of rain-water, the seeds become slightly mouldy but this
does not affect either the oil or the free fatty acid contents.
With sun drying, the source of damage can be eliminated.
It is recommended that castor seeds be dried to 7-8% moisture content before storing.
At domestic or farm level, storage of large quantities of castor seed is not recommended as it occupies a considerable space
Castor seed is also not recommended to be stored in open as both heat and sunlight damage the germination and reduce
the oil content.
Artificial low temperature storage also affects the viability.
Castor seed stored at 5 to 70C temperature for 6 months reduced the germination percentage.
During bagging the seeds, handling should be minimized.
On large scale handling, wooden scoops, shovels and rubber conveyor belts are recommended.
Seeds should be stored at dry place and cooler part of the house.

Quality considerations:-
Oil content ranges from 40-45%, 12-16% proteins 27% of carbohydrates 23-27% fibre.
Dehulled types contains 60-70% of oil and 18-26% protein.
Castor oil is unique that it contents 85-90% ricinolic acid which imparts high degree of viscocity and oxidative stability,
four times stable than olive oil.
Castor cake contains 6% nitrogen, 2.5% P2 O5, 1.5% K20, as it contains toxic constituents, unfit for edible
puropose, except to poultry, cannot be fed to any animals.
Castor seed contains an alkaloid called “recinine” which is extremely poisonous.
Economic importance:-
Seed consist of oil ranging from 50-55%, the various uses of castor oil is ascribed because of presence of fatty acid called
as “ricinolic” acid.
Oil is used as lubricant, because of its quality, can remain as liquid at low temperature 320C and viscouys at high
temperature.
Used in textile soaps, cosmetics, nylon, pharmaceuticals, paints, varnishes, dying, carbon and
papermaking
Used for production of wetting agents, detergents, sebacic acid, secondary octyl alchol, undecylinic, acid, resins, fibres etc.

70
Associated with medicinal and veterinary use of obstetrics, dermatology etc.
Used as purgative, laxative and a soothing medium for eye diseases.
Used in production of artificial leather, printing inks.
In cytogenetic studies, soaking root tips in oil for 2 hr help in excellent chromosomes spreading
It is a good source for synthetic flower scents and fruit flavours.
Castor cakes is used as a manure and anti termite products
Protein from a castor seed is used to produce distemper; oil bound water paints, adhesives, casein plastics.
Pulp from the stem mixed with the bamboo pulp produce papers.
Green leaves are used in raising eri silkworms.
Grown as shade crop in turmeric, windbreak in sugarcane, as an attractant to catch pests in tobacco.
Few castor seeds are mixed in safe storage of sesame seeds.

Intercropping combinations Proportion States

recommended/practised
Castor + Red gram 1:1 Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh

Castor + Cowpea 1:2 Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh

Castor + Blackgram 1:2 Andhra Pradesh

Castor + Greengram 1:2 Andhra Pradesh
Castor + Cluster bean 1:1 Andhra Pradesh
Castor + Groundnut 1:5 or 1:7 Andhra Pradesh

Castor + Groundnut(Bunch) 1:3 Gujarat

Castor + Soybean 1:1 Bihar

Castor + Sunflower(Hybrid) 1:1 Gujarat(Irrigated)

Castor + Lathyrus 1:5 Bihar

Castor(Local)+turmeric 1:5 Bihar

CASTOR PLANT Male & Female flowers

Castor with spikes

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Flowering stage

Capsule formation

72
Castor with dried capsule

Castor seeds

73
 Lecture 14
Cotton- Importance-Origin-Distribution- Classification- Soil, Climatic requirements-Seasons- Seeds & sowing
Cotton

Cotton is one of the oldest and the most important commercial crop of the world and forms the most important fibre
crop. Cotton textile industry is the oldest Agricultural industry of India. The fibre obtained from seed is used for variety of
purpose. But major use of fibre is manufacturing of textiles which provide clothing to the mankind. Ever since the dawn of
civilization, cotton served the purpose of providing this need and even today it dominates despite of the production and
marketing of many synthetic fibres Cotton is referred to as “ King of Fibres “and also known as “White Gold”
Cotton is also used for several other purposes like making threads, for mixing in other fibres and extraction of oil from the
cotton seed. Oil content ranges from 15-25 percent.
Cotton seed cake after extraction of oil is good organic manure contains 6.4% N, 2.9% P2O5 and 2.2% K2O.
Cotton seed and pulp obtained during oil extraction and cotton meal are good concentrated feed for cattle.

Origin and History:

Cotton has been used as a fabric in India from time immemorial. It has been cultivated in the Indus Valley for more than
5000 years before. The excavations of Mohen – jo- daro indicates a high degree of art in spinning and weaving with cotton
at that time. It finds mention in the Rigveda, the oldest scripture of the Hindus. Manu also refers to it in his Dharma
Shastra. India appears to have been the centre of an important cotton industry as early as 1500 B.C. The cultivation
of Cotton spread from India to Egypt and then to Spain and Italy. Every available evidence proves that India is the
original habitat of Cotton.
The cultivated Species are divided into two groups. They are Old world cotton:
India is the major cotton growing country, growing all four species of cotton commercially. India is considered as centre of
origin of old World cotton and believed that two Species (arboreum and herbaceum) belonging to old world cotton have
spread along the commercial routes to several countries in the East and also to the Northern countries like Africa to Egypt
and other Mediterranean regions through trade and business.
New World cotton:
Cotton belonging to species barbadense are derived from a perennial cotton, a native of Peru called Tangins. This variety
was introduced into USA and by selection a new type of annual cotton was developed known as Sea Island Cotton which
was the longest and finest fibre of all the cultivated cotton. Hirsutum species is the native of Central Mexico and spread
to other parts of USA, Asia, Africa etc from native place.

Area and distribution:

Cotton is the most important fibre crop of the world cultivated over an area of 34.5 ha with a total production of 54.5 mt.
The important cotton growing countries are India, USA, Russia, China, Brazil, Egypt,
Pakistan, Turkey, Mexico and Sudan. These ten countries account for nearly 85% of the total production.

74
Climate:

It is a tropical crop and thrives well in hot and humid climate. It is heat loving and sun loving(heliophyte) plant. A daily
minimum temperature of 16oC is required for germination and 21 to 27oC for proper vegetative growth. It can tolerate
temperature as high as 43oC, but does not do well if the temperature falls below 21oC. During fruiting phase, the day
temperature ranging from 27 to 30oCand cool nights are needed.
Abundant sunshine during the crop growth period particularly the period of boll maturation and harvesting is essential to
obtain a good quality produce. Successfully grown in areas receiving an average annual rainfall ranging from 500mm, of
which 175-200mm should be received during crop growth period. If, during the fruiting period heavy showers of rain occur
or heavy irrigation is applied, shedding of the flowers and young bolls results. At harvesting also high rainfall is not
desirable since it not only affects the quality of lint but also delays harvesting and makes the harvesting difficult.
Cotton is highly sensitive to frost occurrence. Even for short period, frost will result in killing of plant cells and severe
frost situation, death of entire plant occurs. Hence, its cultivation is confined to plains and extends from MSL occur s to
an altitude of 1000 m only. For successful crop, it requires a frost free period of a minimum of 180-200 days, starting from
the emergence of the plant.

Soils:
Cotton is a deep rooted crop. As the tap root extends even up to a depth of 200-250cm deep soils are ideal for better root
penetration and development. Soils should have good water retention capacity as most of the cotton is confined to rainfed
conditions.
Soils must be well drained and well aerated since the crop is sensitive to water logging. Crop can tolerate P H of 5.5 to
8.5. The Principle soil types for cotton cultivation in the country are
Alluvial Soils: Punjab, Rajasthan , Haryana, U.P, Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa, Assam, Godavari,
Krishna region (A.P)
Black Cotton Soils: Central and Western M.P, parts of M.S, South Orissa, South and Coastal A.P,
North Karnataka
Red Soils: Tamilnadu, Karnataka, N-E parts of AP, Parts of MP, Orissa, Assam, UP, West Bengal,
Rajasthan
Laterite Soils: Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Karnataka, E Parts of A.P, Tamil Nadu, Assam, and Kerala.

Land Preparation:

he field, after the harvest of the preceding crop, should be ploughed 15-20cm deep with mould board plough. There after
two to four harrowings depending upon the soil type are done. After each ploughing, planting is essential to make soil
pulverized, leveled. No stubbles of the previous crop should be left in the field. For irrigated crop, particularly in North,
the field should be prepared by applying heavy pre-sowing irrigation.

Seeds and Sowing : Time of Sowing:

75
Time of sowing season of cotton varies considerably from tract to tract and is generally early April – May in N-India and
is delayed as one goes down to south.
Cotton is essentially grown as Kharif crop in the major parts of the country - Punjab, Haryana,
Rajasthan, U.P, M.P, Gujarat, MS and parts of A.P and Karnataka. In these areas Irrigated crop – March to May,
Rainfed Crop – June/July
In parts of Gujarat and M.P, pre-monsoon dry sowings are practiced in the end of May or early June to give early stand to
the crop.
T.N. – Irrigated and rain fed – Sept/Oct, Summer sowings – Feb/March
A.P. Northern region – June/July, Central region – Aug/Sept, July/Aug(Hybrids) Eastern region – July/Aug,
Rice fallows – Dec/Jan
Seed rate is influenced by the variety and method of sowing. High yielding variety – 10 to 15kg/ha, Hybrids – 2.5 to
3.0kg/ha Spacing: Straight varieties – 45 to 60X15cm (R)
-90 to 120X45 to 60 cm (I)
Hybrids-90 to 150X45 to 60 cm
Method of Sowing: Seed drill /behind the plough, dibbling (hybrids) Depth of Sowing: 4 to 6cm
No. of seedlings/hill: Varieties 2, Hybrids 1

Seed treatment :
The seed of the most of the cotton varieties particularly of American types is covered by short fibre called Fuzz. The fuzz
makes the seeds cling together, thus hampering their free passage through the seed hopper and tubes of the seed drill or
they are not easily separated for sowing by dibbling. The fuzz also interferes with the absorption of the water by the
seed and delays germination. The H2SO4 poured on seed and simultaneously. Wash the seed with fresh water followed by
lime water again with fresh water to neutralize the acid residues. The fuzz gets burnt and immediately washed 3- 4 times
in water and dried under shade. This is called delinting. Delinting can be done mechanically in the cotton gin or
chemically or the seed is rubbed with mud or a mixture of earth and fresh cow dung. By this treatment, the fuzz on each
individual seed becomes pasted on the seed itself and the seeds no longer cling to each other.
In order to control the seed borne diseases the seed is treated with 0.01% Streptomycin Oxytetracyclin (Paushamycin or
Agrimycin) and with 0.1% Systemic fungicide like carboxin (vitavax) solutions for 6-8 hours. The treated seed should be
dried in shade before sowing.

Gap filling and thinning:

To maintain optimum population, gap filling is done with the same stock of seed which was used at the time of sowing.
This is done on the 10th day. Wherever seed has not germinated to fill the gaps, the water soaked seeds are dibbled so
as to have quick emergence or seedlings are raised in polythene bags at the time of sowing and these are used for gap
filling. So that crop growth is uniform.
Thinning should be done within 3 WAS, by removing the excess seedlings that are weak, diseased or damaged and retaining
robust and strong plants. The main objective is to maintain optimum plant population per unit area.

76
77
 Lecture 15
Classification of Cottons
Classification:
The predominant species cultivated Gossypium hirsutum - >90% of the area
“ arboretum - 5%
Gossypium herbaceum – 2%
Gossypium barbadense – negligible

Gossypium hirsutum:
(American Cotton) Species contain haploid number of chromosomes (26) plants are either annual shrubs or large perennial
shrubs (1-1.5mt tall), Flowers are creamy white in colour when first open and turn pink or red later. The capsules are
3-5 locular with 5-11 seeds in each locule. Seed contain a thick coat of lint hair besides a thick coat of fuzz hair. Fibre
is medium coarse and length varies from ¾ “ to 11/4” (27-30mm)

78
Gossypium barbadense:
(Sea island / Egyptian Cotton): Species contain haploid number of chromosomes (26). Plants are either anuual shrubs or
perennial shrubs. Petals are yellow with purple spot at the base. Capsules are 3.5 locular w ith 5-8 seeds, in each locule.
Seeds bear a thick coat of lint and thick coat of fuzz and fuzz may be absent in some varieties. Fibre is fine and extra long
ranging from 1/2” to 2’’ length. Lint is readily detachable from the seed.

Gossypium arboreum:

Species contain haploid number of chromosomes (13). Plant may be annual sub shrub or perennial. Capsules are tapering
with prominent oil glands in the pits and are 3 or 4 locular with 6-17 seed in each locule . Seeds are usually covered with
two coats of hair (lint +fuzz). Fibre is coarse and short and length varies from ½” to 7/8”
Gossypium herbaceum:

Haploid number of chromosomes (13). Plants are sub shrubs. Capsules are brown provided with beak, smooth surface
or with shallow pits with oil glands. The capsules are 3-4 locular with 8- 10 seeds in each locule. Seeds are covered
with two coats of hair (lint+fuzz). Fibre is coarse and short with lint length varying from 1/2” to 7/8’’
Branching in Cotton: There are two types of branches observed in cotton.

Monopodial branches:

They arise from basal region upto 1/3rd height of the plant, few in number, they does not bear flowers, also termed as
vegetative branches. They appear as growing straight. They bare sympodial branches.

Sympodial branches:
They arise from main stem as well as on monopodial branches. They are many in number, they bear flowers on it,
hence also termed as reproductive branches. The growth pattern of sympodial branches is stop-grow -stop pattern.

79
Cotton- Manures and Fertilizers- Water Management- Weed Managenment- Topping- Bud and Boll Shedding-
Harvesting.

Manures and Fertilizers:

15 to 20 t Fym/ha should be incorporated into the soil at last ploughing. Recommended dose of fertilizers depends on the
variety grow n, whether rainfed or irrigated and the nutrient supplying capacity of the soil recommended dose is not
uniform in all the cotton growing regions.

N/ha P2O5/ha K2O/ha

Desi Cotton : 20 – 40 kg 20Kg 20 Kg
American Cotton Varieties : 90 Kg 45 Kg 45 Kg
Hybrids: 120 Kg 60 Kg 60 Kg

Entire P205 should be applied as a basal dose at last ploughing and duly incorporated in the soil. Nitrogen and Potassium is
applied in three equal splits each at 30, 60 and 90 DAS.

While top dressing, fertilizer should be applied in pockets 7 -10 cm away form the plant and at a depth of 7 – 10 cm for a
rainfed crop. Fertilizer application should be done only in presence of adequate moisture. For the irrigated crop, provide
irrigation soon after application of fertilizers.

N P 2 O5 K2 O
Rain Fed :
Desi 40 20 20
American 60 30 30
Hybrid 90 45 45
Irrigated:
American 120 60 60
Hybrid 150 75 75
Rain fallsVariety 135 45 45
Hybrid 150 60 60

Water Management :
Cotton is a drought tolerant crop due to its deep root system. Water requirement of the crop is 600 to 800 mm. Cotton
cannot tolerate excess moisture in the soil and so frequent irrigation is not necessary. Interval between two irrigations
depends on the soil type, rainfall and others related climatic factors. The crop must not be allowed to suffer from
water stress during flowering and fruiting period, otherwise excessive shedding of flower buds and young bolls may occur
resulting in loss of yield. The crop cannot tolerate water logging conditions at any stage of growth.
Critical Stages : Square formation stage

: Flowering stage
: Boll developing stage

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Weed Management :
First 50 -60 days after sowing is the critical period of Crop Weed Competition, Initially the crop growth is very slow, thus
more vulnerable to weed compertiaton. During this period, the field should be free form weeds for better growth and higher
yields. 5 – 6 intercultural operations should be done depending on the intensity of weeds. Weeds near the plant should be
removed by manual labour. Chemical method of managing weeds helps in maintaining the filed weed free. Following
herbicides can be used in cotton.
Pre – eme Pendimethaline @ 1.5 – 2.0Kg a .i/ha PPI fluchloralin @ 1.5 Kg a.i /ha
Pre –eme: Alachlor @ 1.5 kg/a.i/ha
Diuron @ 0.8 - 1.0 kg ai /ha Pronamide @1.5 – 2.5kga.i/ha Cinmethiline @ 0.5 -1.5 Kg /ha
Post – eme: Paraquat @ 0.5 Kg a.i/ha or Glyphosate – 3.5 – 4.5 as directed spray on the foliage of weeds

Topping:
Cotton is indeterminate plant, to check excessive vegetative growth topping is practiced , Toping refers to the removal of the
terminal bud. Level of topping or at what node topping is to be done will differs with cotton plant type.
MCV –5: Topping at 15th node level (70 – 80) DAS resulted in better yields MCV 7: 10 – 12th node (90DAS)

Topping is done manually. In USA machines are used . Excessive vegetation growth can also be controlled by using
chemicals which are growth retardant like cycocel (ccc). It restricts excessive vegetative growth retards senescence, keeping
the leaves green for longer time thus prolonging their effective period.

American Cotton – 40 to 60 PPm

Desi cotton - 60 to 80 PPm 50 to 80DAS

Bud and Boll shedding:

It is a natural phenomena in cotton . Heavy shedding of flower buds and young bolls occur which is aggrevated under
adverse conditions of soil, climate and management under such situation it may be as high as 60% . under natural
conditions 10 to 15% loss occurs.
Various reasons for bud and boll shedding in Cotton is 1)Unfavaurable Weather conditions:
Reduced light conditions
Excess or lack of moistures in the soils
Cloudiness
-High relative humidity

Imbalanced nutrient supply

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Incidence of pest and disease

Weeds alter the microclimate

Physical injury - due to use of farm machinery

This problem can be minimized by using certain hormones like NAA, since it increases the supply of auxin to bolls and
buds, thus the senescence of them is reduced. Spraying of NAA – planofix @10 ppm at flower initiation (1 ml in 100
liter) 50 – 60 D AS & 15 days after 1st applicaton resulted in retention of more bolls.

Harvesting :

Harvesting usually commences in the month of Nov. and extends to March depending upon sowing time and duration.
Harvesting is done usually by manual labour ie hand picking the cotton from the open matured bolls. Since cotton is
indeterminate type, flowering occurs in no. of flushes hence all the bolls do not mature at a time and bolls come to maturing
stage at intervals of 2-4 weeks period. Harvesting is done in 4 -5 pickings as and when bolls are fully matured. Precautions
must be taken to maintain the quality of fibre at the time of picking.

Picking needs good experience, care is taken that all the cotton from all segments should be removed in one stroke. without
lea ving any fibre in the boll.

Produce from each picking should be dried separately and stored separately . Cotton from all pickings should not be mixed
since they vary in their quality. Cotton should be dried on clean floor in shade.

Kapas should not be contaminated with foreign materials like leaf bits, trash, soil particles etc, at the time of picking and
shading.

While picking weather conditions must be taken into account. Usually pickings are done in the early hours of the day,
As the day advances the fruit wall becomes brittle due to sun and while picking they easily collapse and contaminate.
Picking must commence after cessation of dew fall Cotton of early picking are of superior quality and later pickings
produce inferior quality fibre due to inadequate nutrient supply at later stapes, high incidence of pest and inadequate
moisture at later stages.

Boll affected with insect is common feature which not only reduce yield but produce yellow stained cotton which is
considered inferior fibre.

Yields :
Dryland crop - 10to 15 q/ha
Irrigated Crops - 25 to 30q/ha
Hybrids- 35 to 40 q/ ha. 1 Bale = 170 kg.

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 Lecture 16
Cotton- Quality parameters- Yield attributes
Colour of fibre:
Colour of the fibre of cotton is white with few exceptions like desi cotton which have reddish or yellowish tinge. White
coloured cotton which are shiny are considerd as superior cotton. Cotton obtained from first picking will be bright white in
colour and the later produced will be dull or yellowish tinge in colour. The fibres may also be discoloured or stained by
insect damage, fungal diseases mechanical harvesting and the sap of green plant parts.
Colour of the cotton is decided by visual observation cotton marketed in India are classified on the basis of visual
observation into white , grey, brownish , greenish and light reddish. In lab colour grading is done by using
NICKERSON – HUNTER calorimeter,. Where a light is reflected from sample of cotton and the extent of yellowish tinge is
calculated.

Length of fibre:

The length of fibre is mainly predetermined by heredity and is only slightly influenced by growing conditions. fibre length is
the mean length of lint hair expressed in mm. longer the length superior will be the quality.. Presence of excess moisture and
poor nutrition will result in long fibre with poor strength. length is determined by varies methods (at 65%RH &21oC
temp.)

Seed is combed making halo and length is measured by a disc, which gives mean length

By measuring each fibre with scale and getting average length which is teadious , laborious and not practicable on large
scale.

By using digital fibrograph where in sum amount of light is transmitted through the fibre beared after combing
along the fibre length and calculated. On the basis of fibre length , cotton is classified into six groups.

Groups Length (mm) Varieties

Short staple < 19.5 Lohit , G - 27

Medium staple 20.0 – 21.5 Raichur 51 ,DB-3-12
Medium long Staple 22.0 – 24.0 MCV-7,G cot 12
Long staple 24.5- 26.5 Krishan, JKHY – 1
Superior long staple 27.0 – 29.5 MCU -5 , H4, Amaravathi
Extra long staple 32 & above Suvin and sujatha

Holo length : it is overall length of the lint w ithout the fibre taken out of the seed

Fibre fineness:
It denotes the diameter of the fibre hair or thickness . Lesser the diameter superior is the quality . Thickness of the
fibre ranges from 15-20 microns. Fineness is measured by taking the weight per unit length of fibre which gives indirectly
the finesses because measuring diameter of the fibre is very difficult as they are thin and minute. Fibre fineness is generally
expressed as microgram/ inch of the fibre which is also called micronaire value. It is measured by the

83
Weight /unit length – specified number of fibre are taken with known length and weight is recorded using a sensitive
balance.Lesser the weigth, superior is the quality and finer the lint hair.

By using instrument MICRONAIRE . In this cotton plugs are prepared by using known weigth of cotton lint, i.e. 3-4 gm
by pressing in a specially designed cylinder. Air is passed at high pressure through cotton plugs and fineness is
determined indirectly by the flow of air through the plug. Finer cotton will allow more air to pass than coarse fibre ,. This
is calculated on a scale and expressed as micronaire value. On basis of fineness, cotton are classified into five groups.

Groups Fineness variety

Very fine < 3.0 -
Fine 3.0 – 3.9 MCU -5 , Varalaxmi ,H6
Average 4.0 – 4.9 H4
Coarse 5.0 -5.9 AKH -4 ,maljari
Very coarse >6.0

Fibre strength:
Fibre strength doesnot refer to a individual fibre but to a tuft of fibres of a given thickness. It is expressed as maximum
load in terms of Kg that a fibre bundle can take when stretched in one direction before it breaks. Strength is determined
by using STELOMETER . Generally the tuft of finer fibre will have greater strength . Fibre strength is measured in
thousands of pounds /sq inch or kg/sq cm and grade is allotted, based on strength cotton is classified into

Group Grade
Very strong >95
Strong 86 – 95
Average 76 85
Fair 66 -75
Weak 66- below
Spinning count:
Spinnabilty of the fibre depends on length and thic kness of the fibre . It is expressed in counts or hanks. A count is the
number of hanks that a pound of cotton gives. One count is equal to 840 yards . Thus finer the thread the greater will be
the count. Ordinarily Indian cottons have 22 counts . While the best quality cotton may have count ranging between 80 to
400 . On the basis of spinnability cottons are divided into five groups.

Group Counts Vareties

Course Cotton 1 – 17 Maljari
Medium coarse 17-26 AKH4, Sanjay
Superior medium coarse 26 – 35 Nerma
Fine 35 -48 Bur 1007
Superior fine 40- 80 MCU5, H4, H6

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> 80 Varalaxmi, Suvin, DCH 12
Fibre maturity :
Fibre is matured when the cavity of the lint is completely filled with the cellulose . Extent of the filling indicate its
maturity . According to cellulose content fibres are classifed into

Mature fibres - Yellowish white fibre Half mature fibres - Bluish or bluish green Imature fibre -
Deep blue or purple
Trash content or Foreign Matters:

Foreign matter mainly consists of debris of leaves and broken stems of cotton and weeds that mix very easily with the lint
during harvesting the amount of foreign matter remaining in the lint after ginning depends mainly on the efficiency of
the dr ying and cleaning process in the ginning plant.
Presence of foreign material will reduce the quality and yarn manufactured from such cotton will have poor strength and
gives bad appearance presence of foreign material can be detected and measured quantitatively by instrument called
SHERLY ANALYSER

7.Hygroscopicity:
The dry cotton absorbs moisture from the atmosphere. Presence of moisture in the lint affects the colour,elasticity, luster etc,
and the fibres having moisture break very frequently. Thus the fibres which absorbs less moisture are considered to be of
superior quality and vice-versa.

Ginning percentage:
Recovey of lint from seed cotton is called Ginning percentage. A variety of cotton with high percentage of ginning is
prefered as more lint per unit weight of seed cotton can be obtained form such varieties. This value ranges form 24 -43
% in different cottons
Barbadense – 28-30%, Hirsutum -34-38% , desi cottons -36-42% GP = Weigth of lint x 100
Weigth of seed cotton

Neppiness:

It refers to formation of small knots or specks in the yarn manufactured form cotton. Knots generally occur if fiber is not
cleaned and ginning not done properly, lesser the nippiness, superior is the quality of fibre. Neps are tangled knots of
fibre, caused by mechanical processing.

Lint Index :

It is the weight of lint form 100seeds Lint Index = Weight of 100 seeds x GP
100 – G.P

Seed Index:

It is the test weight , which is weight of 100 seeds (g). Seed index of cotton varies from 4.8
to 11g.

85
Oil content:

It varies from 14.5 to 22.5% is desi cotton and ranges between 17.5 to 22.5 % in American cottons.

Yield attributes:

Number of plants per unit area.

Number bolls for plant
Seeds per boll
Boll weight
Lint percentage

Coloured cottons:

Natural coloured cottons are in existence in all shades form white to black. As per historical documents, blue, purple , pink,
green, brown cottons were in cultivation and usage in coastal Peru. In Mexico wild trees of brown cotton are grown as
perennial crops. The brown cotton are called coyoqui and yellow cotton is coyuchi. These are still spun by tribals in
Mexico. In Indian brown cottons of G.arborium and G.herbaceum are grown in some remote areas of Kakinada in AP and
Tripura. The natural colored cotton are environmental friendly and economically viable as they are sold at premium
price. They do not fade on washing. The disadvantage of coloured cotton is as they yield less, fibres are shorter, low
strength , low micronaire value and low maturity coefficient.

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 Lectue 17
JUTE – FIBRE CROP
Introduction
Jute is a natural fibre with golden and silky shine and hence known as Golden Fibre.
Jute is cheapest vegetable fibre and second most important vegetable fibre after cotton.
Origin
Jute has two cultivable species
Corchorus capsularis – originated from Indo-Burma region.
Corchorus olitorius – Originated from Africa
Wild species of Jute include Corchorus oestuans, Corchorus tridens, Corchorus trilocularis, Corchorus urticifolices,
Corchorus japanicum.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE TWO CULTITVABLE SPECIES OF JUTE
Corchorus capsularis Corchorus olitorius
Common names – White Jute, Tita Jute, Common names – Tossa Jute,
Bitter Jute Mitha Jute
Originated from Indo Burma region Originated from African region
Colour of the Fibre is White Colour of the fibre is Yellowish or Reddish
brown
It is herbaceous annual with slender and It has cylindrical stem and grows up
straight stem and grow s to a height of 1.5 to 4m with to a height of 5m
tapering stem
Leaves are glabrous, ovate & oblong Leaves are glabrous, coarsely
toothed
Stem is green to red in colour, may/may Stem is green and are usually
not branched branched
Pods are round in shape Pods are elongated
 Leaves and flowers are larger but
Leaves and flowers are smaller but seeds are larger seeds are smaller in size (1g = 500Nos.)
in size (1g = 300Nos.)

Fibre Quality is poor Fibre quality is Finer, Softer,

Stronger and more lustrous than C..capsularis

Tolerates water logging, can be grown on Cannot tolerate water logging

both uplands and lowlands occupying more area of grown only on uplands hence occupying low
cultivation area of cultivation
Seed rate 10 to 11 Kg/hac Seed rate – 6 to 7 Kg/ha
Spacing 30 X 5 cm Spacing – 20 X 5 cm
Plant population – 2.5 lak/ha Plant population – 4.5 lakh/ha
Seed yield is more but fibre yield is less Seed yield is less but fibre yield is
more.
Longer duration 180 – 200 days Shorter duration – 120 to 150 days

Grown in loamy soils Grown in sandy loams

Sowing time is February to March Sowing time is April to May

Fertilizer requirement is high Fertilizer requirement is low

It withstands water logging It withstands drought

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Distribution:
Jute is extensively grown in India, Bangladesh, China, Pakistan, Mayanmar, Nepal
In India, it is extensively cultivated in eastern regions like West Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, Assam, Tripura, Meghalaya, Uttar
Pradesh.

Area, Production and Productivity of Jute in India and Andhra Pradesh

State Area in 000’ Production in ‘000 Productivity in
Hectares bales of 180 Kg qt/hectare
Assam 69.00 680.00 17.74
Meghalaya 9.6 61.5 12.03
West Bengal 504.5 7032.4 25.09
Bihar 137.1 1100.0 14.44
Orissa 33.8 164.5 8.76
Andhra Pradesh 54.0 425.0 14.17
Tripura 2.2 18.6 15.22
Others 35.7 73.0 6.78
Total 845.5 9555.0 20.34

India is the largest producer and consumer of raw jute

Bangladesh is largest exporter of Raw Jute
India stands 1st in area and production of Raw Jute
In India West Bengal stands 1st in area, Production and Productivity
50% of total raw jute production in India is alone from West Bengal
In Andhra Pradesh, negligible amount of area is under cultivation of Jute and is mostly confined to North Coastal Zone.
1st Jute mill was started production in Bengal in 1856
Jute is an important crop providing livelihood to 2,50,000 mill workers and 4 million farmer families.
Jute plays an important role in improving Indian economy by adding Rs.6089 millions annually by export..
Properties of Jute:
It has high tensile strength, low extensibility and ensures better breath ability of Fabrics
Jute Fibre is 100% biodegradable, recyclable and this environmentally friendly
Jute has good insulating and antielastic properties
Jute has low thermal conductivity and moderate moisture gain
Jute has properties like more heat and fire resistance
These fibres are grouped under bast fibres and they are lignified
A bitter glucoside called “Corchorin” present in white Jute

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Uses of Jute:
Jute fibre is used in manufacturing rugs, carpets, coarse fibres, twines and coarse blankets
Broken fibres of Jute is called ‘ Tow ‘ which is used in making low grade paper
Jute waste is used as fuel in ma king activated charcoal
In market Jute and Mesta fibres are together known as “ Raw Jute “
Leaves of Jute have medicinal Properties
Types of Jute:

Based on general utility purposes, Jute is of 4 types

Hessian or Burlap:

Made of good quality Jute Yar n

It has wide range of applications as in cloth form or in the form of bags
Sacking:
Also known as “heavy goods”
It is made from lower grades of fibre and used for bags of all types
Canvas:
Finest Jute product, closely woven of the best grades of fibre widely used in India for protection from weather
Jute Yarn and Twine:
Most of the single strand Jute Yarn produced in consumed by the mills themselves in fabric and twine manufacture.
Varieities:
Varieities of Corchorus capsularis – JRC 212, JRC 321, JRC 7447
Varieities of Corchorus olitorious– JRO 524, JRO 878, JRO 835
Jute based cropping systems:
Under rainfed conditions
Jute – Wheat
2 crops per year
Jute – Mustard
Under irrigated conditions
Jute – Rice – Wheat
Jute – Rice – Potato  followed in West Bengal
Jute – Rice – Cauliflower / Cabbage
Jute – Potato – Rice
(Kharif)-(Rabi)-(Summer)

Alluvial sandy loams and clay loamy soils are the best suited for Jute cultivation.
Soils: Capsularis Jute can grow even in standing water especially towards the latter part of growth

89
Olitorius Jute cannot thrive in standing water and is more drought resistant and hence grown in light soils.
New grey alluvial soils of good depth, receiving salts from annual floods is best suited for
Jute cultivation
Climate:
Jute is a rainfed crop
Grows well in warm and humid climate with temperature in the range of 240 C – 370 C with 65-90% relative humidity.
Jute is mainly grown in Kharif or monsoon season as vegetative growth is more in kharif
that results in higher yields of fibre.
Alternate sunshine hours and rainy days are congenial for better growth.
Temperatures less than 200C and more than 400C are harmful because it restricts the plant growth especially the plant
height.
Annual rainfall is 80 to 100cm.
Low plant population is not preferred because of branching and reduces quality of fibre.
Early sowing of Corchorus Olitorius is not preferred because it comes to early flowering, quality is reduced.
Constant rain or water logging is harmful.
Tillage :
Deep ploughing is necessary because root system is extensively developed.
Seed bed should have fine tilth since seeds are very small.
Cultivated species Seed rate (Kg/ha Spacing (cm) No. of Plants Per
of Jute Sq.mt
Line Sowing Broad Casting
Corchor us 5 7 25 X 5 80
olitorius
Corchorus 7 10 30 X 5 67
capsularis

Time and methods of sowing:

In midlands and high lands sowing starts with summer showers in March and April and continues till early June in
Western part of Jute belt.
Method of sowing is generally broadcasting or line sowing.

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Manures and Fertilizers :
5 tons of well decomposed farm yard manure should applied in last ploughing.
Nitrogen should be applied in 2 splits –
1st split as basal and 2nd split at 4-6 weeks after sowing.
Application of Phosphorous reduces the lodging and improves fibre quality .
Potassium application prevents disease incidence.

Cultivated Species Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium

Corchorus capsularis 60 Kg/ha 40 Kg/ha 60 Kg/ha

Corchorus olitorius 40 Kg /ha 40 Kg /ha 60 Kg /ha

Weed Management
Critical period of crop weed competition is upto 60days after sowing.
Hand weeding is done thrice at 20-25DAS and 35-40DAS.
Basal application of herbicide – Fluchloralin @ 1.5 Kg/ha at 3 DAS followed by irrigation.

Irrigation:

Water requirement is 500mm.

1st irrigation is given after sowing.
Life sowing irrigation is given on 4 DAS.
Afterwards, irrigation is given once in 15 days.
Critical stages of irrigation are Germination and Knee high stage.

Crop Rotation:
In crop rotation system, one legume crop must be included so as to improve soil health.
In light sowing soils green manure crop is grown prior to sowing of Jute.

Harvesting:

Duration of Corchorus olitorius – 120 to 150 days

Corchorus capsularis – 180 to 200 days
Early harvesting gives lower fibre yield but fibre is of finer quality, whereas, late harvesting gives higher fibre yield but
the fibre is coarse in texture

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Ideal stage of harvest in Jute is 50% of tender pod formation.
Late harvesting leads to poor quality fibre due to lignifications of bast fibres
Harvesting is done by cutting the plants close to ground with sickles.
Harvested plants left standing in the field for 2-3 days for shedding of leaves.
Afterwards plants are ready for retting.
Fibre yield is 6-8 years on wet weight basis of stalks.

Process of Fibre extraction:

Bundle stalks Retting  Stripping  Washing  †

Storage / Transport  Kutcha packing  Boiling  Sundry Squeezing excess water

Retting
Retting is a microbial process in which bast fibre gets loosened for an easy separation from woody stalks
During retting, gums, pectins and other mucilaginous substances are removed fromthe plants by combined action of
water and microbiological ac tion.
Retting is of 2 types – Dry retting and Wet retting
When water is not available for retting immediately after harvest, plants are allowed to dry, whenever monsoon occurs,
dried plants are retted. This process is called Dry retting..
Harvested plant s are immediately retted directly in water without drying and this process is called Wet retting.
Wet retting is preferable than dry retting because of good quality of fibre.
After 2-4days of harvesting, plants are shaken for complete leaf shedding then they are tied into bundles of 25cm
diameter.
Then bundles are steeped in standing water vertically, bundles are submerged in water in a horizontal position laid side
by side and tied together to form a sort of platform called “Jak”.
Jaks are covered with plants like water hyacinth or any other material which do not release tannins as well as iron.
Float is then kept with weight to make the float completely immersed in water.
Wood logs and concrete slabs may be used for this purpose
Freshly cut mango logs or banana stems should not be used weighing material of Jak because tannins coming out from
stems reacts with iron of retting water and gives black color to fibre called “Shyamala”.
This colour can be removed or reduced by adding 2% tamarind solution.

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For ideal retting, JAKS should be kept submerged of at least 20cm deep .
Most of the defects in fibre quality are due to improper or incomplete or faulty retting.
Incomplete submergence results in under retting produces a fibre called “crappy fibre” which is of extremely of low
value where as over retting results into “dazed fibre” which is very weak fibre.
So gently flowing fairly deep clean and soft water are congenial for ideal retting.
Optimum temperature of water should be around 340C .
Retting period is 8-30 days.
Incase of stagnating water, addition of Ammonium sulphate will hasten up retting process.
For finding out exact end point of retting, JAKS must be examined every 10-12days.
Fibre should be slip from the wood easily when the plants are pressed between thumb and finger.
Soon after the end point, JAKS or platforms should be taken out of the water and fibre should be extracted.
Stripping:
Process of removal of fibres from the stalk after completion of retting is called Stripping.
Fibre may be extracted in two ways – Single Reed method and Break – Break – Jerk Method
Fibre is extracted by hands either from individual plants or from bundle of 10-12 plants.
Washing:

After extraction, fibre is washed thoroughly in the running water

Fibre is Squeezed for Excess Water

Sun Drying:

After squeezing the fibre for excess water, fibre is dried on bamboo frames in the mild Sun.

Boiling and Packing:

Extracted fibre is weighed in amounts of bales
1 Bale of Jute =180Kg
Jute fibres are pressed base d on different grades
Jute fibre is graded into
Tops – Very Strong Fibre, Good Luster and Colour
Middles – Strong Fibre, Average Luster and Colour
Bottom – Sound Fibre, Medium Strength
B – Bottom – Sound Fibre, Medium Strength, not suitable for high grades
C – Bottom – Medium Strength Fibre, Any Colour
X – Bottom – Weak Jute

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Yield:

Green Plant yield is 45 – 50 t / ha

Fibre yield is – 2.0 – 2.5 t / ha

Factors hastening up Retting Process:

Warm water
Retting in already used water
Harvesting time
Climate Conditions like high temperatures
Deep water ( Too deep water will delay retting )
Addition of Chemicals

Quality Parameters:

Length of Fibre:
If the length of the entire fibre is more, more is the quality
Strength of Fibre:
Fibre should offer less resistance while using for packing material and other low grade yarn.
Colour of the Fibre:
Bright Colour is superior
Luster of the Fibre:
Bright fibre of smooth surface will have superior luster
Stiffness and Hardness:
Properly retted fibre will be soft and fine
Fitness of Fibre:
Coarse fibre always fetches low price than fine fibre
Percentage of Cuttings of Stem or Percentage of Cutting of Fibre:
Less the number of cuttings, More the Superiority of fibre
Proportion of faulty materials:
Roots, Specks, Knots, Runners should be avoided for good Quality.

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Factors influencing Quality of Fibre:

Retting Water – Gentle flowing, clean and soft water give good quality
Materials used as weights on JAKS
Seed rate should be more
Stage of harvesting
Method of Retting – Complete submergence of jak is prefered
Variety of Jute – C. Olitorius gives good quality fibre than C. capsularis
Method of fibre extraction – Single Reed Method is preferred
Period of Retting – under retted or over retted fibres are of inferior quality
Fibres should be stripped off immediately after Retting Process.

Different Institutes working on Jute:

J A R I - Jute Agricultural Research Institute – West Bengal

CRIJAF - Central Research Institute for Jute and Allied Fibres
Burrackpur, West Bengal
J T R L - Jute Technological Research Laboratories – Kolkota
West Bengal
I J M A - Indian Jute Mills Association
JMDC - Jute Manufacturers Development Council
IJIRA - Indian Jute Industries Researc h Association
I J S G - International Jute Study Group
NCJD - National Centre for Jute Diversification

95
 Lecture 18
MESTA
Fibres

Natural fibres Synthetic fibres

Eg:-Nylon Polyster
Plant Source Animal Source Seed fibres
Eg:- Wool
Eg:- Cotton hair
Silk

Stem/Bast fibres Eg:-Jute & Mesta

Leaf fibres Eg:- Agave

MESTA S.N.: Hibiscus Cannabinus Hibiscus sabdariffa

Family: Malvaceae
Origin: Hibiscus cannabinus – Africa
H. Sabdariffa – India
Introduction:

Kenaf is a bast fibre next to jute fibre.. The main kenaf fibre producing species of economic importance are Hibiscus
Cannabinus and Hibiscus sabdariffa. Kenaf is called as ‘Roselle hemp’ (H.Sabdariffa). in India. Other commercial (or)
Common Names for Mesta, are Deccanhemp, BimiliJute, Java Jute and Golden green stick., Kenaf is more adaptive than
Jute under diverse conditions of climate and soil and it is also very resistant to drought.

Distribution:
The Principle producer countries of kenaf fibre of both species are India, China, Brazil, Egypt and Australia. In India it is
mainly cultivated in Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa and Maharastra. These states contribute about 75% of the area under
this crop.
West B engal, Assam,Tripura, Karnataka also cultivated this crop.
Uses:

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Both the species are used for fibre and also vegetable purpose.
The fibre is used Principally for manufacture of textile and Cottage products, twines, gunny bags, ropes and fishing nets.
Fibre is also used for manufacture of car interiors, and also used as a natural substitute
for fibre glass.
Fibre is also used for excellent substitute for Bamboo and wood pulp which is used as making paper.
It has been proved at the laboratory level that Mesta is well suited for the production of news print.
It has been estimated that about 10 tonnes of Paper pulp can be produced from one hector of Mesta.
Mesta seed contain 17-22% oil which is used for the making soaps, culinary purposes and paints.
Calyx of the mesta flower are used in Dyeing industries.

Area and Production:

Area Production and Yield of Jute and Mesta during 2008 -09 in major producing states
State Area (m.ha) Production Yield
(M.bales) kg/ ha

Westbengal 0.59 7.97 2422

Bihar 0.15 1.22 1455
Assam 0.07 0.67 1856
Andhra Pradesh 0.04 0.30 1435

Orissa 0.02 0.11 918

Meghalaya 0.01 0.55 1170
Maharastra 0.02 0.03 260
Others 0.01 0.02 ------
In India 90% area under Hibiscus Sabdariffa (Rosellehemp). Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Bihar and Maharastra these states
contribute 75% area.

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Andhra Pradesh stands First in Both area and Production followed by Madhya Pradesh and Maharastra.
In Andhra Pradesh Mesta crop commercially grown in the Vizianagaram, Srikakulam
and Visakhapatnam. These Districts contribute about 90% of area.

Note :- Only one Research Station that is working on Mesta is located at “Amadalavalasa” [Srikakulam District] that is
“Agricultural Research Station” (ARS)-“Amadalavalasa”.

Differences between Hibiscus Cannabinus and Hibiscus sabdariffa:-

Sl.No. Hibiscus Cannabinus Hibiscus Sabdariffa

1. Short duration have 120-150 days Long duration have 180-200 days
2 Flowers are large Flowers are sma ll
3. Leaves are deeply lobed lobes are Leaves are Polymorphic Pinnate deeply lobed
harrow & serrate and alternate on stem.
4 It is not tolerant to drought More tolerant to drought
5 Fibre quality is good Fibre quality is poor
6 The Stem has a higher It has harder wood
basal
diameter and it’s wood is soft
7 Leaves have no bifercations in the The basal leaves are the lack bifurcations and
entire plant are not lobed but the upper leaves are lobed.
8 Fibre is used for house hold purpose Fibre is used for industrial purposes.
9 Fibre yield is less Fibre yield is more
10 Seed is irregular, sub-reniform Sub-reniform
11 These are less resistant to Root-knot These are Resistant to Root-knot Nematode and
nematode and Anthracnose Amthracnose.
12 Less cultivated area occupied by More cultivated area Occupied by these species
these species in India Varieties :- Bimili in India.
1; AMC-108 HC- 583 Varieties :-
HS 4288; HS 7910 AMV 1; AMV 2; AMV 3

NOTE:- In trade market Jute and Mesta are together categorized as Raw Jute.

Varieties:- H. Sabdariffa Varieties.

AMV – 1 4. AMV – 4 (Kalinga)

AMV – 2 5. AMV – 5 (Durga)
AMV – 3 (Surya)
AMV- 3 and AMV- 4 varieties are more popular in Andhra Pradesh. AMV – 108
Bimili – 1 Hibiscus Cannabinus Varieties
HC --583
High yielding varieties of Mesta are HS 4288, HS 7910,
HC 583, AMV 108 and AMV

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Soils:- Mesta grown under wide range of soils which Include Marginal and Sub marginal lands. Does not withstand
water lagging initially. Good growth and development of the crop. Soil should be well drained, shallow and of a light
sandy loamy texture with good quantity of organic matter. PH is 6.5-8

Climate:-Mesta is a hardy crop capable of growing under a wide range of climatic conditions. The crop requires warm and
humid climate and hence it is grown in Kharif season only. The crop can withstand the temperature of 430C. The RH is 40-
100%. It can grow a elevation of 1000 MSL. The rainfall requirement of crop varies from 500-900mm. Photoperiodically
Mesta is a shortday plant

Land preparation:-

The crop comes up well in all types of soils except stiff clays, Provided good drainage facilities are require as the crop
cannot with stand water logging initially.
 Plough the land to get good tilth it helps quick establishment of crop better stand and Growth
 Apply organic manures at 5 T/ha before sowing
Application of Phosphorus reduce lodging and improve the fibre quality Potassium prevents the disease incidence.

Intercultivation:-

Ist hand hoeing at 3 weeks after sowing 2nd hand hoeing at 5 weeks after sowing
Thinning is also practiced in the Mesta crop. It is done at 15-20cm height of the crop. Intercultivation is helpful
to suppress the weed growth.

Weed management:-

Critical period of crop weed competition is 45 DAS

For broad cast crop 2 hand weedings are done at 21 DAS and 35 DAS. In line sowing two intercultivations at 20 days
intervals
Use of Herbicides Fluchloralion @ 1.5 – 2.0 Kg ai/ha
Trifluralin @ 0.5 – 1.0 Kg ai/ha Metachlor @ 0.75 -1.0 Kg ai/ha

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Irrigation:-

The Mesta crop exclusively grown as rainfed. It requires 500-900 mm water requirement. Critical stages for irrigation are
germination stage and Knee-height stages.

Crop rotation and cropping systems:-

 Mesta – Groundnut/Pulses
 Mesta – Rice

Seeds and Sowing:-

Time of sowing is April – May. Delaying of Kharif sowing results into drastic reduction in fibre yield.
Pre Rice Mesta crop is sown in March – April in low lands with supplemental irrigation. Optimum sowing period of crop is
May – June.
Early sowing helps in quick establishment of crop and facilitates vigorous growth with pre monsoon showers.

Seed treatment:-

Seeds are treated with Thiram (or)Captan @ 3-5/Kgseed protects the crop from seed born disease like stem rot and
foot rot.

Seed Rate:-
Drilling – (line sowing)  6Kg/ha Broad casting  12 Kg/ha
Spacing:-
Spacing can affect the quality of fibre. The recommended spacing is 22.5 X 10cm The crop is sown in lines at 30 X 8-
10cm
Depth of sowing is 3-5cm
Method of Sowing:-
Broad casting – suited for good quality fibre Drilling – suited for seed purpose

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Manures and Fertilisers in Mesta
Fertilizers are applied as per the soil test recommendations. In Andhra Pradesh recommended dose is 25-20-
20 Kg N-P-K /ha
½ N + Entire P & K apply at basal
Nitrogen apply in 2 splits
½ Nat 30 DAS
Hibiscus sebdariffa absorbs more N-P-K than H. cannabinus . A well managed crop removes 50 – 30 – 40 kg N-P-K per
ha. Depending up on the soil type Nitrogen rate vary that is ranging from35- 80kg/ha.
Higher dose of Nitrogen will affect the fibre quality.

Harvesting:-

For fibre purpose 50% of population attains at flowering stage. For seed purpose – Dead ripe stage

Method of Harvesting:-
Generally 2 methods are followed
Pulling the Whole plant  Fibre yield is more but the quality of fibre will be reduced due to roots and other inert material
adherent to the fibre.
Cutting the plants close to the ground Fibre yield is less but good quality fibre can
obtained.

Retting:- same as to the Jute (Refer Jute crop)

Extraction of fibre:- It is of two ways

Single reed method – Gives good quality fibre

Break – Break Jerk Method – Gives good quality fibre
The extracted fibre is cleaned with water and dry for 4-5 days in mild sun over bamboo racks and grade the fibre before
sending market.

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Quality Parameters in Mesta: -

Length of the fibre  More the length and more the quality.
Strength of fibre  more strength, more quality
Colour  Bright colour is superior
Lustre  Bright colour fibre gives good luster it fetches more price
Fineness  Coarse fibre fetches low price than smooth fibre
% of the cuttings on the fibre  more the cuttings on the fibre, quality is less

Factors influencing quality parameters in Mesta:-

Quality of Retted water  Gentle flowing, clean, and soft water with 340C temperature give good quality fibre
Weighing materials which are placed on Jacks  Freshly cut mango trunks and banana
stems should not used as a weighing material as it will affect the quality of the fibre
Seed Rate  More seed rate for the good quality fibre
Stage of Harvest  For Fibre purpose the crop is harvested at 50% flowering stage.
Method of Retting  i) Dry Retting – Give poor quality fibre
ii) Wet Retting - Give good quality fibre
Variety of Mesta Crop
Method of Fibre extraction  i) Single reed method – Good Quality fibre
ii) Beat-Break Jerk Method – Poor quality fibre
Period of retting  Avoid under and over retting.
Fibre should be stripped immediately after retting process

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 SUGARCANE ( Saccharum officinarum )
Lecture 19

Genus : Saccharum is derived from the Sanskrit word "sarkara - white sugar
It is an important crop in the Indian sub-continent.
Sugar industry is second largest agro-based industry next only to textiles
Sugarcane crop contributes more than 62% of world sugar production.
S-cane provides cheapest form of energy giving food [sucrose].
In addition to sugar, 38 value added products are obtained.
Juice is used for making of white sugar, brown sugar [khandasari] and jaggery
Is a source as bio-fuel, fibre, fertilizer etc. by products viz, bagasse [power of sugar mills} and molasses [main raw
material for alcohol].

Area & Production

Brazil has the largest sugarcane area

Cuba, China, Pakistan, Mexico, S. Africa, Australia, Indonesia, are cane growing countries.
Today, India ranks second in the world, after Brazil, in terms of area (4.1 m.ha) and sugarcane production (355 million
tonnes in the yea r 2007)
A.P. India World
Area (m ha) 4.5 lakh acres 4 20.42 (m ha)
Production (m t) 136 lakh tons 167 1333 (m t )
Productivity( t / ha) 60-70 68
Among the states, Uttar Pradesh occupies half (2.25 m.ha) of the total area followed by Maharashtra (1.04 m.ha).

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Though UP dominates in production with 134 MT followed by Maharashtra with 79 MT, in terms of productivity, Tamil
Nadu leads with 105 t/ha followed by Karnataka (88 t/ha) and Andhra Pradesh (82 t/ha).
U.P has the highest area under s. cane followed by Maharashtra .
Bihar, A.P, TN , K’taka, Gujarat and Punjab are the other cane growing states
In A.P. crop is cultivated in 4.5 lakh acres with 136 lakh tones production.
In Andhra Pradesh average yield per acre is 68 tones only.
Sugarcane in India is grown in two distinct agro-climatic regions-the Tropical (largely comprising Maharashtra, Karnataka,
Gujarat and Tamil Nadu) and the Sub-tropical (Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana and Bihar).
Table 1. Sugarcane in the world: Area, Production And Productivity
Country Area(m.ha) Production(m. tons) Productivity(Tons/ha)

Brazil 5.343 386.2 72.3

India 4.608 289.6 62.8
China 1.328 92.3 65.5
Thailand 0.970 64.4 66.4
Pakistan 1.086 52.0 47.9
Mexico 0.639 45.1 70.6
Colombia 0.435 36.6 84.1
Australia 0.423 36.0 85.1
USA 0.404 31.3 77.5
Philippines 0.385 25.8 67.1
Indonesia 0.350 25.6 73.1
Cuba 0.654 22.9 35.0
S.Africa 0.325 20.6 63.4
Argentina 0.295 19.2 65.2
Myanmar 0.165 7.5 45.4
Bangladesh 0.166 6.8 41.2
WORLD 20.42 1333.2 65.2

There are 3 cultivated species of sugarcane : Saccharum officinarum, S.barberi,

S .Sinense , and two wild species : Saccharum spontaneum , Saccharum robustum

Origin : S. officinarum is Indo Myanmar china border and New Guinea as centre of Diversity

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Climate
A growing season which is long and warm with adequate rainfall or irrigation, long hours of bright sunshine and higher
relative humidity which permits rapid growth to build up adequate yield (more tonnage) and a ripening season of
around 2-3 months duration having warm days, clear skies, cool nights and relatively a dry weather without rainfall and
higher difference in day (maximum) and night (minimum) temperatures for build up of sugar are required

Temperature : Optimum cane growth is achieved in temp. between 24 & 30o C

Rainfall : In India, grown in areas ranging from 600 to 3000 mm, rains at active growth period ,encourages rapid cane
growth, cane elongation whereas rains at ripening period, leads to poor juice quality.
Humidity: High humidity coupled with warm weather at vegetative growth is essential, humidity of 45 to 65% + limited
water supply is must at ripening phase
Sunshine : S’cane is sun loving plant. Higher sunshine hours, favours higher cane
yie ld, sugar recovery
Frost : In, N.India extreme cold conditions will arrests cane growth

Soils

Crop can be grown on various types of soils varying from sandy to heavy clays.
Moderately heavy and medium deep loams, are better suited than heavier and shallow soils
Soil must be of good depth and drainage with no compactness.

Tillage

Field is ploughed 2-4 times with iron plough and pulverization to break the clods.
Surface soils are dug to a depth of 20 cm to facilitate drainage and deep root system. Tractor ploughing is a
common practice

Good Land Preparation Improper Land Preparation

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Planting Season

Optimum time for Sugarcane planting is December to end of March month ending.
For coastal districts it is January- Middle of March, for Rayalseema it is January to February middle.
in Telangana for Eksali crop during December to January middle,
For Adsali crop it is August – September middle is the optimum time of planting.

Duration of Sugar cane crop varies 10-18 months

Kamsali crop : < 10 months
Eksali crop : 10-12 months
Adsali crop : 12-18 months
•
Suitable Varieties for different situations
Late maturing varieties (12 -13 months): Co 7219, Co7706, Co8011, CoR8001.
Mid -late maturing varieties (11-12 months) : CoA7602, CoT8201, Co7805, Co8021, 85R186, 86A146, 87A 397, 83V15,
83V288.
Early maturing varieties (9 -10 months) : Co6907, Co7505, 90A 272, 81A99, 82A123, 83A145,
81V48, 85A261, 86V96, 84A125, 91V83, 93V297, 83R23, 87A298.
Under rain fed conditions for planting in February: Co6907, 81A99, 85A261, 81V48, 83R23, CoT820, CoA7602, 87A298,
Co7210.

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For Planting in May - June: Co6907, Co8013, 84A125, 85A261, 81A99, 87A298, 81V48, 91V83, 93V297.
For water logged (swamp) conditions: Co697, 84A125, CoR8001, 83V288, 83V15, 81V48,
91V83, 87A298, 85A261, 87A261, 87A397, 89V74.
For Moisture Stress conditions: Co6907, CoT8201, CoA7602, Co7219, 84A125, 85A261, 83V15, 81A99, 83R23, 89V74,
83V288, Co7508.
For redrot affected areas: Co7508, CoA7602, Co8014, CoR8001, 85A261, 87A298, 90A272, Co6907, 86V96, 83R23,
91V83, 88R58, 92A126, Co7219, 86V96, Co7805, Co7706, 83V15, 89V74, 87A397.
Smut disease tolerant varieties: Co8013, Co8014, 81A261, 84A125, 81A48, 83V15, 83V288, 83V96, 89V74, 93V297,
90A272, C07805, 86A146, 87A397.
For jaggery preparation: Co7706
For Saline / Alkaline Soils : 81V48, 81A99, CoT8201, 93A145

Seed rate
Around 30,000 setts of three budded setts or an opt. seed rate of 70-75 Q/ha
80,000 setts with 2 buds are also adopted
Three Bud Sett

Two Budded Setts

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Seed treatment

Dipping of setts, which are sufficient for one acre planting, for 15minutes.
In a solution containing 150gms carbendazim and 600ml of malathion mixed in 300 litres of water before planting will
control pineapple disease and scale insect.
To avoid grassy shoot disease hot water treatment of seed material at 520C for 30 minutes or treatment with aerated steam
at 540C for 4 hours to be done.

Spacing

Mostly planted by opening a furrow with ridges .

Row to row spacing varies from 60-90 cms
Adsali Planting: 120 cm row spacing is followed
Early varieties' : 80cm
Mid late varieties : 90 cm

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 Lecture 20
Planting Material
Sett : Propagated by vegetative methods by planting the stem of immature cane, known as
setts. Buds on sett germinate to give plants. Top setts are taken from a crop ready for harvest For planting, setts should be
free from pests and disease

Rayungans : Setts with shoots produced by cutting of the tops of standing Canes

Seblang : Tiller separation is also an ideal method. Clump with its sett intact is transplanted. Survival is better and growth
quicker. If labor is not scarce this method is appropriate.

4 ) Space transplanting [STP] : Nursery beds of 10x5 m ,30 days old seedling for transplanting .600-800 single bud setts
are planted in bed @ 2 tons /ha seed material is sufficient against 6-7 tons/ha .Single budded setts from top half of cane is
planted, by Normal watering & other management aspects are followed .Some of the advantages are :

Uniform crop stand

Low incidence of pests and diseases.
Reduce cane lodging.
Increase in seed multiplication
Around 25% yield increase are the advtg of this method
High stalk pop 1-2 lak canes /ha
5. Tissue culture technique : This technology is mostly used in reviving degenerated varieties. Meristem tips are grown in
artificial laboratory conditions Multiplication is faster. Used to develop seed material from limited number of buds

Sugarcane Planting Methods

Planting in flat beds

It is very popular method on Northern India and in parts of Maharashtra.

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Shallow furrows of 8-10 cm deep are made.
Distance between two rows should be kept 75-90 cm.
Generally 3 budded setts are used to plant in the end to end planting system.
The furrow is covered by 5-7 cm of soil and field is leveled by planking.
Ridge and Furrow Method:

The method is adopted in areas with moderate rainfall but have drainage problem.
Deep furrows are opened in 'v' shape,10-15 cm deep in N. India,20 cm in S.I.
It is also practiced in Eastern UP,& in Peninsular India particular in heavy soils.

Trench Method or Java method

In some coastal areas as well as in other areas where the crop grows very tall and the strong winds during rainy
season cause lodging of cane, trench method is adopted to save the crop from lodging.
Trenches at a distance of 75-90 centimeters are dug with the help of ridger or by manual labour.
Trenches should be about 20-25 centimeters deep.
After this already prepared mixture of fertilizers (NPK) should be spread uniformly in the trenches and mixed
thoroughly in the soil.
The setts are planted end to end in trenches.
Gamma BHC 20 EC at the rate of 5 liters in 800-1000 liters of water per hectare is sprayed over planted setts in
trenches to control termites and shoot and root borers.
The tractor-drawn sugarcane planter is suitable device for planting cane in trenches.
Rayungan method

It is Indonesian term meaning-a developed cane shoot with single sprouted bud.
A portion of field is selected for Rayungan produc tion is left at harvesting time.
The top of the cane is cut off which results auxiliary buds begin to sprout.
For quick and effective sprouting, fertilizer especially nitrogen in heavy dose is applied and field is irrigated.
After 3-4 weeks sprouted buds are separated in single bud setts &transplanted on ridges.
It is costly hence is not commonly adopted in India however is usually used for filling gap.

Distant Planting Method

110
It was developed at Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research (IISR) Lucknow.
Single budded setts are planted in nursery @ 20 q/ha or 18000 setts/ha.
After 45-60 days single budded setts are planted in main field at 90cm×50cm.
Pit Planting
Method is very popular in Tillah soil in Assam and also in Kerala hilly tracts.
Pits are made at interspacing of 20-30cm in rows along the contours with row to row spacing of 75 cm,
Organic manure is placed at bottom of pits.
Cane setts are placed in the triangle in pits and covered with soil.
System can be used in rain fed agriculture

Skip Furrow Planting

It is common in Orissa.
It is hybrid of flat and trench method.
Trenches are dug 45 cm apart & gap of 90 cm is left after each two rows
Sabling or Sprouting Method:
Plants are sown in fertile soil with wide spacing, shallow planting, frequent irrigations and adequate fertilization.
Tillers soon after they develop their own roots are separated from the mother plant and planted separately.
It is very successful in Java and Cuba.
Tjeblock Method

Improved over Rayunga n method because it takes care of proper availability of energy and nutrient to all the buds.
Here stalks are cut off at its half length and planted vertically with node in the soil for rooting.
Planted ones and the mother stalks are adequately irrigated and fertilized.
Now the upper buds of both Tjeblocks and mother cane, which sprout in due course of time, are planted by cutting them
into setts, as rayungans.
Bud transplanting

Sugarcane buds with half of its stalk can be planted in small polythene ba gs filled with organic manure and soil
After sprouting they can be transplanted in the main field.

111
The polythene is tore at the bottom for the easy rooting. There is less mortality about 5 % only.

Recommended planting method

Ridge and furrow method is easy and mostly followed

Areas subjected to water logging immediately after planting : Partha method
Farm with Drip irrigation Facility- Paired row planting
Saline soils - Modified trench method
Ridges are made at a spacing of 60-75 cam with a depth of 25 cm and irrigation and drainage channels should be
opened along the field borders at regular intervals.
Phosphates are applied in the furrows, then treated setts are placed in end to end or in over lapping fashion.
Setts are covered with soil and irrigated
Dry planting followed in light soils
In heavy soils furrows are irrigated soil is brought to more or less puddle condition and setts are pressed in the soil ,which
is called as “ wet method”
At the time of planting buds should face upwards, buds facing downwards do not germinate or difficult to emerge
facing upwards may be exposed in washing of soil while irrigating and thus may dry out.
System facilitates easy irrigation, provides good soil aeration, solid support to the plant when earthed up.

112
Sett showing facing upwards

Wet Method of Planting Setts covered with soil

113
 Lecture 21
MANURES & FERTILIZERS
Nitrogen
Influences sugar yields and quality
Required for vegetative growth [tillering foliage formation, stalk formation and root growth ]
Deficiency of Nitrogen: shows paleness of foliage, early leaf senescence thinner and shorter stalks longer but thinner roots.
Excess Nitrogen, prolongs vegetative growth, delays maturity and ripening, increases reducing sugars, lowers juice quality,
susceptible to lodging and pests and diseases incidence.
Phosphorus
“P” requirement is less than N and K.
Essential for proteins ,Cell division, root growth ,plant metabolism etc
Required for adequate tillering
Interacts with N and thus enhance ripening.
P deficie ncy leads to reduced tillering, delays in canopy development
Affects stalk elongation
Less production of secondary and tillering stalks
Leaf color appear violet green.
Potassium

Essential for carbon assimilation, photosynthesis translocation of carbohydrates

Involved in various enzymatic activities
Important for sugar synthesis, maintains cell turgidity, moist stress
Develop resistance to pests and diseases and lodging
Balances the effect of N & P.
Recommended rate of N P K fertilizers for AP
Srikakulum, Vizianagaram, Visakhapatnam, Medak : 112+100+100 kg/ha
Nellore, W. godavari, Krishna, Guntur : 168+100+120 kg/ha
Kurnool, Cuddapah, Anantapur, Chittoor : 224+100+120 kg/ha
Nizamabad : 250+100+120 kg/ha
FYM @ 10 t / ha must be incorporated 4 - 6 weeks before planting .
Green manuring with legumes.

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Biofertilizers like Azatobacter @5 kg/ha, PSB [Bacillus, Achromobacter, Acrobacter] and fungus [Aspergillus
penicillium] or Press mud @4t/ha are also recommended.
Secondary nutrients like Sulphur @50-100 kg/ha and micronutrients like Zn So4 @25 kg/ha, FeSo4 25-60 kg/ha are
essential for sugarcane.
For standing crop , when deficiency symptoms of Zn and Fe are seen, foliar sprays are recommended.

Time & Method of application.

Nitrogen requirement is maximum at tillering, early grand growth period from 1-6 months. Late application of N beyond
120 days, reduces the juice quality, increases soluble N in juice, and formation of water shoots.
First application should be given at 30 days of crop age, next at 60 and 90 DAP.
Phosphorous applied basally in furrow bottom and mix slightly with soil before planting.
Potassium application normally done along with N application because of better utilization of N, in the presence of K.
therefore K is applied at 45, 90 DAS.
Late application of K, at 6 months under drought situations improve sugar recovery
Nitrogen and potassium fertilizers are given in split doses applied in bands on either side of row
Foliar Nutrition of urea @1- 2.5% & potassium @2.5% under moisture stress is useful to improve yield and quality

WEED MANAGEMENT

Requires weed free for the first 90-100 days before and, most sensitive to weeds during tillering stage
Manual weeding at 30, 60 & 90 DAP is effective to control weeds,
Trash mulch at 45 DAP @ 7-10 t/ha,10 cm thick is effective against many weeds.
Application of Atrazine @ 5kg/ha in 1125 litres of water to be sprayed on the third or fourth day after planting,
depending on soil moisture
At 20 and 60 days of planting spraying of 2,4-D (41/2 kg) + Gramoxone (2.5 lts) in 125 lts/ha is recommended
Initial ploughing, off baring, trash mulching, are the weed control methods in ratoon .

WATER MANAGEMENT

115
Water requirement of cane is high and varies with region
In Tropics, water requirement is 2000-3000 mm, in sub-tropics 1500-2000 mm
Under severe stress the yield loss may go up to 60-70 per cent.
For early planted cane , moisture stress coincides at grand growth phase ,affects stalk elongation ,in late planted cane,
moisture stress affects the formative phase maturity and ripening phases.
Limited stress during ripening helps improve percent sugar content in cane.
Sugarcane grown in waterlogged areas ,damages crop and leads to 25 per cent reduction in, low sugar recovery
Irrigate the crop depending upon the need during different phases of the crop.
Number of irrigations required varies with varying rainfall patterns.
Light & frequent irrigations gave higher yield, than heavy irrigations at longer
intervals.
In summer, irrigation interval depends up on soil type and season. Generally shorter interval in winter and in heavy soils
whereas longer intervals in summer and in light soils.
Trash mulching has to be done three days after planting @ 3 t /ha.
Irrigation can be provided : 0.75, and 0.50 IW/CPE ratio at tillering, grand growth ,maturity. The irrigation intervals in
each phase are given below.

Days of irrigation interval Stages :

Sandy soil Clay soil

8 10
Tillering phase ( 36 to 100 days)
Grand growth phase (101 - 270 days) 8 10

Maturity phase ( 271 - harvest) 10 14

Management practices for moisture stress situation

Choosing appropriate variety
Soaking the setts in saturated lime water
Choosing appropriate planting method
Close row spacing while planting
Basal manure application
Pre-stress manuring and irrigation

116
Trash mulching
Protective irrigation if available
Appropriate post-stress crop management
Foliar spray of urea , DAP, potash and trash mulching .
Inducing hardness.
Use of antitranspirants
Use of drought resistant varieties like Co -740, Co- 235, Co -997, Co -6304,

Earthing Up

Earthing-up operation is also known as "hilling-up” converts furrows into ridges and ridges into furrows.
Earthing-up is done at 45 - 120 DAP coincides with peak tiller stage.
Could be done either manually or by using a bullock- drawn/tractor drawn furrower
Earthing-up @ 120 DAP checks tillering, provides sufficient soil volume for root pr oliferation, promotes better soil
aeration and provides a sound anchorage or
support to the crop and thus preventing lodging
One more earthing-up at 180 DAP may be helpful in preventing lodging.

117
Detrashing

Detrashing refers to removal of unwanted bottom dry and green leaves at 150 DAP.
Sugarcane stalk bears large number of leaves (30-35)
Maintaining clean field
Enhances air movement , an ideal micro-climate for unrestricted growth of cane
More food material is made available for stalk growth
Reduces the problem of infestation of insect- pests like scales, mealy bug, etc
Minimizes rodents, rats, squirrels in the field which cause damage to the crop
Detrashed trash can be used as a mulch for moisture conservation for composting .
Propping

Operation of tying the leaves together using the bottom dry and green leaves is known as propping.
Check lodging of cane.
Trash without removing from cane is twisted to form sort of rope and cane stalks are tied together. This is known
as trash-twist propping
Propping can be done for each row or two rows can be brought together and tied

RIPENING
Ultimate economic product of sugarcane is not the seed but the sugar stored in stalk.
Accum ulation of sugars in the stalk begins soon after completion of elongation phase, when glucose produced during
photosynthesis is converted to sucrose stored in stalk.

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Ripening occurs between rapid growth and ultimate death of cane
As the cane is ripened sheath moisture should dropdown from 85 to 72% and nitrogen index from 2 to 1.25%.
Maturity stage: when sucrose exceeds 16% juice purity increases over 85% - cane is mature
When cane stalk is cut with a knife at above the middle portion, it end looks watery cane is unripe, if it sparkles slightly it
is ripening
Trial boiling of juice: To judge maturity is common among farmer, if the gur is set well in boiling, gur making continued, if
not the cane will be tested after a few days
Top Bottom ration: top portion of cane accumulates sugar rapidly than bottom portion. If the ratio of sugar content of
top1/3 to bottom one third is less than one cane is unripe when ratio is more than one – cane is ripe.
Invert sugars : Content of invert sugar in juice can also assess cane ripening
Hand Refractometer: is to assess the maturity of standing crop by Brix reading
Juice Brix refers to the total solids present in the juice expressed in percentage.
Brix includes sugar’s as well as non sugars.
Brix is measur ed using Brix Hydrometer & necessary corrections with temperature are made & true Brix is obtained
Juice sucrose percent is the actual cane sugar percent in the juice
Juice sucrose percent is determined by Polarimeter that’s why sucrose percent is referred as Pol%.
“Seurolyser” is latest instrument used to analyse sucrose percent.

FACTORS AFFECTING RIPENING

Location :- cane growing countries in tropics characterized by higher juice quality than others regions.
Low temperature :- Ripening is fast during October - November but when temperature lowers the ripening rate
slows down & maturation comes to stand still. Colder the spells deeper the fall.
Max. temp. between 230 & 320C & minimum temp. between 7-140C are favorable to steady ris e in juice quality
When hot weather sets in may-june quality goes down, because of extreme heat, drought.
Varieties :- Early varieties [Co- 8336 Co -8341 Co -T 64] attain sugar levels & purity at an earlier period than late
varieties.Jan- Feb planted crop will have higher juice quality compared to April-May planted crop

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Fertilizers :- Excessive and late application of N fertilizers, delays ripening Fertilizers should be applied within 1-3 months
only. Phosphorus deficient soils are known to produce cane of low sucrose content Potash fertilizers increases extraction
percent juice from cane.
Intercropping :- Intercropping usually practiced in autumn planted crop, as cane growth during
winter is lesser and not affected by competition. Intercropping in Feb planted crop however has an adverse effect on juice
quality
Irrigation:- Irrigation favors early growth, leaf development, stalk formation, prolongs growing period resulting in higher
potential of sugar formation & storage. Warm weather irrigations after rainy season improves sugar formation, irrigation in
mid November may not improve juice quality in cool parts of N. India

Lodging : Strong winds accompanied by heavy rainfall during sep-oct causes lodging of the cane . Even inclination of
stalk causes proportionate reduction in sucrose & purity of its juice. When stalks are laid flat deterioration is more
Earthing up and propping ,can minimize lodging by keeping the cane erect.
Flowering : Flowering often takes place when crop starts ripening. Flowering is not a sign of ripening. Prevention of
flowering by appropriate techniques combined with artificial ripening may help to increase the yield and juice quality

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 Harvesting

Harvesting the crop at proper time is very important

Immature crop gives lesser sugar per cent and low yield
Cane should be harvested in proper time of maturity,
Constraints – Quality & Sugar recovery,
Harvesting canes 5-10 days before its supply to mills
Limited crushing capacity of mills,
stalking of canes at mill yard
Inordinate delay in transport of harvested cane from field to mills
Week end shut down of the factory and unforeseen circumstances .
Post harvest losses - sucrose conversion process after harvest & delay on delivery of cane to factory
Weather parameters like high temp & humidity leads to greater deterioration.
Leve ls of maturity, cane harvest, method of harvest also affect cane deterioration

Products from sugarcane juice

Jaggery
Juice concentrate
Powder jaggery
RAB
Vinegar

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Harvesting

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 Lecture 22
Ratoon Management
The number of succeeding cane crops raised from single planting is “Ratoon”
Ratoon occupies 50-55% of total cane area in India
In India one or 2 ratoons are taken .
The crop raised from planting cane setts is “Plant crop”
Plant crop is harvested the under ground portion of stem stubble are left in the field.
Harvesting close to the ground level is most important for good rationing
If harvesting is done unevenly stubble shaving should be done.
After harvesting of plant crop, trash left in the field, should be burnt, to clean the field and destruction of eggs and pupae of
pests
Soil compaction affects ratoon growth , to improve soil physical conditions, off barring and ridge flattening is necessary
where ridges are broken by ridger - improves soil organic matter, through decay of old root mass and promote quick
emergence of roots from stubble.
Intensity of gaps in ratoon is 10-30 per cent
Gap filling is done with young sprouts from stubbles or in poly bags or nursery with 30-35 day old.
Trash mulching suppress weed growth and aids in moisture conservation besides increasing fertilizer use effect.
Varieties Early varieties are poor ratoons than mid late or late varieties
Thin or mid thin varieties are better ratooners than thick varieties .
Plant crop should be harvested in Feb – March to ensure favorable re-growth of ratoon sprout
Fertilizers :- 200 N + 60 P2O5 + 60 K2O are recommended for good ratoon crop
Nitrogen should be applied in 2 splits at ratoon initiation and 60 days after root initiation.Entire dose of P & K should be
applied at ratoon initiation
Irrigation :- Ratoon crop require more frequent irrigations than plant crop, because of shallow root system. Irrigation at 40%
DASM is ideal for ratoon crop
Irrigation at 12-15 days interval in subtropical regions and 8-10 days in tropical ares.
Earthing up : Is done to check excessive tillering to prevent crop lodging & destruction of weeds. Earthing up is down twice
first before onset of monsoon and 2nd at start of monsoon
Propping is done by tying the cane together using dry leaves or green leaves, to prevent the crop lodging due to heavy winds
and keep the field open for better aeration. Usually trash is twisted to form a rope and cane stalks are tied together – trash
twist propping.

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Weeding : Pre-emergence application of Atrazine [1.0-1.5] followed by one hoeing – 45 days after ratoon initiation is
effective and economical for weed control. Manual weeding at 0, 45 & 90 days after ratoon initiation is more effective.
Application of cycocel [CCC] or etherel to foliage before 30 days of cane harvest, can promote bud
sprouting in ratoon crop.
Plant Protection : Ratoon crop needs more plant protection care than plant crop. Grassy shoot disease, ratoon stunted
disease and smut are major diseases associated with ratooning
Advantages:-
Operational cost on seed and preparatory tillage is reduced by 25-30% by ratooning
Ratoons mature earlier than plant cane .
Ratoons can be harvested easily, field will be available for next crop
Ratoons give equal or more yield than plant crop
Ratoons give better quality cane with improved sugar recovery
Cost of production per ton of ratoon crop is less than plant crop.
The deeper root system thus obtained facilitates optimum utilization of the nutrients and moisture available in the lower soil
layers and provides good support for growth of the ratoon crop

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JAGGERY MAKING

Step 1. Cutting sugar cane from fields Step 2. Feeding the grinder to extract juice Step 3. Boiling the juice
Step 4. Adding Ingredients Step 5. Tray Feeding
Step 6. Jaggery output

Step1: Fresh sugarcanes are cut from the fields, canes are cut in such a way that the head and tail are chopped off. They are
carefully brought in a plastic sack, to the place where they are made juice.

Step2 : To extract juice from the sugarcane, they use a power run machine, where at one side four or five canes are fed,
and at the other end, extracted sugar cane juice is directly feed to the vessel.

Step3 : Next step involved is boiling the extracted juice, juice is feed to a large big iron vessel, which is usually
called as kadai as the below. heating unit of the vessel is set up in such a way that, at a single stretch two vessels are
boiled, heating unit is nothing but a small pit above which this vessel is placed, there is a man who keeps on adding
fuel to the heating unit from a small opening, the extract which is obtained after juice has been taken from the canes,
these extract are dried in sunlight and used as a fuel for heating. The juice is boiled in the vessel for at least three
hours, until the liquid juice becomes a semisolid paste.

Step4 : When juice becomes a semisolid paste, small quantity of sodium carbonate is added as a reducing agent, which
helps in making Jaggery balls.

Step5 : After stirring well until the juice becomes a semisolid paste, the paste is fed to a iron tray. With the help of a long
wood stick, at one end which contains a flat block they stir well again in the tray, until more thickening comes.

Step6 : With help of a wet cloth, hot Jaggery paste are made as balls precautions are taken, to prepare the balls as fast as
possible, as the paste gets to the solid state with in a short span of time.

For a single feed of vessel, they get approximately around 100 kg of Jaggery, they get around fifty Jaggery balls, Jaggery
are stored and sold as a complete bulkcart. For a single bulk cart they get a market price of approximately Rs.20,000/ -.

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126
 Lecture 23
SUGARBEET
Origin and history
There is no distinct record regarding the origin and history of surgarbeet but in 1747 it was found for the first time that beet
roots are rich source of sucrose and it took nearly 50 years for developing a successful method to extract beet root juice
and its crystallization in the form of sugar.
F.C. Achard was the first man to set up a sugar factory for processing of beet-roots and making sugar out of their pulp. From
European countries it was introduced in USA as a sugar crop in early 18th century and first sugar factory was built in
Northampton, Massachurits with great problems. Thereafter another factory was established in California (USA) in
1870 after rectifying the defects and it started working successfully since then.

Distribution:-
Sugarbeet is essentially a crop of temperate countries like USA,USSR, Sweden, Denmark, Germany, Belgium, Netherlands,
France etc. Now in countries like Syria, Iraq, Iran, Algeria and Israel sugar- beet is fast assuming its commercial
importance. It is now being introduced in Pakistan. Today sugarbeet is contributing to about 40 percent of the world sugar
production.
Until recent past sugarbeet was famous as a “Salad” crop for table purposes in India but it is now in the experimental and
semi-commercial testing in sub-tropical parts of the country. In Kashmir Valley sugarbeet is grown as a promising
rainfed spring season crop. In Sriganganagar area of Rajastha n it is grown on commercial scale after producing first beet-
sugar in 1968 by Ganganagar Sugar Mill.
A considerable research work has been done on its varietal performance on yield at G.B. Plant University of
Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar (Nainital) and the National Sugar Institute, Kanpur, has been actively involved in
processing and manufacture of sugar from beet-pulp, although sugar beet is yet to be accepted as a commercial crop in
India because it is at testing stage in some of the suitable Northern parts of India viz. Jullundhar, Karnal. Muzaffarnagar,
Shahjahanpur, Lucknow, Gorakhpur, Pusa, etc. The crop is being tested for its suitability as a sugar crop and its
performance as compared to sugarcane. In Kashmir Valley and Himanchal Pradesh it holds out a promise as a rainfed spring
sown crop. The crop, in general. May be very successfully grown in Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and U.P.

Area, Production and Productivity :

World : Area = 8.6 m ha. ; Production=261 mt. ; Productivity=30.2 t / ha.

Botanical description of Sugarbeet

Sugarbeet is herbaceous, dicotyledonous biennial plant belonging to family Chenopodiaceae and as its nature the plant
produces large succulent root in the first year and flowers and sets into seeds in the second year. Sometimes, due to
unfavourable climatic conditions, the plants give out seed-stalks in the first year itself which is technically called as bolting.
A beet plant consists of three parts viz. the crown, the neck and the root. The crown produces leaves which are arranged in a
close spiral below which is the most smooth and broadest part that is technically called as ‘neck’. The roots are cone-shaped
which end into a slender tap form. Sometimes roots are flattened on two sides which are more or less grooved.

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The seed-stalk bears racemes of imperfect regular flowers which have no petals in them. The fruits consist of 2 to 5 seeds
which are shiny, having lentil like structure and are about three mm long.

Varieties
Sugarbeet, being a recently introduced crop into India as a commercial sugar crop, has most of the foreign varieties.
Theses varieties are mostly from Germany, U.S.S.R., U.S.A., U.K., Denmark, etc. Following are the important
varieties which have been observed doing well under Indian conditions:
Erotype E from West Germany. Romoskava from U.S.S.R.
U.S. 35 from U.S.A.
U.S. 75 from U.S.A.
Maribo Anglo Poly from Denmark. Maribo Magna Poly from Denmark. Maribo Resista Poly from denmark. Triplex from
U.K.
Bush E from U.K.
Now the diploid multigerm variety “Romoskava 06” is presently recommended for commercial cultivation. The variety
gives higher yield with superior quality besides a better resistance to important beet-root diseases. In addition to this two
other Danish polyploids multigerm varieties viz. “Meribo Magnapo” and “Maribo Magapoly” have also proved to be the
most promising. The seeds of the varieties are under multiplication by a joint venture of N.S.C. and the Government
Department of Agriculture, Himachal Pradesh.

Climate
The sugarbeet needs high moisture associated with cold climatic conditions throughout its growing period. The best
germination has been observed when the seeds are sown at a soil temperature of 15.5oC and it is interesting to note that
sugar accumulation in beet-roots drops when atmospheric temperature reaches to 30oC Or above. The commercial
cultivation of the roots is possible on the plains during winter season but the seed formation becomes impossible because
of unfavourbale climatic conditions.

Therefore, seed production is done on the hill of Himachal Pradesh by the Government of
H.P. with an associated efforts of the National Seed Corporation. Sugarbeet prefers loam to clayey loam soils with good
inherent fertility and sufficient organic matter having a near neutral reaction through it has a high tolerance, to soil
alkalinity and salinity. The acidic soils are not at all good for the crop. The crop cannot withstand waterlogging and
hence poorly drained soils are unfit for beet- root production.

Land Preparation
The land is prepared to a good tilth by repeated ploughing and planking operations. After obtaining a fine tilth, the field is
finally divided into ridges and furrows or simple flat beds based on method of sowing to be adopted. Usually sowing on the
ridges is preferred over flat bed planting. Ridges of 10 to 12 cm height are prepared at a distance of 50 cm between them by
the help of ridger after mixing manures and fertilizers in the field.

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Manures and fertilizers and methods of Application

Organic manures such as compost or F.Y.M. at the rates of 20 to 30 tonnes per hectare should be applied before the ridging
is done. The crop should be supplemented with 100-120 kg. of nitrogen, 80 kg of P2 O5 and 100 kg of potassium per
hectare. It is advisable to apply nitrogen in three equal splits, namely first at sowing, second after thinning and third after
earthing up operation but never beyond December as it lowers the quality of beet-roots.

After every top-dressing the crop should be given a light irrigation. Form the experimental results it is observed that the crop
responds equally to all the sources of nutrients but, if possible, fertilizers containing chloride ions should not be chosen for
the application in the crop. Deficiency of micro-nutrients has not been noticed but the studies are in progress at various
sugarcane research centres in North India.

Seeds and Sowing

Seed rate = 10 kg / ha.

In the North Indian plains sugarbeet is grown as a rabi season crop and the most ideal time for sowing is October. It is
observed that if sowing is delayed beyond October the yield and quality (sugar content) are found to be affected adversely.
There are two commonly adopted methods of sugarbeet sowing viz. ridge sowing and flat bed sowing. The depth of
sowing should be 4-5 cm with row to row 50 cm and plant 10-15 cm spacings. This requires about 10 kg seed/ha.
Generally, sowing is done by dibbling manually or by drilling with cotton seeds -drills. Indian Institute of Sugarcane
Research, Lucknow, has designed and fabricated a push-type drill for sowing sugarbeet.

Seed treatment: It is noticed that seed soaking for 4 or 5 hours in plain water helps in getting higher germination of beet
seeds. To get still better germination the seeds may be soaked over night in 0.25 per cent solution of a mercurial compound
or Aretan or Agallol. This is done by putting the seeds in a cloth bag and dipping the seed bag in the chemical solution
until the seeds soak up the chemical. The seeds are then spread open for drying after which they may be used for sowing.
Spacing : 50 cm X 20 cm

Sowing method : Drilling or by Dibbling in 2 to 3 cm deep

Sowing time : Mid October to Mid November

Irrigation
The crop cannot tolerate drought and hence it is very sensitive to inadequate water supply but at the same time excessive
irrigation is highly detrimental to the root quality of the crop. The frequency and the number of irrigation depends on
various factors viz. seasonal variation, type of soil, organic matter content of the soil, etc. but, in general, a 2-2-4
irrigation schedule at the critical growth stages like formative, leaf growth and root development stage respectively holds a
promise in beet-root production. On an average, 15-20 days interval between two subsequent irrigations is supposed to be
an ideal. This way the crop needs about 8 to 10 irrigations during its growing period.

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Intercultural Operations

Critical period of weeds is upto 60 days i.e at formative phase. Requires 2-3 intercultivations , first at 15-20, 2nd
at 10-15 days interval. Spraying of pretilachlor 50 EC @ 0.5 Kg ai/ha or Pendimethalin @3.75lit /ha can be dissolved in
300 litres of water and sprayed wit h hand operated sprayer on 0- 2nd day after sowing, followed by hand weeding on 25th
day and 50th day after sowing. The soil should be little loosened and earthing up of the crop should be done by December
after finishing the last top-dressing of fertilizer.

Thinning
The sugarbeet seed is a “multigerm” which gives out four seedlings per “glomerule” (seed ball). To avoid the
competition among them and to maintain a single robust plant per glomerule it is necessary to pluck off remaining ones. The
thinning should be done when the seedlings are ha ving three to four leaves in them. Thus a uniform spacing of 20 to 25 cm
between the plants should be maintained. For keeping a uniform plant population, sometimes gap filling is needed which
should be done by sowing the fresh seed instead of transplantin g the seedlings because transplanting results in
production of malformed or “fongy” roots having poor weight though transplanting is common in some areas. Gap filling
should be done soon after germination.

Crop rotation

Sugarbeet is susceptible to various soil borne diseases and their chemical control becomes very costly and difficult,
therefore, a suitable crop rotation of long duration should be adopted. It is observed that any rotation of three to five years
duration is best for production of a healthy commercial beet-root crop in the country. Some of the best rotations are;
Cowpea (fodder) – sugar-beet-cotton-sugarcane (plant)-sugarcane (ratoon); Maize (early) or early paddy-sugarbeet-Sanai
or dhaincha (green manure)-potato-
sugarcane (plant)-sugarcane (ratoon);
Guar+sugarcane (companion cropping)-sugarcane (ratoon)-sugarbeet-jowar (fodder)- maize -sugarbeet.

Inter-cropping of sugarbeet with autumn planted sugarcane is economically feasible and good for higher yield of both the
crops.

Harvesting

Sugarbeet Matures in 5 to 6 months.

An October sown crop becomes ready for harvesting in March to May. Signs of maturity : yellowing of lower leaves and
root bricks values indicate 15 to 18. At the time of harvesting there must be enough moisture to facilitate the harvesting but
the field should not be wet. The harvesting may be done by running a country plough along the rows on both the sides
and lifting of the roots by a slight pull of Kudali. The adhering soil should be cleaned of the roots by a thorough shaking
but the roots should not be washed in water for cleaning as it causes a rapid deterioration. The roots should be topped
at the leaf -crown because allowing the leaves to remain on the roots affects the recovery of sugar adversely.

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Yields :

A good crop of one hectare area yields about 300 to 500 quintals of beet-root having a sucrose per cent of 15 in
March and 17 in May.

Post harvest management

Stop irrigation 15-20 days prior to harvest. This allows sugar accumulation
Just hand pulling and keeping the tops, store in a shaded conditions
Roots of sugarbeet reach the factory within 48 hours for processing
Yield 80 to 100 t/ha, Sugar recovery- 15 -16%

Comparison between sugar beet and sugarcane

Character Sugar Beet Sugarcane

Soil Red Sandy loam. loamy soil

Duration 6-7 10-12 Brix
reading 23-24 % 18-20 % Pol
% 20-22 % 13-16 % Sugar
recovery 15-16 % 11-12 % Avg
sugar rec 10-12 % 8-10 % Yield
(t/ha) reqt 60-80 100 Water
1/3rd of S-cane Through outYear
400-500 1800-2000

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Ethanol Prod (Lt) 2800 -3500 1700 -2700 Alcohol Yield Pot. 2800– 4100 Lts/ acre 1700-
2400 lt/ac

132
 Lecture 24
Tobacco
Origin:
The information available on the origin and history of tobacco suffers generally from ambiguity and contradictions.
According to one source, tobacco was in existence in Asia even during the 12th century, when it was not known elsewhere.
It was not only used as an intoxicant but also as a cure for all kinds of ills and paying homage to deities. However, it was
Christopher Columbus who discovered the narcotic qualities of tobacco accidentally in the course of his American
voyage in 1492. On landing in the Islands of Tobag, Columbus and his men were taken by surprise to find the natives either
sniffing a powdere d dry leaf with evident pleasure or smoking roughly made roll of dried-up leaves. On trying these
themselves, Columbus and his men were satisfied with the intoxicating effect. They took along with them some quantity of
dried leaves and seeds and that was how tobacco got introduced into Europe.

The Red Indians, according to another version, used tobacco for both medicinal and ceremonial purposes. They used to
inhale its smoke from burning leaf through the nostrils by means of a hollow forked cane and the name of the instrument
was given to the plant which came to be known as `Tobaco' in Spanish and `Tobacco' in English. The plant was first
introduced into Europe in the year 1560 by a Spanish physician sent to Mexico. About this time, Jean Nicot, the French
Ambassador to Portugal came to know of tobacco in Lisbon and introduced it to the French Court. The botanical name
of the plant, Nicotiana and the word nicotine have been derived from his name. The habit of smoking spread to several
countries during the 17th century.

Tobacco is said to have been introduced into India in the beginning of 17th century. As elsewhere in the world, it has
thrived in spite of considerable neglect and social disapproval.

Distribution:

Leading tobacco growing countries are China, India, Brazil, USA, Zimbabwe and Turkey

Types Of Tobacco
With its rich agro-climatic diversity, India has the unique position of growing different types of tobacco which are
broadly classified as:

1. FCV tobacco Andhra Pradesh & Karnataka

2. Bidi tobacco Gujarat, Nipani area of Karnataka & Nandyal area of Andhra
Pradesh
3. Cigar & Cheroot tobacco Tamil Nadu & West Bengal
4. Hookah tobacco Assam, West Bengal, Bihar, UP & Gujarat
5. Chewing & Snuff tobacco Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, Bihar, Assam & Uttar Pradesh
6. Natu, Burley, Lanka & Andhra Pradesh & HDBRG
HDBRG tobacco
7. Pikka tobacco Orissa

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Botanical Classification Of Tobacco
The genus Nicotiana is one of the five large genera of Solanaceae and is represented by about 68 recognized species.

Description is available for all the 68 species, which are grouped in three sub-groups:

Sub-genus - Rustica

Sub-genus - Tabacum

Sub-genus - Petunioides

The original habitat of the genus is considered to be South America, particularly the regions surrounding the Andes. There
are, however, several species in Australia and South Pacific Islands that do not occur in the new world. They are
considered to be derivatives of the South American stock. Out of the 68 species, only two species, i.e. Nicotiana tabacum
and Nicotiana rustica are cultivated extensively. India grows both the species, but by far the largest area is under N.
tabacum. Since N. rustica requires cooler climate, its cultivation is confined mainly to the northern and north- eastern areas
of the country, i.e. Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Bihar, Assam & Gujarat.

The N. tabacum varieties known as desi types have tall plants with broad leaves and have usually pink flowers. The N.
rustica varieties known as `vilayati' and `calcuttia' are characterised by short plants with round puckered leaf and yellow
flowers. Specific varieties in N. tabacum have been developed for cigarette, cigar and cheroot, bidi, hookah and snuff
tobaccos. The varieties developed in N. rustica are used for only che wing, hookah and snuff tobaccos. In addition to N.
tabacum and N. rustica which are commonly cultivated, many species of Nicotiana, such as N. affinis, are grown for
ornamental purposes.

ANDHRA PRADESH:
Other Tobacco’s Area (ha) Production (M Kg) Yield (Kg/ha)
Bidi Tobacco 5000 5 1000
Irrigated Natu 10000 25 2500
Rainfed Natu 10000 10 1000
Lanka Tobacco 4000 10 2500
FCV Tobacco in INDIA:
Area (ha) Production (M Kg) Yield (Kg/ha)
A.P. 141 204 1447
Karnataka 90 114 1267
All INDIA 231 318 1376

ALL INDIA:
Area (ha) Productionm (M Kg) Yield (Kg/ha)
FCV Tobacco 231000 318 1376
Bidi Tobacco 75000 150 2000
All Tobacco’s 420000 700 1665
* Source: CTRI annual report 2009-10

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Tobacco Varieties Released In India
Variety Year Developed at Cured leaf Area of adoption and
of yield salient features
rele ase (kg/ha)
FCV tobacco
Chatam 1950 CTRI, 1100 For TBS
Rajahmundry
Delcrest 1960 CTRI, 1200 For TBS
Rajahmundry
Kanakaprabh 1971 CTRI, 1500 For TBS
a Rajahmundry
Dhanadayi 1972 CTRI, 1520 For TBS
Rajahmundry
CTRI Special 1976 CTRI, 1365 For TBS
Rajahmundry
16/103 1976 M/S ILTD Co., Rjy 1717 For NLS
Special FCV 1976 M/S ILTD Co., Rjy 1118 For TBS and KLS
Jayasri 1979 CTRI, 1990 For TBS
Rajahmundry
CTRI 1980 CTRI, 1200 For TBS and SLS;
Spl.(MR) Rajahmundry Resistant to TMV
Godavari 1982 CTRI, 1525 For TBS and SLS;
Spl. Swarna Rajahmundry CTRI Resistant to TMV
1984 Res. Stn., 1450 For KLS; Resistant
to
Hunsur powdery mildew
Mc Nair 12 1986 CTRI, 1880 For NLS; Tolerant to black
Rajahmundry shank
Jayasri (MR) 1986 CTRI, 1503 For TBS and SLS;
Rajahmundry Resistant to TMV
Hema 1987 CTRI Res. Stn., 1560 For TBS
Guntur
Bhavya 1988 CTRI Res. Stn., 2000 For endemic black shank
Hunsur areas of KLS; resistant to
black shank and tolerant to
root-knot nematode
Gauthami 1992 CTRI, 2000 For TBS and SLS
Rajahmundry
CM 12(KA) 1993 CTRI, 2000 For NLS; Tolerant to black
Rajahmundry shank
VT-1158 1993 CTRI, 2000 For TBS; Resistant to TMV
Rajahmundry
K-326 1998 CTRI, Res. Stn., 2000 For NLS and KLS;
(NLS-4) Jeelugumilli, CTRI Tolerant to black
Res. Stn., shank and nematodes
Hunsur
Trupthi 1998 Reg. Res. Stn., 1800 For KLS
(KST-19) Navile
Ratna 2000 CTRI Res. Stn, 2000 For KLS
Hunsur

135
Kanti 2001 CTRI Res. Stn, 1600-2000 For the SLS & SBS of
(CY-79) Kandukur Andhra Pradesh
Hemadri (II- 2002 CTRI Res. Sta., 2500 For Traditional black soils
1624) Guntur of AP.
Bidi tobacco
Keliu 20 1956 BTRS, Anand 1550 For Gujarat
Anand 2 1969 BTRS, Anand 2555 For Gujarat,Karnataka,
Maharashtra &
Andhra
Pradesh
Anand 3 1966 BTRS, Anand 2500 For Gujarat
Anand 23 1969 BTRS, Anand 2477 For Gujarat ; Tolerant to
leaf-burn disease
Anand 119 1969 BTRS, Anand 2625 For Gujarat,Karnataka,
Maharashtra &
Andhra
Pradesh
GT 4 1976 BTRS, Anand 2605* For Gujarat
2841@ Drought tolerant
NPN 190 1979 ARS, Nipani 1964 For Karnataka and
Maharashtra
PL 5 1984 ARS, Nipani 2000 For Karnataka and
Maharashtra
GT 5 1986 BTRS, Anand 3301 For Gujarat; Tolerant to
root-knot and high nicotine
GT 7 1993 BTRS, Anand 2535 For rainfed areas in
Gujarat; drought tolerant
GTH 1 1995 BTRS, Anand 3644 For Gujarat; Tolerant to
root-knot and high nicotine
Bhavyasree 2000 ARS, Nipani 1420 For Karnataka
(NPN-22)
Chewing tobacco

Chama 1956 CTRI Res. Stn, 1800 For North Bengal (clay
Dinhata soils)
Podali 1956 CTRI Res. Stn, 1600 For North Bengal (sandy
Dinhata soils)
DP 401 1958 CTRI Res. Stn, 2000 For Bihar
Pusa
Gandak 1976 CTRI Res. Stn, 2280 For Bihar
Bahar Pusa
Sona 1977 CTRI Res. Stn, 3178 For Bihar
Pusa
Vairam 1977 CTRI Res. Stn, 2800 For pit-cured
tobacco
Vedasandur growing areas of Tamilnadu

Thangam 1980 CTRI Res. Stn, 3226 For smoke -cured tobacco
Vedasandur growing areasof
Tamilnadu
Bhagyalaksh 1980 CTRI Res. Stn, 3532 For sun-cured tobacco

136
mi Vedasandur growing areasof
Tamilnadu

137
Maragadham 1981 CTRI Res. Stn, 3013 For smoke -cured tobacco growing areas of Tamilnadu
Vedasandur 2200 For Bihar

Prabha 1981 CTRI Res. Stn, Pusa

GT 6 1986 BTRS, Anand 2712 For Lal and Kala Chopadiu
tobacco
PT- 76 1990 CTRI Res. Stn, 2600 For Bihar
Pusa
Meenakshi 1992 CTRI Res. Stn, 4000 For sun-cured areas
of
Vedasandur Tamilnadu
Vaishali Special 1993 CTRI Res. Stn, 2778 For Bihar
Pusa
Abirami 2001 CTRI Res. Stn. 4000 For southern, central and
Vedasandur western zones of Tamil
Nadu except Coastal belt
Dharla 2001 CTRI Res. Stn. 2700 North Bengal zone
Dinhata
Lichchavi (PS- 2001 CTRI Res. Stn. 3000 North Bihar
14) Pusa
Rustica tobacco

DD 437 1977 CTRI Res. Stn, 1865 For Motihari areas of West
Dinhata Bengal
Sonar 1977 CTRI Res. Stn, 1690 For Motihari areas of West
Motihari Dinhata Bengal
GC 1 1981 BTRS, Anand 2693 For rustica areas of Gujarat
GCT 2 1994 BTRS, Anand 3512 For rustica areas of middle
Gujarat
Natu tobacco

Prabhat 1977 CTRI Res. Stn, Guntur 1500 Natu areas of Andhra Pradesh;
suitable for
cigarette natu, resistant to
TMV
Vishwanath 1986 CTRI Res. Stn, 2429 Suitable for cigarette natu
Guntur areas of Andhra Pradesh
Natu Special 1992 CTRI Res. Stn, 1600 Suitable for cigarette natu
Guntur areas of Andhra Pradesh
Pyruvithana 2001 NRPT Centre, 1250 Pikka tobacco growing
m Berhampur areas of Orissa
Bhairavi 2002 CTRI Res. Stn., 2600 Suitable for cigarette natu
(NG73) Guntur areas of Andhra Pradesh
Cheroot tobacco

DR 1 1960 CTRI, 2620 For river-side Island of

Rajahmundry East Godavari district of
Andhra Pradesh; strong,

138
 pungent and aromatic
Bhavani Special 1980 CTRI Res. Stn,, 2837 For Bhavani area of Coimbatore district of Tamilnadu
Vedasandur 2780 For river side Island of East Godavari district of Andhra
Lanka Special Pradesh; strong, pungent and aromatic
1981 CTRI, 2100 For Salem area of Tamil Nadu
Rajahmundry
Sendarapatty Special

1986 CTRI Res. Stn,,

Vedasandur
Cigar-wrapper tobacco

Krishna 1986 CTRI Res. Stn,, 2250 For cigar-filler area

Vedasandur of Tamilnadu
Burley tobacco

Banket A1 1994 BTRC, CTRI, 1800 For light soil agency areas
Jeddangi of East
Godavari,Visakapatnam,
Vijayanagaram districts of
Andhra Pradesh. Resistant
to TMV
Sweta (BSRB 2) 2002 BTRC, CTRI, 2000 For light soil agency areas of
Jeddangi East
Godavari,Visakapatnam, Vijayanagaram districts of Andhra Pradesh. Resistant to TMV

TBS: Traditional black soils of Andhra Pradesh; NLS: Northern light soils of Andhra Pradesh; SLS: Southern light soils
of Andhra Pradesh; KLS: Karnataka light soils,
* Rainfed, @ normal conditions; BTRC, Burley Tobacco Research Centre. CTRI RS: Central Tobacco Research Institute
Research Station

Preparatory cultivation
In all the tobacco growing soils, deep summer ploughing is invariably recommended. This practice is found highly
beneficial in minimizing weeds and Orobanche menace, reducing insect pest and disease problems and improving water
and nutrient conserving capacity of the soil.

Pre-planting tillage operation includes one or two ploughings with mould board or disc plough followed by two cross
ploughings with cultivator followed by planking for levelling the field. Use of single patela helps in collection and removal
of weeds and stubbles from the field. The tillage operation must be completed before planting time.

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Soils:
Tobacco is very sensitive to the physical and chemical properties of the soil. Soils which are open, well drained and
properly aerated are the best suited for tobacco cultivation. The plant is highly susceptible to injury from flooding or
inundation of the soil. The desirable soil pH is 5.0 to
6.0. But, in many parts cultivation is successful where the pH is 8 or more.

In India, cigar, hookah, chewing, bidi and FCV tobacco in some areas are grown on sandy loam to clay loam soils. The
crop is raised either as irrigated in Tamil Nadu, U.P. and Northern light soils (NLS) of Andhra Pradesh or as semi-irrigated
crop i.e. in Bihar, West Bengal and Karnataka or as a dry crop in Andhra Pradesh except in NLS.

Flue cured virginia tobacco is grown in India in four agro-climatic zones namely Traditional black soils (TBS), Northern
light soils (NLS) and Southern light soils (SLS) in Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka light soils (KLS) in Karnataka. Soil
characteristics, cultivation practices and quality of the tobacco grown vary from one region to the other. The different styles
of tobacco produced in different zones meet the demands of the customers of different countries.

The Traditional black soils are clay loams, silty clay loams and clays, highly clayey (50-80% clay) throughout the profile,
slightly alkaline in reaction (pH 7.5 to 8.8), calcareous, low in organic carbon, rich in fertility, high in available soil
moisture with very poor drainage. Tobacco is grown on conserved soil moisture as post monsoon crop during winter.

Northern light soils (East Godavari, West Godavari and Khammam districts of A.P.) are sandy loams to loamy sands,
slightly acidic, very low exchangeable cations, low water holding capacity, poor fertility status with very good drainage.
Tobacco is grown in these soils under irrigated conditions during winter.

Southern light soils (Prakasam and Nellore districts of A.P.) are red loamy soils, neutral in reaction, low to medium fertility
status, moderately well drained, moderately low permeability, with moderate water holding capacity and low to medium
cation exchange capacity with more than 75% base saturation. Tobacco is grown during winter on conserved soil moisture
from North East monsoon rains.

Karnataka light soils (Transitional belt of Karnataka) are red soils which are yellow to deep red in colour, loamy sands
and sandy clay in texture (clay content varies from 10 to 25%), low in inherent fertility, slightly acidic in reaction with
fairly good water holding capacity. The soils are well drained and highly leached. The clay complex of red soils consists of a
mixture of Illite and Kaolinite with traces of Montmorillonite. Tobacco is grown as a monsoon crop during south west
monsoon period.

Burley tobacco:
The burley tobacco is grown during monsoon season in Agency areas in East and West Godavari districts of Andhra
Pradesh and the soils are generally sandy loams on the surface and loams at the sub-soil level and neutral to acidic in
reaction (pH 5.5 to 6.5). The soils are very low in soluble salts, chlorides and light in texture. The organic matter content,
available nitrogen and available phosphorus status are low. This tobacco is used for blending in cigarettes.

140
Natu tobacco:
The crop is raised on medium to heavy black soils of pH ranging from 7.0 to 8.5 in Guntur, Krishna, Kurnool, Khammam
and Warangal districts of Andhra Pradesh on the conserved soil moisture. These soils are poor in available nitrogen,
organic carbon, medium to high in phosphorus and high in available potash. Some pati soils are also used for growing natu
tobacco. The unirrigated crop grown on black soils is given a moderate manuring.

Lanka tobacco:
Lanka tobacco is exclusively grown on the banks and delta ic islands of Krishna and Godavari rivers in Andhra Pradesh. The
soils which are sandy to loam in textures are derived from the recent alluvium deposited annually by the rivers Krishna &
Godavari during floods. Some of these soils, which are submerged during floods every year are silty in nature and therefore
highly fertile.

Bidi tobacco:
In Gujarat, bidi tobacco is grown in Charotar area comprising of Anand, Petlad and Nadiad taluks of Kheda District and
the soils in this tract are mostly sandy to sandy loam called "Goradu" and in some parts of Vadodara District which are
medium clay soils. Soils are deficient in organic carbon and medium in available phosphorus and potassium.

In Karnataka, bidi tobacco is mainly grown in Nipani area of Belgaum District on the banks of river Krishna and its
tributaries. Hence, the crop is grown on black silt loams which have good moisture retentive capacity. Bidi tobacco is also
grown to some extent in Koraput District of Orissa and in Kurnool District of Andhra Pradesh.

Chewing and hookah types of tobacco

Chewing and hookah types of tobacco are grown on different types of soils ranging from sandy loam upland soils of
Vaishali, Samastipur, Muzaffarpur to medium and heavy paddy growing soils of Purnea, Katihar and Saharso. Most of the
tobacco growing soils are low in organic matter, available N and P, medium in K content and mostly alkaline in reaction
(pH 8.2 to 8.4). Illite and muscovite are the dominant minerals responsible for the enrichment of such soils. Available
phosphorus content in these soils is low. Well drained, neutral to slightly alkaline soil with good nutrient supplying capacity
is considered ideal for chewing and hookah tobacco cultivation.

Chewing tobacco cultivation in Tamil Nadu is concentrated in the districts of Dindigul, Erode, Coimbatore, Madurai,
South Arcot, Nagapatnam, Salem, Thanjavur, Kanyakumari and Tirunelveli in an area of about 20000 ha. Chewing
tobacco is grown in a wide range of soils which are alkaline in nature and with irrigation waters having high salt content.

Country Cheroot tobacco

Two types of country cheroot tobaccos i.e. the narrow leaf type and broad leaf type are cultivated, the former confined to
Erode district and the later in Salem districts of Tamil Nadu in an area of about 5000 ha. This tobacco is cultivated in
both heavy and light soils as an irrigated crop. The produce finds its way for the manufacture of hand made country
cheroots for consumption in Tamil Nadu as well as adjoining States of Kerala and Karnataka. Part of the produce is also
consumed locally as well as in Karnataka as chewing tobacco.

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Wrapper, filler, jati & motihari tobacco of North Bengal
Motihari (N. rustica) and jati, wrapper and filler (N. tabacum) tobacco types are cultivated in a total area of about 14,000
ha concentrated in Cooch Behar, Jalpaiguri, Mushidabad and Malda districts of North Bengal region. Soils of the area are
alluvial flood plains in origin, formed from the deposits of Ganga and Brahmaputra river waters. These soils are sandy
loams and silt loams, light in texture, whitish grey to greyish in colour, well-drained and well-aerated.

Cigar filler and binder tobaccos are grown on sandy to loamy, well drained, red and brown soils of Coimbatore and
Madurai districts of Tamil Nadu. The crop is heavily irrigated, about 20 times. From well water.

Climate
Besides soil, the other important factor which affects tobacco growth is the climate. Rainfall, temperature, relative
humidity, wind and sunlight have a profound influence on growth, flowering and metabolism of tobacco plant. To
maintain turgidity and expansion of leaf area, tobacco plant needs considerable amount of water. On the other hand,
tobacco plants are very sensitive to flooded/water-logged condition of soil because of deprivation of oxygen in soil essential
for the development of a fibrous root system.

Tobacco is tropical in origin, but it is grown successfully under tropical, sub-tropical and temperate climates. Normally it
requires about 100 to 120 frost -free days with an average temperature of 80oF, to mature. Ideal conditions required for
successful production of high quality leaf are 1) a liberal and well-distributed rainfall during active vegetative growth stage
2) long day lengths and 3) a high relative humidity of 70-80%. In India, tobacco is grown under a very wide range of
conditions from the coast-line to an altitude of 3,000 feet. In the South, the crop is raised in winter from October to March
when the temperatures are moderate. But in Punjab, it is grown as an early summer crop. In the eastern and western parts
of the country, it is grown between September and January.

Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka

The annual rainfall through South-West and North East monsoons is around 800- 1000 mm starting from June to October
and Nov. – Dec (North East monsoon). The crop is exclusively grown on conserved soil moisture during rabi season
extending from October-November to February- March. Occasionally, the North- East monsoon becomes active and
unprecedented rain during the crop season through cyclonic storms boosts the yields. The crop requires good sun light,
low evaporation, high relative humidity, sustained soil moisture and free from wet footing and cyclonic storms.

Lanka tobacco crop needs 80 to 90% relative humidity during plant growth period that is from mid October to November
ending with a mean day temperature of about 26.7oC and the crop needs 30 to 32oC so that the leaves on the plant will
come to maturity with raising temperatures.

Bidi tobacco

The bidi tobacco in Charotar area of Gujarat is grown with few irrigations while in Nipani area of Karnataka it is not
irrigated. A less irrigated bidi tobacco is more prized than a more irrigated crop. In Gujarat the crop comes to maturity
during winter due to which the leaf thickens and becomes rugged. This is desirable feature for bidi tobacco.

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 Lecture 25
NURSERY MANAGEMENT
Tobacco seeds are very small and egg-shaped with thick seed- coat. They are about 0.75 mm long, 0.53 mm broad and 0.47
mm thick. Depending on the variety and the conditions under which the seed is produced, the size and the weight of the
seed vary considerably. In N. tabacum the average weight of the seed is 0.08 to 0.09 mg and there are 11,000 - 12,000
seeds per gram. In N. rustica , the seed is larger and about three times heavier. The emerging seedlings are tiny and delicate
and therefore, the seeds are unsuitable for sowing directly in the field. Hence, they are sown in nurseries initially
and tended carefully till the seedlings attain a particular size before transplanting in the main field. For successful raising of
nurseries, proper location, good preparation and manuring, adequate facilities for watering and timely controlling of pests
and diseases are essential.

Site Selection:
Generally tobacco nurseries are grown on sandy or sandy loam soils. The cigarette-tobacco growing areas of Andhra
Pradesh are an exception in that the crop is grown on a heavy black soil and the nurseries are generally raised on sandy to
gravely loams. Raising of nurseries on heavy black soils is hazardous due to poor internal drainage due to clay content,
heavy rainfall, high temperatures and pre-disposing the crop for disease like damping off.

Sterilisation / Rabbing :
The nursery site should have a good internal as well as surface drainage and should be situated at an elevated place. It is
desirable to change the nursery site every year as it would minimise incidence of pests and diseases and also eliminate
contamination by other varieties. If it is not possible to change the site, old site can be used after sterilizing by rabbing,
i.e. by burning any of the slow burning waste materials like, tobacco stalks, paddy husk, sugarcane-trash, etc. For the best
results this operation should be done at the right moisture content, after the final preparation of the seed bed and a few
days before sowing.

Seed bed preparation:

Systematic layout of nursery on raised beds with intervening channels helps in quick drainage of rain water. The beds of
1.0 m to 1. 22 m width facilitate hand weeding and watering with rose cans. The beds can be of any convenient length
along the slope but generally not more than 10 m. Channels should be 50 cm wide and 10 cm deep. Mixing of sand at 100 to
200 tonnes/ha in the preparation of the beds, helps in improving the drainage in heavy soils.

Manures and fertilizers:

Application of FYM or filter press cake @ 25 tonnes/ha by mixing well in the top layers atleast 20 days before
sowing is beneficial in obtaining more number of transplantable seedlings. Growing of a green manure crop like dhaincha or
sunnhemp for 6 to 7 weeks and ploughing it is also practiced in places like Dinhata (West Bengal). Basal application of 50
g of ammonium sulphate, 50 g of potassium sulphate and 300 g of super phosphate and 100 g of dolomite per 10 sq.m. bed
is recommended. After germination of seed, top dressing of ammonium sulphate @ 25 g/10 sq.m. twice at 4 days interval
and thereafter @ 50 g/10 sq.m. thrice at 4 days interval and potassium sulphate @ 25 g/10 sq.m. twice is recommended.
After each pulling top dressing with ammonium sulphate @ 100 g/10 sq.m. is to be applied to boost the growth of
remaining seedlings.

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Seed rate:
Seed rate is actually dictated by climatic conditions and the optimum seed rate is 3-5 kg/ha (0.4 g/sq.m). A seed-rate of 3
kg/ha for N. tabacum and 6 kg/ha for N. rustica was found to be optimum under Dinhata (West Bengal) conditions.

Seed Treatment:
Seeds must be treated with dithane M-45 or Z-78 before sowing in the nursery agains t the seed borne dideases.

Time of Sowing:
Sowing time State Type of Tobacco
Aug-Sep A.P. Cigarete, Cheerot and Bidi
April- May Karnataka FCV and Natu
May-June Gujarat Bidi
June -July U.P. Cheewing
Aug-sep Bihar Hookah and Chewing
Dec. UP Chewing

The sowing time of FCV tobacco of Karnataka is March-April and FCV and other tobacco types in different areas are
1st to 2nd fortnight of August. The first ten days of nursery period is most critical and if the afternoons are hot, missing
even one watering inhibit germination of seed. Almost all the sowings are done when the day temperatures are high.
Provision of covers and mulches over seed beds is found beneficial as they help in conserving moisture during
germination and la ter protect the tender seedlings from scorching sunlight and beating rains.

In order to prevent desiccation of seedlings due to intense heat and beating rains, under Dinhata (West Bengal) conditions,
bamboo mats or jute-stick covers are placed directly on the beds. In Pusa (North Bihar), the seed beds are covered with
grass thaties or dry grass. At Hunsur, paddy- straw cover gave adequate protection to seed beds. Covering nursery beds with
coir mat pandal gave 21.9% increase in transplantable seedlings over geotextile or paddy straw and also saved two
waterings per day.

Covers are gradually thinned or removed when seedlings appear on the surface, otherwise they become etiolated and
lanky for want of sunlight. It is also advantageous to transplant 3 to 4 weeks old seedlings on another bed i.e.,
resetting, to ensure sturdy growth of seedlings by the time of planting. A week to ten days before planting, seedlings are
hardened by withholding water. Such seedlings withstand the shock of transplanting better than normal seedlings.

Seedlings of pencil thickness and of 10 to 15 cm length are normally preferred. Shorter seedlings may establish well under
optimum conditions in heavy soils. In light soils longer seedlings are preferred for planting. Normally, the seedlings are
ready for planting by the end of 7th week and in the first picking 30 to 40% of the total seedlings are available. The seed
bed is top-dressed after each pulling to make the remaining seedlings grow to transplantable size.

When planting is delayed due to unfavourable field conditions, the overgrown seedlings in beds are clipped without
damaging the growing point in order to retard the growth.

144
Transplanting In The Mainfield
The optimum time for planting is primarily determined by the weather conditions prevailing during certain stages of the
crop.

In Andhra Pradesh, the normal period of planting is from mid-October till mid-November. Earlyr plantings are damaged by
heavy rains and late plantings suffer from deficiency of soil moisture.

In Tamil Nadu, plantings are done after sufficient rains augment the water supply in the wells. Planting of cigar or
chewing tobacco up to 1st week of November is better than later plantings. In Karnataka, time of planting ranges from
April to May-June depending on the rainfall.

In the northern parts of the country, planting is mostly governed by the time when cool weather prevails as well as
duration of winter. In West Bengal, Jati tobacco is planted earlier than Motihari, both after the rains, as the former is of a
longer duration. In Punjab and parts of U.P. the planting is done in February-March as a summer crop.

For bidi-tobacco, last week of August to first week of September is the optimum planting time in the Charotar area of
Gujarat and the middle of August in the Nipani area of Karnataka.

Method of planting
Dry Planting:
Planting of 8 to 9 week old seedlings done by pot watering at the intersections of marking in Andhra Pradesh and Nipani
tract. Planting of bidi-tobacco in Charotar area of Gujarat and hookah- tobacco in Bihar is generally arranged on a cloudy
day.

Wet Planting: Followed in Tamilnadu. The field is irrigated prior to planting and seedlings are planted in the
saturated soil.

Spacing:
Soil properties and tobacco type influence the selection of spacing between plant in the field. Generally, spacing is wider in
soils of low fertility than in soils of high fertility. Broad-leaf type varieties are spaced wider than narrow-leaf types. Due to
different spacings adopted for various tobacco types grown in India, the plant densities vary from 12,345 to 37,037
plants/ha. Wide-spacing allows the maximum expansion and thickness of the leaf; narrow -spacing tends to produce small
and thin leaves, generally lacking in body.

Spacings recommended for various tobacco’s in India FCV

NLS & KLS- 100cm X60cm SLS & TBS- 70 cmX50cm
Bidi Tobacco- 90cm X 60cm to 100cm X75 cm Natu Tobacco- Irrigated- 90cm X90 cm
Rainfed- 60cm X60 cm Burley Tobacco- 80cm X40 cm
Lanka Tobacco- 60cm X60 cm

145
 Lecture 26
Manures And Fert ilizers
Application of organic manures is essential for maintenance of soil health. Organic manures improve the soil health,
increase yields by 10-15% and also enhance the flavour and taste of tobacco. The requirement of organic manures in
addition to inorganic fertilizers has been worked out for each type of tobacco by Central Tobacco Research Institute, its
Research Stations and AINRP(T) Centres and recommended to the farmers.

Nutrient content and Removal:

Nutrient Leaf (%) stalk (%)
N content- 2.0 -5.0 2.5-4.0
P content 0.5-0.7 0.5-0.9
K content 2.5-7.0 2.5-5.0

Ingeneral a normal tobacco crop removes 225 kg N, 17 kg P2O5 , 365 kg K2O, 135 kg CaO and 17 kg MgO from 1 Ha.

Fertiliser doses for different types of Tobacco’s and soils

For FCV Tobacco :

NLS - 115-60-120 kg N, P2 O5 and K2 O / ha. SLS - 60-60-60 kg N, P2 O5 and K2 O / ha.
KLS - 50-40-80 kg N, P2 O5 and K2 O / ha.
TBS - 45-0-0 kg N, P2 O5 and K2 O / ha.

Bidi Tobacco : 160-0-0 kg N, P2 O5 and K2 O / ha.

125-60-40 kg N, P2 O5 and K2 O / ha.
Burley : 125- 5-50 kg N, P2 O5 and K2 O / ha. Irrigated natu : 300-50-100 kg N, P2 O5 and K2 O / ha. Rainfed natu
: 60-50-50 kg N, P2 O5 and K2 O / ha. Lanka : 300-50-50 kg N, P2 O5 and K2 O / ha. Cigar : 100-50-100 kg
N, P2 O5 and K2 O / ha. Chewing : 120-50-75 kg N, P2 O5 and K2 O / ha. Hookah
: 112-50-75 kg N, P2 O5 and K2 O / ha.

METHOD OF APPLICATION:

Depending on the type of tobacco and soil type, the dose, time and method of application of fertilisers are recommended
for better fertiliser use efficiency. In heavy soils like vertisols and red clay loams, fertilisers are applied before planting
in plant row plough furrow (PRPF) method. In this method, furrows are opened with a plough in the planting row and
fertilisers are applied in the furrow and land is levelled with a plank. Later the planting is done on the same line which
helps in better utilization of fertilisers. In light soils(sands to loamy sands), fertilisers are applied in two or three splits
by dollop method or double band placement. Fertilisers like ammonium sulphate, diammonium phosphate, urea, calcium
ammonium nitrate as sources of nitrogen, super phosphate and diammonium phosphate as sources of phosphorus and
potassium sulphate as source of potassium are used for tobacco. As the chloride ion affects burning fertilizers like
muriate of potash are not applied to smoking types.

146
Interculture and weed Management
Intercultivation is done with a three-tyned hoe two or three times at fortnightly intervals by working the hoe in cross
directions. The first cultivation usually commences about 10 to 15 days after planting by which time the plants are well
established. In vertisols, the final cultivation is done deep with country plough to prevent cracking of the soil. For each
interculture, the soil around the plants is loosened with a hand-weeding tool. These operations help in eradication of
weeds, mulching the surface soil and promoting rooting at deeper layers by driving out the moisture at the top. In the
case of irrigated crop, soil in the furrow which has the tendency to form a hard crust is broken by harrow and ridges are
reformed to increase the height with each progressive irrigation.

These regular intercultural operations will keep the field weed free and conserve the moisture. Orabanche is found to be
attached with the roots. For managing them, coleection and destroying as soon as they are seen in the field. Deep
summer ploughing buries seeds in deeper layers. Preplanting application of EPTC @ 6.0 kg/ha is recommended.
Growing trap crops like Jowar, Gingelly, Sesame, Blackgram etc. should be gropwn in Kharif, which will reduce the seed
bank.

147
Irrigation
Tobacco cannot tolerate wit h water logging under any circumstance. FCV tobacco grown in Blackcotton soils rarely
requires irrigation. However, grown in light soils requires regular irrigations.Irrigation through all furrow system is a
general practice, but it consumes more water and requires more labour; and leaching losses of nitrogen and potassium are
also more. The alternate skip furrow method of irrigation is more economical and checks the wastage of irrigation water,
electricity and time. It improves the leaf quality and gives 10-20% higher yield than all furrow irrigation.

Irrigation schedule for Northern light soils FCV Tobacco

At the time of planting in plough furrow 15 mm

1st irrigation 15-20th day after planting by surface irrigation, if needed 24 mm
2nd irrigation 30-35th day after planting as surface irrigation 24 mm
3rd irrigation 40-45th day after planting all furrow irrigation immediately after 48 mm
ridge formation
4th irrigation 50-55th day after planting all furrow irrigation 48 mm
5th irrigation 65-70th day after planting by alternate skip furrow method 24 mm
6th irrigation 80-85th day after planting by alternate skip furrow method 24 mm
7th irrigation 95-100th day after planting by alternate skip furrow method 24 mm
8th irrigation 115-120th day after planting by alternate skip furrow method 24 mm

In alternate skip furrow method, in the subsequent irrigations, first irrigated furrows are avoided and the unirrigated furrows
are irrigated. The same order is followed in consecutive irrigations.

Critical stages:
Critical stages for irrigation is knee height to bloom. Schdulling at 50 % DASM is ideal for Tobacco. Quality of water for
irrigation to tobacco in respect of chlorine content is paramount important. Limit of is up to 30 ppm and should not
exceed 50ppm.

Crop rotation
Monocropping of tobacco is always discouraged as it leads to development of pest and disease complex in addition to
decreasing soil fertility. Crop rotation not only gives additional returns to farmers but also improves soil fertility and
maintains soil health. Suitable crop rotations have been worked out for different types of tobacco without jeopardising
the tobacco quality (Table 6). One year rotation, two year rotation, long term cropping sequences, mixed cropping wherever
feasible and cropping systems suitable to the region were developed.

148
Table - 6: Cropping sequences recommended for different types of tobacco
---
Type of tobaccoCrop rotation recommended
FCV tobacco:

Northern Black Soils Kharif Blackgram or Dry paddy followed by Rabi tobacco.
Central Black Soils Kharif gingelly followed by Rabi tobacco, sorghum alone
once in 4 years
Southern Black Soils Kharif gingelly or groundnut followed by Rabi tobacco.
Northern Light Soils Groundnut- redgram (1st year), Gingelly-tobacco (2nd year)
Southern Light Soils Gingelly or groundnut in Kharif and tobacco in Rabi
Karnataka Light Soils Ragi or Gingelly in Rabi followed by FCV Tobacco in Kharif

Irrigated Natu tobacco Redgram or sunnhemp green manuring followed by tobacco in

Rabi
Rainfed Natu tobacco Kharif gingelly followed by tobacco in Rabi

Lanka tobacco Tobacco - Ma ize - Paddy - Tobacco - Maize

Cigar and Cheroot tobacco Pearl millet-Ragi-Tobacco

Bidi tobacco Tobacco - Bajra (1st year) followed by Hybrid cotton - tobacco (2nd year).
Chewing tobacco Cropping sequences, Maize-tobacco-greengram, Sesame-
tobacco-sunflower/onion, Maize-tobacco-sesame and Intercropping of Chewing Tobacco+potato, Tobacco+ papaya,
Tobacco + sugarcane, Tobacco + garlic and Tobacco + rajmash in Bihar; Onion as intercrop and Ragi-chewing tobacco
rotation in Tamil Nadu.
Hookah tobaccoCropping sequences, Aus paddy- Aman paddy – Motihari tobacco, Jute-Aman paddy- Motihari tobacco
and intercropping of Tobacco+potato, Tobacco+garlic or onion

HDBRG Blackgram or gingelly followed by tobacco.

Topping & sucker control

Toping is the process of removal of flower head alone or with few top leaves. Removal of the flower bud (topping) arrests
the apical dominance and buds in the top 3 to 4 axils grow rapidly to replace the plants reproductive capabilities. The
primary buds get stimulated initially and removal of these primary buds, in turn, stimulates secondary buds. Topping is
associated with improvement of root system, leaf thickness and leaf weight. Topping increases the nicotine and nitrogen
contents of the leaf.

Topping and removal of subsequent suckers form a composite operation. If suckers are not removed there is no use of
topping. The management aspects of topping and desuckering are spe cific to tobacco types.

149
Sucker control can be done either manually or by applying chemicals. Application of neem oil emulsion 15-20% in the
top 5-6 axils controls the suckers considerably.

Harvesting
Priming:
Harvesting two to three well-matured and rip e leaves is is termed as Priming as followed in FCV tobacco. Ripe leaves have
greenish-yellow colour, with a velvety feel, losing much of the stickiness. They have a tendency to lie horizontally or bend
slightly down the plant and the leaf-tips are slightly dry. As a general rule, leaves are harvested from bottom lower leaves
on slightly greener side, middle leaves when they are ripe and top leaves when they are fully ripe. Harvesting must be
done on a clear weather day and on an average, not more than three leaves are harvested at a time. Immediately after rains
or irrigation, harvest is to be delayed by 2 - 3 days.

Stalk cut method:

Cigar, cheerot, chewing and hookah types are harvested by stalk cut method. In this method plants are cut close to ground
with the sickle and generally left in the field over night for wilting.

Bidi Tobacco:
Harvesting of bidi tobacco normally commences in the months of January-February in Gujarat and December-January in
Karnataka and Maharashtra. Harvesting of bidi tobacco is done at an advanced stage of maturity. The maturity is judged
by pronounced development of brown spots called ‘spangles’.

Whole plant harvest: The mature plants are cut at the base, inverted and left in the field for about three days. The drying is
considered to be complete when the lamina close to the lower half of the midrib becomes brittle.

Leaf-wise harvest: Mature leaves exhibiting full spangle development are plucked and left in the field with the upper surface
facing the ground for drying. Dried leaves are collected in a tarpaulin and the lamina (bhuka) are stripped off from the
midribs. After about 4 days, pieces of lamina and veins adhering to midribs are separated and kept in a separate heap.
Midribs are exposed to the sun further for about a fortnight for drying.

Gugro method: This method is practiced in seasons of deficient rainfall when leaves do not mature well and there is
drying of leaf along with midrib. Green lamina of the mature leaf of the standing crop is stripped from the midrib by
passing the thumb and the index finger from the base to the top of the midrib.

In Karnataka and Maharashtra, harvesting of bidi tobacco is done by stalk cut method. Whole plants are cut and kept
inverted in the field for 6-7 days for sun curing and the lamina is separated out from the main stem after drying. Midribs
are further dried to remove the remaining portion of the lamina. This is Angad tobacco sold in the market.

CURING:
Curing is essentially a drying process whereby most of the moisture in the green leaf is removed. However, this process of
drying is conducted in such a way as to produce certain well- defined and desirable qualities in different types of tobacco.
A bad leaf produced on field cannot be

150
improved by curing; but a good leaf ca n be spoiled by bad and defective curing. The process of curing has an intimate
bearing on the quality of the final produce. During the progress of curing, some important biochemical changes take
place. The curing operations followed in India are dependent on several factors, such as tradition, convenience, market
value of the crop, consideration of economic production, etc. Dending on the type of tobacco, four principal methods of
curing can be distinguished, namely, i) flue -curing, ii) air-curing, iii) fire-curing and iv) sun-curing.

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 Lecture 27
Quality Characters:
The concept of quality in flue -cured tobacco has attained a new dimension in the present day context because of higher
mobility in international market, ever -growing sophistication among smokers taste and increasing automation in
cigarette industry. While overall monetary return is a good enough criterion of quality to a farmer, visible quality like
colour, is very important for marketing purposes; but to an industrialist, those manufacturing qualities which maximise
profit are most desirable features provided tobacco possesses satisfactory smoking quality which in turn depends upon
chemical composition of the leaf material. Flue-cured tobacco quality thus is made up of many complex components, viz.
physic al, chemical, organoleptic and also economic attributes. Smoking quality plus manufacturing capacity equals the
suitability of tobacco. So the quality characters of FCV tobacco are divided into visual characters, manufacturing characters
and chemical characters.

The visual characters are colour, body, texture, maturity/ ripeness, graininess, hygroscopicity, shatterability, blemish,
elasticity, fluffiness, aroma, leaf size, vein colour etc. These characters are subjective based on which the tobacco leaf is
graded and purchased by the trader. Objective quality criteria have been developed for manufacturing characters and
chemical characters. The manufacturing characters are filling value, equilibrium moisture content, pore volume, elasticity,
shatterability, combustibility, lamina-midrib ratio (strip yield), number of leaves per kg, lamina weight per unit area etc.
Though, tobacco leaf contains hundreds of chemical constituents, only few have a dominating influence on quality.
Nitrogenous and carbohydrate fractions are the two groups of chemical constituents having profound effect on the
smoking quality. Chloride in leaf is also very important as it influences the combustibility and keeping quality of leaf.

Physical Properties:
Tobacco buyers evaluate tobacco by its visual characteristics. Such a system of subjective quality evaluation varies with
personal fancies and hence cannot be considered as precise. The necessity of objective laboratory tests to evaluate physical
qualities has become essential.

Filling value
Filling value is the volume occupied by unit weight of cut tobacco at predetermined moisture level under a specific stress.
Filling value may be taken to be a measure of the relative number of cigarettes of a given firmness that could be
manufactured from a unit weight of tobacco.

Shatterability

Another important economic factor in tobacco quality is its resistance to breakage during handling. Tobacco is a fragile
material that tends to shatter to a greater or lesser degree with handling. Breakage becom es accentuated under the stress
of mechanical processes in the factory. Tobaccos do differ in their relative brittleness due to various factors. Strength in
tobacco leaf is dependent on calcium pectate, the cementing material in the cell wall.

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Strip yield
Strip yield in flue-cured tobacco is important to manufacturers since it is the lamina portion of leaf that is normally used
in cigarette making. Because of the low utility of midrib, a large bulk of exportable flue-cured leaf is despatched only in the
form of strips. This makes strip yield an important criterion in developing varieties, as higher the strip yield, greater is the
economic return. Strips constitute, on an average, about 75% of leaf by weight, ranging from 70-80%. Within this
range, higher the strip yield, better is the usability of tobacco.

Elasticity
Elasticity is the ability of the leaf, when moist, to undergo stretching without breaking. Such tobaccos after being
compressed, as practiced during cutting in the manufacture of cigarettes, will spring back immediately.

Texture or porosity
Leaf structure or texture is an important physical property of flue-cured tobacco. Texture and grain are synonymous for
cigarette tobacco. Graininess in flue cured tobacco is a measure of porosity of leaf which regulates its capacity to absorb
and retain additives in the intercellular air chamber.

Hygroscopicity
Hygroscopic properties of cured leaf as judged by equilibrium moisture content is an important technological criterion
for judging quality. It is the moisture absorbing capacity of leaf which depends on the relative humidity of the
surrounding environment. Cured leaf low in hygroscopicity is very difficult to get to `order' or `condition', with the result the
leaf handling is difficult. High hygroscopicity on the other hand, entails operational difficulty in the cutting and making
machines.

Combustibility
Combustibility or burning quality of tobacco involves several criteria like fire holding capacity, rate of burn, evenness or
completeness of burn and character of residual ash. Leaf burn is very commonly used to determine the burning quality of
cured leaf.

Chemical Characters:

Total nitrogen
It is generally considered that flavour and taste of smoke is correlated with nitrogenous constituents. Flue-cured tobacco
containing 1.6 to 2.3% total nitrogen gives the most satisfying smoke. Higher nitrogen content of tobacco would result in,
apart from curing difficulty, deep brown coloured trashy leaf which shatters readily and it has flat-insipid tasting smoke.
Generally high level of nitrogen is associated with high level of nicotine. Lower nitrogen content would result in `washed
out', pale coloured leaf, lacking in rich colour characteristic of good tobacco.

Nicotine

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Nicotine content of tobacco is an important constituent because of its stimulatory effect on the smoker. In FCV tobacco, a
nicotine level of 1.7 to 2.0% is desirable and nornicotine should not exceed 5% of total alkaloids. Higher proportion of
nornicotine leads to abnormal and objectionable smoke due to pyrolysis of nornicotine into myosmine.

Nitrogen / nicotine ratio

The ratio of nitrogen to nicotine is assumed to give some chemical balance within the leaf. Tobacco with higher ratio is less
desirable because it tends to be light bodied. A ratio of about 1.35 results in pale colour, slick texture, poor physical
characters and deficiency in aroma. In fact, a value exceeding 1.0 has been ascribed as unbalanced. Low value (below 0.5) is
considered undesirable because the tobacco is heavy bodied and associated with high nicotine content and low level of
reducing sugars. Ratio in the range of 0.6 - 0.7 is adjudged as most desirable in medium to light bodied matured
tobacco.

Reducing sugars

Higher content of reducing sugars in flue cured tobacco is undesirable as it imparts an acidic character to the smoke. Lower
content imparts alkalinity to smoke due to high nitrogenous constituents. During smoking, sugars yield CO2 and water as
pyrolysis products, thus helping to neutralise free base and increase moisture content in smoke and serving as an emollient.

Reducing sugars / nicotine ratio

The ratio of sugar to nicotine would give a balance of opposing effects and thus serve as an index of smoking quality.
Higher ratio indicates mildness and smoothness while a very low ratio reflects the harsh and irritating smoke. If cured leaf is
low in nicotine and sugars, as generally is the case with Indian flue-cured tobaccos, the ratio appears to be acceptable.
Higher sugar content consistent with nicotine level is the most desirable feature for smoking quality in flue-cured
tobacco and the desirable ratio is 7-13.

Carbohydrate / protein ratio

The ratio of carbohydrates to proteins is known as Shmuk number and the ratio of carbohydrates to total nitrogen is known
as Kovalenko coefficient. These ratios also give similar indications as in the case of reducing sugar to nicotine.

Chlorides

Higher level of chloride in leaf inhibits leaf burn or combustibility. The chloride content of leaf must be preferably less
than 1. 5% but should never exceed 2%. Chloride content is positively correlated with deterioration of colour. High
chloride content in leaf leads to dull muddy orange colour with sour or linoleum smell. Further, such leaf due to its
moisture holding capacity bruises easily and tends to develop `off-colour'. These characteristics render this type of leaf
to be of low value for cigarette manufacture. Chlorine acts as a negative combustion catalyst in tobacco.

Potassium
Potassium content in the cured leaf improves the burning quality of tobacco. An adequate level of potassium in cured
leaf tends to off-set the deleterious effect of chloride on burning quality.

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Potassium acts as a mineral catalyst and oxygen carrier in promoting leaf burn. Cured leaf with low potassium content is
trashy and dull which may not have any commercial value.

Acceptable limits for the important quality constituents and quality indices in flue -cured tobacco.

Constituent/Quality Index Acceptable Limits

Total Nitrogen (%) 1.0 - 3.0
Nicotine (%) 0.7 - 3.0
Total Sugars (%) 10.0 - 26.0
Reducing Sugars (%) 8.0 - 24.0
Ph 4.6 - 5.5
Reducing Sugars/ Total N 7 - 13
Reducing Sugars/Nicotine 7 - 13
Total N/ Nicotine < 1.2
Chloride (%) < 1.5
Filling value at 60% R.H. and 20 0C 3.3 - 3.8cc/g of shreds
Equilibrium moisture content at 60% R.H. and 20 0C 11 - 15%
Pore Volume 0.13 - 0.18 ml/g
Combustibility 2.5 - 3.5 mm/min
Leaf burn 3 - 6 sec.
Shatterability Index >3

Note: The individual chemical constituents alone should not be taken into consideration for quality evaluation. The ratios of
the constituents are also very important and should be taken into consideration for quality appraisal of tobacco.

In the case of non-FCV tobaccos, all the visual characters mentioned in the case of FCV tobacco are also important.
Nicotine content is considered to be an important chemical constituent determining quality. Nicotine contents of different
tobaccos produced in India are presented below.

Tobacco Type Nicotine (%)

Virginia tobacco 1.2 - 3.6
Bidi tobacco (Anand) 9.7
HDBRG (Guntur) 3.9
Natu tobacco (Black soils) 2.8
Natu tobacco (Light soils) 3.5
Burley tobacco 1.3
Chewing tobacco (Tamil Nadu) 2.9
Cigar tobacco (Tamil Nadu) 1.2
Chewing tobacco(Bihar) 3.7

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Cigar filler (West Bengal) 2.0
Cigar wrapper (West Bengal) 1.4
Jati-Chama (West Bengal) 3.7
Jati-Podali (West Bengal) 4.0
Motihari-Hemti (West Bengal) 4.8
Motihari-Bitri (West Bengal) 6.6

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METHODS OF CURING
Air curing
The matured leaves are primed and kept around the plant. The primed leaves are tied in to bunches of 8 to 10 le aves and
cured on bamboo splinters in curing sheds for 4 to 6 weeks. Various indigenous tobaccos are subjected to air-curing. Most
prominent among them are; wrapper tobacco of West Bengal, lanka tobacco and Burley tobacco grown in Andhra
Pradesh. The process is rather slow and takes 6-8 weeks. Generally air-cured tobacco is dark brown in colour with lower
levels of sugars and rich in nitrogenous constituents.

Pit Curing

Bundles of shade-cured leaves are pit cured in the pits of 8 feet diameter and 3 feet depth by keeping them in circular layers
up to half of the pit and then covered by palmyrah leaves and soil to make it air tight. After 24 hours, the leaf is
transferred to another pit of the same dimensions, filled and covered in the same way as the first one and kept for 48 hours.
Later, the leaf is transferred to the 1st pit in the same way and kept for 24 hours. This transferring process is done at nights
to avoid loss of moisture. Eg. Lanka Tobacco in A.P. and Hookah Tobacco in Punjab.

Sun-curing
In India, a number of tobaccos are Sun-cured. In this method construction of costly structures are avoided. The process is
relatively quick (2-3 weeks) and there is little interference from weather changes. After initial wilting in the field , Leaves
are stung to bamboo poles and sun cured for 15 to 20 days. There are many modifications of Sun-curing.

Curing whole plant on racks: Cigar and chewing tobaccos of Tamil Nadu.
Curing leaves together with pieces of stalk on racks: Natu tobacco in Andhra Prades h.
Curing whole plant on the ground: Bidi tobacco of Gujarat, Hookah and chewing tobacco in Bihar.
Curing primed leaves on the ground: Chewing tobacco in Uttar Pradesh and Hookah tobacco in West Bengal.

Fire -curing: (Smoke curing)

Important type of tobacco that is fire-cured is Jaffna tobacco of Ceylon and Tamil Nadu used for chewing purpose. The
leaf is harvested by either priming or stalk-cutting each leaf together with a portion of the stem.

The leaves are wilted for four hours in the field, tied into bundles and hung of laths in smoke huts. They are then smoked for
12 hours by burning coconut husks, leaf stalks and palmyrah nuts, stacked for 3 days and again smoked. Alteration of
firing and stacking at an interval of few days helps in making the colour of leaf uniform. During the smoke treatment,
creosotic substances are deposited on leaf surface imparting a peculiar taste. After smoking, the leaves are bulked for
3-4 weeks and treated with salt water/jaggery prior to sale.

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Flue-curing of Virginia Tobacco
Harvesting
Harvesting of two or three well-matured and ripe leaves is termed as priming which is essential for production of quality
tobacco. Ripe leaves have greenish-yellow colour, with a velvety feel, losing much of the stickiness. They have a tendency
to lie horizontally or bend slightly down the plant and the leaf-tips are slightly dry. As a general rule, leaves are harvested
from bottom lower leaves on slightly greener side, middle leaves when they are ripe and top leaves when they are fully
ripe. Harvesting must be done on a clear weather day and on an average, not more than three leaves are harvested at a
time. Immediately after rains or irrigation, harvest is to be delayed by 2 - 3 days. Under normal conditions, harvests are
carried out at weekly intervals. Leaves should be plucked against the direction of the sun for better judgment of the
colour of matured leaf. While picking, midribs should not be bent down, but they have to be bent side-ways. A well-
matured leaf will snap crisply with a characteristic sound. The leaves are to be carried carefully without pressing to one
end of the field and placed carefully in a wide basket with tips upward. The basket has to be taken to the tying shed as early
as possible to minimize wilting in the field.

Green-leaf grading:
In spite of utmost care, there is a chance that immature and over mature leaves are harvested. The over ripe (yellowish
white) and under-ripe (dark green) leaves have to be sorted out and tied separately so that each stick contains leaves of
uniform colour.

Tying the leaves:

The leaves are to be tied to sticks by handling gently in a shaded place avoiding wilting and bruising. A bruised leaf
(physically damaged) does not cure well in the barn. About three leaves are tied in a bunch, back-to-back, with a jute
twine loop on a stick. About 90-100 such leaves are tied in separate bunches with a series of loops on a stick approximately
130 cm long. The leaves are distributed uniformly all over the length of the stick to avoid over crowding.

Loading the barn

For a satisfactory curing, the whole barn should be loaded with the freshly harvested leaves from a single priming. The un-
ripe leaves (green) are placed on the top tiers, the over-ripe leaves (yellowish-white) leaves on the bottom tier and well-
matured leaves (greenish-yellow) in the bulk of the intermediate tiers. The sticks are placed on the tiers at a distance of
20-25 cm so that the leaves from the adjacent sticks slightly touch each other without pressing. A 5m x 5m x 5m barn is
usually loaded with 750 sticks with the above spacing. The barn should not be over loaded while curing the bottom and
middle leaves since slow rate of drying affects leaf quality. Top leaves may be crowded slightly by closer spacing without
affecting grade outturn.

Curing practice

Curing virginia tobacco according to fixed schedule is not possible always because of the variability in green leaf due to
various factors like weather condition, plant position, leaf maturity, disease prevalence and in such cases, slight
adjustments are necessary.

Curing principle

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In the early stages of flue-curing biological activity continues in the leaf involving destruction of chlorophyll, conversion
of starch to simple sugars and leaf proteins to soluble nitrogenous constituents. These cellular reactions take place in fully
turgid leaf cells in aqueous medium and for completion of enzymatic reactions, thermal deactivation of these enzymes must
be prevented. High humidity and low temperature in the barn are favourable for these reactions during this period leaf
turns yellow with higher levels of soluble sugars. Now, further breaking up of sugars by respiratory enzymes has to be
prevented to ensure optimum concentration of sugars in the cured leaf. Browning reaction caused by enzymes like
polyphenol oxidase which turns the yellow colour of the leaf to brown has to be avoided. Similarly bio-chemical conversion
of soluble nitrogen to ammonia has to be arrested since some of these soluble nitrogenous constituents transform into
aroma-bearing constituents at a later stage. These are achieved by thermal desiccation at the subsequent stage of curing by
progressively raising the temperature of the barn and lowering relative humidity by adjusting ventilators. However, since all
these biological reactions are a sort of continuous process, changing the temperature and humidity of the barn must
necessarily be slow and progressive; abrupt change in temperature and humidity should never be made in the barn
while curing is in progress.

Temperature is raised and maintained at a maximum of 160°F until the stem is dry. The ventilators which have been closed
during the later part of the leaf -drying stage continue in the closed position.

Unloading the barn:

After the curing is over, the fire is put off. The barn is allowed to cool down keeping the ventilators closed. The leaf has to
attain proper condition for handling. For this, all doors and ventilators are kept wide open at night so that leaf will absorbs
moisture from the atmosphere and becomes pliable. In dry weather, wet gunny bags are put on the flue pipe with very slow
fire in the furnace to build up humidity inside the barn for few hours just enough for leaf handling. The sticks are
removed from the barn and kept in the racks. The leaf is untied from the sticks when there is proper condition
preferably in early morning hours and bulked.

Bulking the cured leaf:

Bulk must be made for efficient grading. If space is not a constraint, leaves of different varieties and stalk positions
must be bulked separately. However, when space is limited, leaves may be bulked together with adequate identification
marks for each priming (paper markers may be placed in between two primings). The bulk must be about one meter
high on a raised platform. The bulk should never be on the floor or near any material, likely to give offensive odour, like
insecticides, fungicides or fertilisers. When leaf is being bulked, a close watch should be kept on moisture condition.
Bulking too dry makes the leaf shattery and over-conditioned leaf, may loose colour and become moldy. The correct
condition can be judged by handling a bunch of cured leaves and pressing them tight in the fist of the palm and if after
release of pressure, the leaves spring back, if it is over-conditioned. If it breaks while squeezing, it is under-conditioned.
The bulks have to be covered with polythene sheets (or some other suitable covering e.g., tarpaulin) and sufficient weight
is to be applied to compact the bulk without damage to prevent gain or loss of moisture. Bulks are to be examined from
time to time and turned for approximately 2-3 times prior to grading depending on the moisture content.

Grading:
Grading is the sorting of cured leaves basing on plant position, colour, blemish, damage, texture, leaf length and
ripeness. It is also governed by the tobacco type and market requirements. In black soils farm grading (Table 7) and in light
soils plant position grading is practiced.

Grading is one of the important production practices in flue-cured Virginia tobacco production. Proper grading at farmer’s
level helps the growers to realise more income for his produce. It obviates the need for grading at traders level thus
reducing the marketing cost and saving time.

Table 7: Grade specifications for the 10 farm grades for black soil tobacco

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S. No. Grade Color Body Texture Blemish Corres-ponding
not to Agmark grade
exceed
1 Farm-I Bright lemon or Thin to Soft 25% 1 to 4
orange Medium
Light Brownish 25% (White to
2 Farm-II yellow or Brownish Medium Good yellow blemish LBY 1
Lemon allowed)
3 Farm-III Light Brown Good to Medium 50% LBY 2
Medium
Heavy Medium to 50%(brown
4 Farm-IV Brown Body Coarse blemish allowed) Brown

5 Farm-V Dark Brown Heavy Medium to 50% Dark Brown

Body Coarse
6 Farm-VI Light Greenish Good Soft to 10% LG
orange Medium
7 Farm-VII Light Medium green Heavy Medium to 25% LMG
Coarse
8 Farm-VIII Medium Green Heavy Medium to 35% MG
Coarse
9 Farm-IX Dark Green Coarse Coarse DG
10 Farm-X Orange, yellow Variable - - Pl & Bits
green and / or brown

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Lecture No.28

Fodder/Forage crops-Importance, classification of fodders – Hay and Silage

their preaparation and preservation
IMPORTANCE OF FORAGE CROPS :
Live stock production is an integral part of Indian agriculture.

India ranks first in live stock production and accounts for 15% of cattle production in the world.
States with largest acreage under cultivated fodders are Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana, Punjab, U.P., M.P.,
Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu.

Total area under forage crops in India is 8.3 m.ha which is 4.2 to 4.9% of total cropped area.
There is need to improve the fodder acreage up to 8 to 10% of total cropped area to meet the deficit of
green fodder for sustained live stock production in India which is considered as an important avocation of
rural areas in India .

FODDER SUPPLY, DEMAND AND DEFICIT(MILLION TONNES)SCENARIO IN INDIA

YEAR SUPPLY DEMAND DEFICIT

GREEN DRY TOTAL GREEN DRY TOTAL GREEN % DRY %

1995 379 421 800 947 526 1473 568 60.0 105 20.0

2000 385 813 988 549 1537 603 61.0 121 22.0

2005 390 443 833 1025 569 1594 635 62.0 126 22.1

2010 395 451 846 1061 589 1650 666 62.8 138 23.4

2015 401 466 867 1097 609 1706 693 63.4 143 23.4

2020 406 473 879 1134 630 1764 728 64.2 157 24.9

2025 411 488 899 1170 650 1820 759 64.9 162 24.9

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SOURCE:Patil et.al (2005) forage production and feeding during scarcity. International book distribution
co.lucknow the gap between supply and demand is widening year to year due to many reasons and low
productivity of the forages is main reason.
Reasons for low productivity of fodder crops:
Allotment of poor and marginal lands.

Poor management practices.

Unavailability of seed of fodder crops.

Growing less productive forage crops

Ways to improve fodder production:

To bring more area under fodder crops.

In India greater more than 8.8% area under fodder crops should be maintained as per NCA (NATIONAL
COMMISSION ON AGRICULTURE)
Raise short duration fodder crops before or after growing food crop with residual moisture and nutrients.
Encourage for forage crops(Guinea grass, Stylo and Cenchrus) in horti or silvi-pasture systems.
Growing more productive crops like NB hybrid and Lucerne

Forage seed production should be strengthened.

Growing dual purpose (forage+grain) varieties in crops like sorghum, bajra and oats with strengthening the
research on forages in India.

FORAGE RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA :

First research station was established in 1925 Lyalpur in Punjab province.

National dairy research institute,(NDRI), Karnal, Haryana during the year 1955.

164
CAZRI-Central arid zone research institute, Jodhpur, Rajasthan.

IGFRI-Indian grassland and fodder research institute, Jhansi, U.P(1962)

CSWRI-Central sheep and wool research institute, Avikanagar, Rajasthan.

AICRP NETWORK-All India coordinated research project on forages was established in the year 1970 with
18 sub centres and main center at Jhansi.
NRCAF – National Research Center For Agro Forestry Jhansi, UP.

NDDB – National Dairy Development Board-Anand, Gujarat.

Terminology in forage production:

Forage crop : A crop of cultivated plants or plant parts other than separated grain produced and grazed or
harvested for use as feed for animals.
Fodder : Coarse grasses such as corn and sorghum harvested with seed and leaves green or dry used for
feeding as hay, soilage or silage.
Carrying capacity: The maximum stocking rate i.e. animals/ha that will achieve a target level of animal
performance in a specified grazing method that can be applied over a defined period of time without
deterioration of the ecosystem. It is not static from season to season.
Agrostology : Study of grasses, their classification management and utilization.
Hay : Fodder conserved in dry form by reducing the moisture content to <15%.This prevents the rapid
development of biological processes to build up the heat.
Soilage : Forage cut green and fed to livestock while it is in fresh form.
Silage: Process of preservation or conservation of green fodder under anaerobic conditions in the green form
is called Ensiling and conserved fodders called Silage.It is highly palatable slightly laxative and easily
digestible.
Haylage : Silage made from the material with high dry matter content under anaerobic conditions. Moisture
content is between 40-60%.
Pasture: A grazed plant community usually of several species of diverse botanical types. It includes grasses,
shrubs, legumes and trees.

165
Grassland: Land on which vegetation is dominated by the grasses which are used directly as grazing by the
animals or cut and feed systems. Grasses may be either indigenous or introduced grasses.
Rangeland: Land on which the indigenous vegetation is predominant. Grasses, shrubs suitable for grazing
or browsing used and are managed as a natural ecosystem Paddock: Grazing area which is part of the grass
land and separated from the other areas by a fence or barrier.
L : S ratio : Ratio of leaf weight to that of the stem weight.
Guinea, Cenchrus, Rodes - 0.5-0.7
N B hybrid- 0.7-0.8
Cowpea, Berseem and Lucerne – 0.9-1.0 Maize, Sorghum, Bajra - 0.5-0.75
Per day productivity: Production of green or dry matter/unit area/unit time.
Important parameter for evaluating productivity of forage crops.
Quality Parameters:
Roughage: Animal feeds that are relatively high in crude fibre and low in total digestible nutrients and
protein.
Concentrates: The feed is low in fibre and high in total digestable nutrients that
supplies primary nutrients (protein, carbohydrate and fat) Eg: cotton seed meal, grains, wheat bran.
Nitrogenous concentrates: Feeds that are rich in protein content. Eg: Groundnut cake, cotton cake.
Non-nitrogenous concentrates: Feeds that have relatively low protein but high in digestible carbohydrates
and fats. Eg: Oats and maize grain.
Crude protein: All nitrogenous substances contained in the feedstuffs. It includes
true protein, which is composed of amino acids and non protein nitrogenous compounds such as
amides.
Crude fibre : All insoluble forms of carbohydrates. It is made up of cellulose, lignin,
and hemicelluloses.
CF=NDF + ADF + ADL.
NDF: Portion of plant that is insoluble in neutral detergent solution. Synonymous to cell wall constituents.
ADF: Insoluble residue following extraction of herbage with acid detergent solution
(Van Soest).

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ADF = Cell wall constituents –Hemi cellulose.
Digestible crude protein: Common way of expressing the protein value digested and
taken in to animal body. DCP = Feed protein – Feces protein (N x 6.25).
High quality protein : A protein containing appropriate portions of amino acids for a particular dietary usage.

TDN: Sum total of the digestibility of the organic components of plant material or seed.
TDN = CP + NFE + CF + Fat.
Proximate analysis: Analytical system of feed stuff that includes the determination of ash, crude fibre,
crude protein: either extract, moisture(dry matter) and nitrogen free extract.

Characteristic Features of Forage/ fodder Crops or ideal characters of forage

/fodder crops
It should be succulent and juicy and easy palatable.
It should have more number of leaves i.e., high leaf-stem ratio, less shattering of leaves.
It should contain high amount of carbohydrates or proteins.
Resistance to pests and diseases.
It should have regeneration (ratooning) capacity.
It should have quick growth and smother weeds.
More number of tillers and fine stem.
Should be photo insensitive and give more number of cuts.
Should have shorter life cycle so that it can fit in cropping systems.
It should tolerate shade, drought resistant so best suited for agri, silvi pastoral conditions.
Should be suited to different soil classes from III to VII.
It should be free from hairs and thorns.
It should be free (or) less concentration of anti-nutritional factors.

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Classification of fodder crops
BASED ON FAMILY:
Poaceae: Wheat,maize,jowar and bajra.
Legumaneae: Cowpea,Lucerne.
Cruciferae: Chinese cabbage,Japanese rape.

BASED ON MAINTAINANCE
a. Maintainance crops : Ex :Maize,Bajra,Sorghum
b.Non-maintainance crops: Ex :Wheat Bhusa, Rice Straw, Sorghm & Maize stover.

BASED ON THE PROTEIN CONTENT:

Low protein forage crops: Ex:Cereals,grasses
High Protein forage crops: Ex:Legumes

BASED ON SEASON :
Kharif Rabi Summer
Cowpea Oat Bajra
Sorghum Barley Multicut sorghum
Maize Berseem Cowpea
Grasses Lucerne Grasses

BASED ON ORIGIN
a.Indigenous sps. b.Non-Indigenous sps.
Ex : Marvel grass,Anjan grass Ex :Signal grass,Timoty grass

BASED ON LIFE CYC LE

Annual or Seasonal
Legumes. Ex:cowpea,Berseem (D)
Non-legumes or cereals.Ex:maize,sorghum A & B
Perennial forage crops :
Non-legumes or grasses :Ex :Guinea grass (C).
Legumes. Ex:Subabul,Lucerne (E) & F

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BASED ON HABIT:

Herbs: Cylinder stem goes vertically but <2m length. Ex: Cowpea, Jowar, oat, maize.
Shrubs: Bushy in nature and may be biennial or perennial. Ex: Hedge Lucerne, guinea, hybrid napier.
Trees: Trees are pruned to feed the cattle with twigs along the leaves. This practice is called lopping. Useful
in lean months. Ex: Subabul, Sesbania.

BASED ON HABITAT:
Cultivated fodders: Productive fodders which give higher green fodder yield (GFY).
Ex: NB Hybrid, Lucerne.
Wasteland fodders: Less productive fodders. Give less GFY and grown under poor management
conditions. Ex: Rhodes grass, Marvel grass.
Marshy land fodders: Forages grown under waterlogged conditions. Ex: Paragrass.
Aquatic fodders: Forages grown under standing water. Ex: Water hyacinth and algae.
Annual or Seasonal Non-legumes (A)
Maize or corn Zea mays
Jowar or sorghum Sorghum bicolor

3.Pearl millet Penisetum americanum

4.Finger millet or Ragi Eleusine coracana
5.Teosinte Euchlaena mexicana
6.Foxtail millet or korra or Italian millet Setaria italica

7.Prosomillet or variga Panicum milliaceum

8.Little millet or sama Panicum miliare

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Winter or Rabi cereals (B)
9.Oats Avena sativa
10.Barly Hordeum vulgare

Perennial Non-legumes (C)

1.Hybrid Bajra Napier P.americanum x P.purpureum
2.Guinea grass Panicum maximum
3.Para grass Brachiaria mutica
4.Anjan grass or Buffel grass Cenchrus ciliaris
5.Anjan grass or Buffel grass Cenchrus setigerus
6.Rhodes grass Chloris gayana
7.Dinanath grass Pennisetum pedicellatum
8.Napie r grass Pennisetum purpureum
9.Rye grass Lolium perenne

Annual or Seasonal legumes (D)

1.Cowpea Vigna anguiculata
2.Field bean or Lab lab Dolichos lablab
3.Cluster bean(Guar) Cyamopsis tetragonaloba
4.Sunhemp Crotalaria juncea
5.Pillipesara Phaseolus trilobus
6.Berseem Trifolium alexandrium

7.Horse gram Macrotyloma uniflorum

Perennial Legumes (E)

1.Lucerne Medicago sativa
2.Stylo Stylosanthes hammata Stylosanthes scabra
Macroptilium atropurpureum

3.Siratro
4.Hedge Lucerne Desmanthes virgatus
5.Perennial groundnut Arachis glabrata

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Tree species (F)
1.Subabul Lucaena leucocephala
2.Khejri Prosopis cineraria

Other fodders
1.Chinese cabbage Brassica pekinensis
2.Grain Amaranthus Amaranthus viridis
3.sesbania or shevri Sesbania sesban
4.Sesbania or agati Sesbania grandiflora
5.Hariyali/Bermuda/Star grass Cynodon dactylon
6.Spear grass Heteropogan contortus
7.Blue panic grass/giant panic grass Panicum antidotale
8.Marvel grass Dichanthimum annulatum
9.Clitoria/Sangu pushpam Clitoria cernatea
10.Centro or Butterfly pea Centrosema pubescens

Miscellaneous fodders:
Miscellaneous legumes: Chick pea,pigeon pea
Root crops: potato, sweet potato

Crop residues: Agricultural byproducts.

Aquatic fodders: Water hyacinth, BGA.
Miscellaneous fodder trees: Subabul, Sesbania.
Introduced fodder plants : Timothy grass, Guinea grass
Indigenous fodder plants: Marvel grass.
Seeds or grains used as fodder: Bengal gram.
Crop residues
Roughages
Succulent dry crops.
Green fodder
Agricultural by products.
Concentrates
Ex: Oil cakes example: Groundnut cake and Seasame cake .

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Preparation and preservation of silage and hay
The supply of nutrients from grasslands and harvested forages is seasonal in most of the regions of the
world because of either low temperatures or drought. Thus the preservation of harvested forages becomes an
essential part of ruminant livestock feeding systems because of following reasons.
In Kharif season, fodder supply is exceeding the demand due to favourable crop season. The excess fodder can
be preserved in green (silage) or dry (hay) form and utilized in lean months (March-June).
Unexpected drought or cold or cyclones cannot affect the productivity of animals if fodder is preserved in
advance. It acts as insurance to the farmer.
Anti nutritional characters of the crop can be reduced due to changes in physical / chemical / biological
composition.
The palatability of the fodder can be improved by using preservatives and additives during
preservation.

The preservation of forages is broadly divided into two methods.

Silage making
Hay making

The objective of silage making is to preserve the harvested forage in green form by anaerobic
fermentation.
The objective of haymaking is to achieve a rapid moisture loss after cutting so the
forage can be preserved in dry form with minimum losses from weathering and microbial degradation.

1. Silage making:
Silage : It is the process of preservation of green fodder under anaerobic conditions at moisture content of 65-
75 % in specialized structure called silo. The process is called ensiling and the end product is called silage.

Wastelage: It is the process of preservation of organic waste (vegetable waste, slaughter house water, organic
waste of any industry) under anaerobic conditions at moisture content of 65-75 %.
Haylage: It is the process of preservation of green fodder with moisture content of 30- 50 % under anaerobic
conditions.

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 Wastelage Haylage

1. The process of preservation of organic Silage making from material with high dry
waste along with green fodder under matter content under anaerobic conditions
anaerobic conditions

2. Nutritional losses are less and Nutritional losses are more hence
only method to efficiently not recommended.
utilize. The Ex : Maize, sorghum

organic wastes
Ex: Vegetable waste, slaughter
house waste

3. Moisture content may be varying Moisture content is 30-50 %.

depending on the organic material to be
ensiled

4. Organic waste may be agro based or Waste is mainly agro based with high dry
industrial matter content

Advantages of ensiling
Surplus green fodder abundantly available in rainy season can be preserved as silage for feeding during lean
season.
Silage can be prepared in rainy season of humid climate where weather do not permit for hay making.
Silage can be prepared from plants with a thick stem.
It is highly palatable and slightly laxative.
Ensiling increases voluntary intake of coarse forage.
Ensiling destroys the germination capacity of majority of weed seeds.
The organic acids produced during ensiling are easily digestible by ruminants.

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There is lesser less of carotene in silage making than that of hay making.
Fire hazard is not there.
Green fodder can be stored for a very long period
Silage requires less space and accommodate 230-270 kg/cubic meter, Where as hay can accommodate 66-67
kg/cubic meter.

Disadvantages:
Transportation problem is generally experienced in silage than that of hay.
Permanent structures for preparing silage are required.
Wastage may be high due to affluent losses or otherwise, if it is not properly Made.
Animals do not accept poorly prepared silages.

Materials
Materials required: Green fodder, Chaff cutter, Silo pit, Rock salt, low -grade jaggery (or) Molasses, urea.
Tractor for compaction of the pit, Polythene sheet.

Types of silos:
Depending upon the type of material
Kaccha silos
Pucca silos
Kaccha silos : Temporary silos and locally available material is used. Eg : coconut leaves.
Pucca silos: Constructed silos. Permanent depending upon the type of material they are called as:
Cement silos
Stone silos
Brick silos

Based on shape / placement of silos:

a) Power silos / upright silos : Tower like structure, cylinder in
shape above the ground with dome shaped lid. Waterproof
8-10 m

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airtight doors at different heights. Fill the soils by machines. It is popular in advanced countries.
Draw back : There is possibility of damage to silage making process becaus e of
presence of more doors as the air / water entry is possible..

Oxygen limiting silos : Silos having one door at bottom so that they can reduce the entry of water and air.
Trench silo: The height of trench is 5-8 feet. The bottom is 13-16feet. Ramp is 15-18 feet. Trench silos are
observed in all dairy units. The sides and bottom of trench
are lined with bricks, stone or cement. The ramp is 5-8
provided on both sides for easy moving of tractors 15-18
13-16`
for compaction.

13-16’

Clamp silos: are fixed in the soil up to the 3/4th of silo. The silo is made up of copper or Aluminum or
earthen pots. It is covered with a dome shaped lid and kept airtight by plastering with cow
dung. It is used for high valued forage like Lucerne.

Bunker silos: The bunker silos are constructed below the soil or above the soil.
1 feet Cement rings are coiled one over the other to form a bunker. The cement rings are attached with
cement. Depending upon the height of silo the cement rings are used.
Bunker silos are useful for small-scale silage making. They are semi permanent in nature can be detached if
not needed.

Bunker silo Pit Silo

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Pit Silo: It is a temporary structure made below the soils and lined with locally available stones and soils. It is
mostly practiced at farmers level, but losses are more in this type of silo.

Crops suitable for silage : All cereal crops like maize, jowar, bajra are suitable for silage making as they
are rich in carbohydrates.
Grasses or mixtures of grasses and clovers are good for silage making.
Thick stemmed plants are suitable for silage making as chopping is done.
Paragrass is not suitable because of high moisture content.
Legumes are not suitable for silage making as they are rich in proteins, but we can add 1/3 of the
legumes to 2/3 of cereals to form balanced silage.
First silage was done in year 1917 at Kansas Agricultural University,
USA on Lucerne crop.
Best silage can be made from maize crop.
Cereal crops like sorghum or ragi should be harvested for silage between flowering and milk stages.
If harvesting is delayed, Carotene lossesoccur.
Miscellaneous crops and by products of crops like sugarcane tops, beet root tops, sweet potato vines, peas and
beans, surplus fruits and vegetables.

Selection of the site for silo pit:

The site should be easily approachable from the forage field as well as dairy farm.
Chaffing unit should be adjacent to the silo.
Area should be high or elevated and ground water should be > 3 m depth.
It should be 100 meters away from the cropped field as well as from FYM pits.

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Method of filling of silo:

Harvesting of the crop: All the cereal crops should be harvested at dough stage. The perennial crops like NB
hybrid and guinea grass should be harvested at 65-70 % moisture content.

Chaffing: All the harvested fodder should be cut into pieces of 2-3 cm in length by using chaff cutter. Chaff
cutter may be manually operated or machine operated. Chaffing is an important practice in silage making.
Without chaffing, the fodder compaction in the silo is not perfect.

Lining of the sides and bottom walls of the silo pit:

The bottom and sidelines of the pit should be lined with paddy straw to avoid contact of green material with
the walls of the pit.

Chaffed green material is transferred to silo pit:

1 cubic feet of silo preserves 15 kg of green material. A silo pit having storing capacity of < 250 kg is not
economical.1 m3 of silo pit can preserve upto 230-270 kg of green material.

Fill the silo pit layer by layer with a thickness of 15-20 cm/day:
Compaction should be followed each day after filling the pit. The compaction can be done using manually
operated stone rollers, bullock drawn stone rollers or by tractors. Additives or preservatives are added at each
layer.

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 Additives Preservatives

1. These are materials whic h improve These are materials, which improve
anaerobic fermentation by keeping quality or longevity of the material.
increasing carbohydrate content

2. They improve the nutritive quality of They add taste and aroma to the silage but
silage as they are rich in Carbohydrates nutritive value is not increased.
Eg. Molases @ Eg : Salt @ 1-2 kg/t of green fodder.
8-10 kg/ton of green fodder

3. Cribbled grain flour @ 40-50 Na metabisulphite @ 3-5 kg/t of

kg/ton of green fodder green fodder or urea @ 3-5 kg/t
of green fodder. Citrus pulp (or)
orange pulp (@) 40-50 kg/t of
green fodder.

Fill the silo pit layer by layer till it reaches the dome shape and 1 meter above the surface. Cover the silo pit
with a polythene sheet and keep it for 3 days. We can observe reduction in height after 2-3 days by 40-
50 cm due to compaction of the layers and to release of air present in between the layers.

Permanent closing of the pit

Cover the silo pit with a thick polythene sheet and above that cover it with 5-10 cm layer of soil (or) sand
followed by plastering with cowdung paste.
The silo pit is kept as it is for 1-3 months with regular inspection for cracks. Cracks should be again
closed with cow dung paste.

The silage is ready after 3 months and is used for animal feeding. For an adult cow silage material can be
given @ 3 kg / 100 kg body weight.

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Opening of the pit: The silo pit should be opened at any one corner. After taking silage material daily, it should
be again closed with polythene sheet and kept airtig ht. Never open the pit completely as it damages the
silage material and silage becomes not suitable for animal consumption. If silage material is not required,
the silo pit can be stored even up to 18-24 months with regular inspection for cracks.

Changes that occur in the silo

These changes are divided into 3 types
Physical changes
Chemical changes
Bacterial changes 4)
All these three changes are divided into 4 phases.
I Phase II Phase III Phase IV Phase
Phase I: Immediately after closing silo pit, some of the aerobic bacteria breaks down into CO2 & H2O.
C6 H12 O6 6 CO2 + H 2O
Aerobic bacteria
Because of respiration, there is increase in CO2 content. This increase in CO2 increase the
temperature which causes break down of carotene into pheophytin.
With the increase in temperature and the absence of air, the aerobic bacteria disintegrates and at the end of
phase I, the anaerobic bacteria will start working.
The longevity of phase I dependent on compaction of the silo pit. If it is > 7
days, the silage material is damaged and used by aerobic bacteria.

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Phase II: In this phase, all the anaerobic bacteria like lactobacillus, clostridium, streptomyces, E. coli are
present. So at the end of phase II, Lactobacillus will become dominant and start producing lactic acid. The
favourable conditions for lactic acid. fermentation are :
Temperature : 27-37oC
Moisture : 65-70 % + Lactobacillus
Lacto
C6 H12 O6 2 (C3 H6 O3)
Bacillus Lactic acid
The homofermentative lactic acid bacteria increase the amount of lactic acid where as heterofermentative lactic
acid bacteria increases the amount of minitol which gives unpleasant small. At the end of phase II, the pH
reaches 3.4 to 4.2 due to production of lactic acid.

Phase III:
Only lacto bacillus species is active in this phase. Lactobacillus is active till the lactic acid concentration is 1
% of the silage material on weight or volume basis. At the end of phase III, lactic acid concentration become
static and pH also stabilizes at 4.0.
Phase IV: It is a stable phase and can remain upto 18-24 months. But with entry of air and water the
lactic acid is further degraded into butyric acid which causes foul smell and damages the silage.
Air+ water
2 (C3 H6 O3) C4 H8 O2 + 2 CO2 + 2H 2O
Clostridia

Favourable conditions for butyric acid fermentation

Entry of air and water into the pit
Inadequate degree of acidity (> 4) resulting in increased number of clostridium bacteria.

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Physical changes
Colour change from green to olive green because of increase in CO2 due to respiration. Temperature of
silo pit increase.
The moisture cont ent in pit is also increased because of oozing and the material becomes laxative.

Chemical changes
Respiration takes place by aerobic bacteria Carbohydrates break down by lactobacillus into lactic acid.

Lactic acid fermentation

Lacto bacillus
C6 H12 O6 2 (C3 H6O3) lactic acid Temp. 27oC – 37oC
Homofermentative bacteria - produce only lactic acid
Heterofermentative bacteria – produce acetic acid, butyric acid formic acid. Hence, more homofermentative
bacteria is congenial than heterotermentative bacteria.
Proteins are converted to amino acids and carbohydrates, fats are converted into simple fatty acids. Because
of this, silage is easily digestible by the animal and give instant energy.

3) Butyric acid fermentation

It is a unfavourable fermentation. It occurs due to
Entry of water and air.
pH will not reach 4. moisture > 70 %

pH > 4
Lactic acid butyric acid

2 (C3H6O3) C4H8O2 + CO2 + H2O

Cause foul smell

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5) Bacte riological changes

Phase II
AerobicAnaerobic Dominant III Phase Lactobacillus lacto bacillus Clostridium

Unfav. pH > 4 Conditions

(Butyric acid) Clostridium become dominant IV Phase

Losses During Silage Making:

Leaching loss: Nutritional loss due to oozing of cell sap from cells which reaches bottom layers of silo pit. It
Leads to corrosiveness and damage the root system of nearby crops. It also has high polluting strength and they
may create poisonous gasses when come to contact with FYM pits.
Heated silage : If the moisture content of forage is < 60 – 65 %., the dry pieces of forage do not compact
properly and entrap air in between the pieces of forage. This causes aerobic respiration for more tha n 10
days resulting in increasing temperature upto 45oC. This causes combusting or burning of the forage in the
patches. This is called as heated silage. The burn patches become unfit for animal consumption and gives foul
rotten smell.
Silo gases: Silo gr asses like CO2, NO2 are poisonous and increase the environmental pollution and also in
the soil.

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Field losses: The losses, which occur after harvesting of crop till it is filled in silo pit are field losses. If
the crop is not ensiled or transferred to the silo pit on the same day the losses may be 8-10 % due to loss in
moisture considerable loss of dry matter may occur due to shattering of leaves and during chaffing period.

Qualities of good silage

Colour : The colour should be olive green to golden ye llow colour with pleasant aroma of lactic acid.
pH – pH should be 4 (acidic taste and odour).
It should be free from by butyric acid, moulds and burnt patches.
Ammonical Nitrogen is less than 10 % of the total Nitrogen.

HAY MAKING
Hay making is the Process of preservation of dry fodder under aerobic condition at a moisture content of 9-
10 %.
Materials required: Green dry fodder, Threshing floor, bamboo sticks, ropes.
Suitability of the crops for Hay making

Cyanodon dactylon or Doob grass (or) Bermuda grass: is preserved as best hay.
Thin stemmed succulent leaved plants are suitable for hay making process. eg: Oats, barley, multicut bajra,
sorghum, maize etc.
Cereals are more suitable for the conservation of fodder as hay. Legumes loose moisture quickly and the
leaves fall off easily.
Coarse leaved thick-stemmed grasses are not suitable for hay making. eg : NB hybrid and guinea grass.

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Paragrass is not preserved as hay. Though succulent at high moisture content (80-90 %) it develops
coarseness if it reduces the moisture content to 15 % and becomes unpalatable.
Legumes like cowpea, berseem, Lucerne can be preserved as hay but care should be taken to prevent
shattering of leaves as leaves cont ain 75% of proteins and total digestible nutrients and 90% carotene, hence
shattering of leaves leads to 75% of loss of nutrients.
Legumes like sunnhemp and pillipesara can be preserved as hay in between the layers of paddy straw.
S pear grass can be preserved as hay before flowering only. After flowering, it develops awns in the spikelets.
In Anjan grass (Cenchurus ciliaris), harvesting of 2nd cut and after cuts are suitable
for hay making.
Hay can also be prepared from leguminous crops but it needs a lot of skill and experience so that the loss of
leaves which are more nutritious is minimized.
The best way to prepare hay is to mix a portion of legume species with the cereal. This will help in better
aeration and uniform drying of the cereal fodder.
This mixture also provide a rational diet of legume and carbohydrate component in 1:3 proportion for feeding
the animals.
Lucerne is the best legume to prepare hay among different leguminous crops because it will loose the moisture
relatively at a quicker rate than the others. Berseem looses its moisture slowly than the others.

Steps in preparation of Hay:

Harvest the crop at 50 % flowering. This is the ideal stage to conserve the fodder as hay because it
contains maximum quantity of nutrients in the vegetative part.

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 Harvesting should never be delayed until seed filling stage. If the harvesting is delayed, the nutrients
are translocated into the seed and the fodder becomes fibrous, which is not palatable to the animals.
Cut the fodder crop at about 1-2 inches above the ground level. In advanced countries, movers are
used to mow or cut the crop.
The harvested crop is laid down on one side of the row. This is known as
`Windrow’. The harvested fodder is allowed to wilt for about 2-3 days. During this period the leaves loose
moisture more quickly than the stem. When the crop reach about 40 % moisture, then bundle the fodder.
Keep these bundles in an upright direction. These bundles are known as ’cocks’. The leaves reabsorb
the moisture from the atmosphere and become pliable. This will minimize the risk of falling down of the
leaves.
After 2-3 days, loosen the bundles and heap the fodder on the floor. These heaps are know n as
‘Swath’. Each swath is teddered with a tedder. This will fluff the fodder material and help better
circulation of air.
After another 2-3 days, swath is inverted with the help of swath inverters. This will help in uniform
drying of the fodders in different layers. Once the moisture content has come down to about 25 %, the fodder
is baled with tractor drawn equipment.
After the moisture content of fodder reaches to 15 %., the heaps are bundled into small bundles of
convenient sizes for staking. These bundles are called “cocks” and the cocks are transported to stalked area for
stalking.
Then the fodder is stacked as hay for future use. Stacking: is of two types.
Indoor
Out door

Stacking area should be a high-elevated area. Ground water table should be > 5 m deep and is perfectly
leveled. Indoor staking provides protection against rain and sunshine, hence leaching and bleaching losses are
less. A trench of 1feet deep and 45 Cm width is provided on both sides of the stack to collect rainw ater and
also to protect against rodents. The dimensions of stack depends on availability of the fodder material optimum
is 15-18 feet height, 5-8 feet width.

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Types of Hay Curing:
Floor curing
The harvested fodder is spread uniformly in a thin layer on floor. This is allowed to dry under sun.
The fodder should be turned upside down frequently to give an equal chance of drying to the lower layer.

The fodder should be shifted to a safe place under the roof so that there is no chance of direct contact of
this fodder with the possible dewfall or drizzling.

Again shift the material to the drying floor in the morning. Continue the process until the moisture content is
reduced to 15 %. Then stock the material where it is desired to store for future use.

Tripod method
A tripod is made with the help of 3 bamboos, wooden poles or iron poles which are tied horizontally with
wooden or bamboo poles or iron rods. The fodder is tied to these horizontal stalks with the help of
strings.

Fence curing
The harvested fodder is tied with string to the iron fence on the boundaries of the farm or they are spread over
the live fence of the boundary. They are moved to a protected place in the evening and tied again to the fence
on the next day.

Bench curing : The fodder is spread in thin and uniform layers on the benches made of wood or bamboo.

Barn curing
Barns are the artificial heaters. They are made up of brick, cement, iron and steel. They are highly expensive.
The fodder is accommodated in the barn.

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Heated air is blown in through the bottom portion of the barn, which gets circulated inside, dries the fodder
and is blown out through an outlet provided at the top.
A temperature of 100oC is maintained while blowing the air inside with the help of blow ers.
Moisture content is reduce to very quickly.
It should be taken out of the bran when the fodder reaches the desired moisture content. This process is
repeated.
Losses During Hay making:

Type of loss Material lost Reasons

Leaves contain 75 % of TDN and

TDN, minerals and vitamins minerals. Hence shattering of
leaves causes major loss of
1. Shattering of leaves nutrients

Exposure to sunshine cause

2. Bleaching Carotene, vitamin A bleaching losses

TDN, minerals, vitamins and

NFE (Nitrogen free extract).
3. Leaching Such losses are more when
rainwater enter into stacked area.

Starch, simple sugars, When hay is stored at high

4. Fermentation proteins which are oxidized moisture content, these losses
to CO2 and H2O occur.

When rainwater makes the hay to

5. Oxidation loss Sugars and starch wet condition. The oxidation of
nutrients takes place.

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Advantages
Method of doing haymaking is less expensive and easy which can be done easily at farmers level.
The good quality legume hay may replace certain amount of concentrates in the ration thus reducing the cost
of milk production.
The fodder can be harvested at the stage where there is maximum accumulation of nutrients in the plants.
It is easy to be practice in tropical countries like India where sunshine hours are plenty
One cubic meter space can accommodate 66-67 kg of hay.
It gives nutritious fodder during lean periods and the productivity of the animal is maintained throughout the
year.
The monetary retur ns to the farmers is uniform and there is continuous availability milk and meat in the
market.

Disadvantages
Hay making process can be done only in a particular season.
Weather interruption is common. Palatability of forage material is reduced.
Artificial curing is more costly.
There is possibility of fire hazard.
Leaching, bleaching and shattering looses may occur.
Weeds can mix-up during hay making process, which leads to less palatability and bad odour to the hay.
It is difficult to make hay from thick stemmed and spiny nature of grasses etc.

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Lecture No.27

Introduction- Origin, distribution,soils,land preparation-varities,seasons –

seeds&sowing,fertilizer,irrigation,weed management,harvesting,yield and major
cropping systems of fodder sorgum and maize

SORGHUM (Sorghum bicolor)

Common name Sorghum/jowar/Milo/Guinea corn
Plant Characters and uses :
Better regeneration capacity. Produces several thin & succulent tillers with more no. of juicy & succulent
leaves which make it more palatable than grain sorghum.
Supply fodder for long time due to its multi cut nature.
Rapid growth of plants and tolerate to shoot fly & leaf spot diseases.
CP: 7-7.75% (Crude protein)
DCP: 3.3 - 4.25% (Digest able crude proteins)
TDN: 64%-single cut varieties (Total Digestable Nutrients) 53%-multi cut varieties

Origin,and Distribution
Sorghum is one of the most important food cum fodder crop grown mostly under dry land conditions and as
irrigated fodder in many milk shed areas. Sorghum is believed to be indigenous to Africa although india
China have been claimed to be the home of at least certain varieties of sorghum. The term Sorghum is
derived from Italian word Sorgo whic h means rising above to denote its tallness as compared to other
cereal crops. It is grown extensively in low rainfall areas of America ,Manchuria and Australia. In India
grown mainly in states of Madhya Pradesh,Maharashtra, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh.

Climate & Soils:

Sorghum is almost unique in its ability to grow over a wide range of climatic and soil conditions, particularly
in climates too hot and too dry than other cereals. Being well adapted to arid and semi arid conditions.
Sorghum is a crop that thrive in tropical climate with Optimum temperature range of 25o-35o c. It is not
suited to elevated high

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elevations of 1220 m and above. Being more often a rainfed crop comes up well when rainfall is about
300-450 mm. It can be grown in all types of soils. Sandy loam to clay loam soils are best suited. Optimum
pH is 5.5-8.0.

Land preparation: Plough the field once with iron plough and twice or more with the country plough to
obtain good tilth. Form ridges and furrows 6m long and 50cm apart or beds of 5x 4m depending on the
availability of water and slope of the land. Form irrigation channels suitably.

Varieties:
Single cut: HC 136, HC 308, HC 260, PC 5, P C 6, PC 9, MP chari, UP chari, UP chari-2, APFS 5-3.
Multi cut: CO27, COFS 29(>5 cuts), SSG59-3, SSG-988, MFSH -3, Harasona,
Proagro chari, Safed moti (FSH-92079), Punjab sudex.
Dual purpose : SSV-84, CSV -15, CSH-13, AJ-140, N-14, N-13.
SSG 59-3: Cross between Sorghum bicolor x S.sudanense.

Season:
Under irrigation sorghum can be grown in all months of the year, although in actual practice it is mainly
grown in two seasons, December –january and March – April. As a fodder crop it is convenient to grow it
in staggered sowing in different months for cutting and feeding. Usually sown from june till August as south
west monsoon crop.

Seeds & Sowing

The seed rate for irrigated crop is 40 kg/ha in rainfed areas 75 kg/ha. In the south of Madras a very high seed
rate 90-112 kg/ha is used to secure a fine and thin stalked fodder
Spacing&Sowing:30 X 10 cm. Plant to a depth of 3-4 cm on the sides of ridge or use a seed drill or sow
behind the seed drill and cover with harrow or country plough.
Seed Treatmnet with Azospirrilum (3 packets 600g should be practiced).

Manures and Fertilizers: In regions of low rainfall, sorghum should be manured with 25t/ha FYM or
compost and covered by means of blade harrow. Sheep penning and carting tank silt is also prevalent in some
areas of peninsular India. The recommended nitrogen (30kg/ha) , phosphorus (40kg/ha) and potassium
(20kg/ha). With band application of fertilizer mixture prior to the sowing is preferred.1/3 N total P&K as
basal,1/3 N at 25&50DAS.40 kg N/ha after each cut in multi-cut type verities should be adopted .

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Irrigation:
Requires less irrigation as it is drought resistant one . Irrigate immediately after sowing and give light
irrigation on the 3rd and thereafter can be irrigated at 10-15 days interval depending upon the weather type of
the soil.

Weeding :
Hand Weeding twice at 20 & 40 DAS or spr aying Atrataf @ 1-1.5 kg ai/ha as pre emergence herbicide
followed by one weeding at 40 DAS. To control broad leaved weeds including striga.

Plant protection:
Spray any one of the following plant protection chemicals on the 10th and 17th day of the sowing to control the
shootfly : Endosulfan 35EC or Methyldematon 25EC or Dimethoate 30EC 500ml/ha in 250 lite of water . On
the 30th day apply Endosulfan 35EC 750 ml/ha or Carbaryl 50WP 1kg/ha or dust the leaf with 10kg/ha.

Harvesting :
Sorghum is harvested when the ear heads are fully emerged and the grain is in the milky or early dough
stage. Care is necessary not to cut the sorghum for feeding the animal before its flowering, as otherwise there
is a risk of cattle poisoning by the cyanogenic glucoside contained in the young plants. For single cut
varieties harvesting at the 60-65 days after sowing (50% flowering stage). In multicut varieties first cut is
taken at the 50 DAS and second cut should be taken 40-45 days after the first cut.

Yield:
The yield will be 30-40 tonnes/ha in irrigated single cut varieties. 100-120t/ha/year- Multi cut varieties. Under
rainfed conditions the green fodder yield will be about 15- 20 t/ha.
Cropping systems : Pearl millet – Lucerne - sorghum Toxicities :
Three types of poisoning is noticed in fodder sorghum
Prussic acid or HCN or Hydrogen cyanide poisoning
Toxicity due to Tannins
Nitrate poisoning

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Prussic acid or HCN or Hydrogen cyanide poisoning:
Lethal dose:2 mg/kg body weight .of animal.
In foliage, 200 ppm on wet weight basis & 500 ppm on dry weight basis.

Symptoms:
Excess salivation,Excitement (Restlessness) Vomiting & difficult breathing
Convulsions, staggering & collapse.

Mode of action :
Cyanogenic glucoside called as DURRIN enters into blood stream and binds to enzymes in the cells.
On enzymatic hydrolysis, dissociates to cyanide complex.
It prevents hemoglobin from transferring oxygen to individual cells and animal dies of Asphyxiation.

Conditions for aggravation:

More in young leaves than old le aves. Harvesting should be avoided before 50% flowering.
New plant growth following frost or drought is high in cyanide concentration.
Rainfed crop and crop attacked by pests & diseases have more concentration. Than irrigated and normal
crop.
Heavy nitroge n fertilization results in high concentration of HCN.

Control measures:
Cultivate sweet sudan type of jowar varieties.
Always harvest at 50% flowering.
Give normal irrigation & N dose.
Protect the crop from pests and diseases.
Conservation of sorghum in the form of silage.
Intravenous injection of 50 ml of 20% NaNO3 followed by 75 ml Na thiosulphate or 3 gr NaNO3 + 15gr
Na thiosulphate in 200 ml water.

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Tanning Content:
Cause bitterness and affects palatability and digestibility in forage sorghum.

Nitrate poisoning (ppm):

0-3000 – Virtually safe
3000-6000 - moderately safe. limit to 50% of total ration. 6000-9000 – potentially toxic
>9000ppm – dangerous to cattle & will cause death.

Mode of action:
It oxidizes the ferrous ion of Hemoglobin to ferric state, producing a brown pigment,Methamoglobin.
This Methamoglobin is incapable of transferring oxygen to body tissues.

Symptoms:
Gastro enteritis
Abdominal pain and diarrhea
Color of the body changes to dark brown color.
Treatment:
Methylene blue @20mg/kg body weight for cattle.
Antibiotic supplementation
Additives like rapeseed oil meal, grain mixture, molasses, sodium chloride.

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MAIZE (Zea mays)
Common name : Makka/ American –Indian corn:Corn Uses:
Maize is one of the most important economic plants of the world, serving as forage
for cattle.
Maize can be feed to the animals during any stage of its growth as it is free from toxic effects.
It also has lactogenic properties.
It can be used as silage, soilage or hay.
DCP: 6% TDN: 63% CP: 8-10%

Origin and Distribution

Its origin is in Mexico and it has been cultivated from the pre historic times by the aboriginal people of
America. In India major areas for maize cultivation are mainly in Northern and central parts of India along
the upper and middle gangetic plains, in the states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar , Rajasthan, Punjab and Madhya
Pradesh.

Climate & Soils:

Maize thrives best in warm climate.(50o North to 40oSouth) where the day temperatures are fairly high and
night temperatures are not too low. Ideal temperatures are 24o c – day & 18o c—night. It can be grown up to
an altitude of 3300 metes above msl. This crop require bright sunshine hours, but cannot tolerate frost or
cloudy weather and it is Highly sensitive to water logging even for a short period of 5- 6hrs. It can be grown
in all types of soils. Sandy loam to clay loam soils is best suited.

Land preparation:
Plough the field once with iron plough and twice or more with the country plough to obtain good tilth. Form
ridges and furrows 6m long and 50cm apart or beds of 5x 4m depending on the availability of water and slope
of the land. Form irrigation channels suitably.

Varieties:
African tall, Ganga -5,7 &10,Composites : Vijay. Jawahar, Moti, Gaga safed-2,A-de- cuda & APFM-
8.Baby corn & sweet corn types also used as fodder purpose.

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Season :
In Andhra Pradesh maize is grown within the kharif season as rainfed crop from June to September and also
in the rabi season as an irrigate d crop from November to march.

Seeds & sowing :

Seed rate in irrigated conditions is 50-60 kg/ha. In rainfed areas 40-50 kg/ha. Dent type of maize varieties
are most suitable for fodder purpose.

Spacing: 30x15 cm. Plant to a depth of 3-4 cm on the sides of ridge or use a seed drill or sow behind the
seed drill and cover with harrow or country plough.
Seed Treatment with Azospiriilum (3 packets (600g should be done).
In the parts of Maharshtra maize is dibbled in rows of 60-90cm apart , a fortnight before cutting the plants ,
maize again dibbled in rows between the standing rows of maize plants and this inter sowing is repeated five
or six times to secure green forage all through the year from the same land.

Manures and Fertilizes:

To ensure higher yields liberal manuring is necessary. Maize is very responsive to both nitrogen and
phosphorus and it is good practice to apply 45 to57 kg of nitrogen and 22-45 kg of phosphorus in the form
of ammonium sulphate and super phosphate with potassium (20kg/ha) in the form of MOP. Band application
of fertilizer mixture prior to the sowing is preferred .fertilizer should be applied in divided doses of 1/3 N,total
P&K as basal,1/3 N at 25&50DAS.

Irrigation:
Irrigate immediately after sowing and give light irrigation on the 3rd and thereafter can be irrigated at 10-15
days interval depending upon the climate and soil type.

Weeding :
The first weeding is given when the crop is 20-25cm height and a second weeding when it is about 60cm
high. For hoeing bullock drawn harrows are more convenient when the crop is sown in rows. Or spraying
Atrataf @ 1-1.5 kg ai/ha as pre emergence herbicide followed by one weeding at 40 DAS.

Plant protection:
Spray any one of the following plant protection chemicals on the 10th and 17th day of the sowing to control the
shootfly : Endosulfan 35EC or Methyldematon 25EC or Dimethoate 30EC 500ml/ha in 250 l of spray fluid
water.

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Harvesting :
As a fodder crop it is important to cut maize at the right stage, when the cobs are just being formed, because
the feeding value goes down rapidly therafter. If it is for silage, harvest at dough stage.

Yield : The yield varies from 40-50 tonnes/ha.

Cropping systems :
Maize-oats-sorghum., Pearlmillet-Lucerne -Maize Maize-berseem-sorghum.
Dinanath grass-oats +mustard, maize+cowpea.

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Lecture No.29

Introduction- Origin, distribution,soils,land preparation-varities,seasons –

seeds&sowing,fertilizer,irrigation,weed management,harvesting,yield and major cropping systems of
fodder Cowpea (Vigna Unguiculata)

Common name : Cherry bean/ Blackeye pea/barbati/Southern pea

Plant characters and uses:
Annual /perennial bushy climbing herb.

Trifoliate leaves with fast and quick growth.

It is tolerant to shade.

Roots penetrate to 55 cm

Readily accepted by animals at all stages of crop growth.

Protein content is 16-18%

Origin, and Distribution :Cowpea is considered as native to central africa, though it is claimed to be
indigenous to india as well. It is has been cultivated from very early times for human consumption in the
Mediterranean region by the greeks, romans and spaniards.

Climate & soil:

Cowpea can be grown in all tropical, subtropical and temperate regions between 30o N-S and on wide range
of soils, but Sandy loam soil with pH 5-6.5 are the best for this crop. Saline, alkaline and water logged soils
not suitable. Heavy clay soils encourage vegetative growth with less seed production. It can withstand
moderate drought and heavy rains. It can also grow under the shade of tall trees, but cannot survive cold or
frost. In fact no other legume can grow so well under such a variety of soil and climatic conditions , with so
little attention, as cowpea.

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Land preparation:
Plough the field once with iron plough and twice or more with the country plough to obtain good tilth. Form
ridges and furrows 6m long and 30cm apart of beds of 5x 4m depending on the availability of water and slope
of the land. Form irrigation channels suitably.

Varieties:
Russian giant, (EC-4216), IGFRI 450, IGFRI 985, IGFRI-8503 CO-5, CO-8, UPC 5286, UPC-287 and HFC-
42-1,S-450,S -457, FOS-1, Bundel lobia-1 &2, Shewta
988,GFC-1&2.

Season:
Under irrigated condition throughout the year it can be cultivated June - July is preferred or the onset of spring.
In rainfed areas October – November months are suitable: January – February. Months or suitable for
summer sowing Cowpea is not so season bound as some other pulses and so it can be grown in any
months of the year, except some hottest summer months.

Seeds & sowing:

Seed rate: Under irrigated conditions 20-25 kg/ha; for rainfed areas 40kg/ha in south and 45 to 55 kg/ha in
north. Spacing is 30 x10 cm.
Seed treatment: Treat the seed with 3 packets of rhizobium using the starch binder. Sowing: sow to a depth
of 3cm on one side of the ridge or sow above the fertilizer band at 2cm depth and cover with soil.

Manures Fertilizers:
Apply 10 t/ha of FYM or compost after the second ploughing. The recommended nitrogen- applied 25kg/ha,
phosphorus-40kg/ha and potassium 20kg/ha. Fertilizer mixture should be applied prior to the sowing. 1/2 N,
total P&K as basal, 1/2 N at 25 DAS.

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Irrigation:
Irrigate immediately after sowing and give light irrigation on the 3 rd and thereafter can be irrigated at 10-15
days interval depending upon the climate for soil, moisture status.
Weeding: Cowpea is having smothering effect. Hence weeding may not be economical . If weed problem is
there, one hand weeding 20 DAS. With soil mulch is sufficient to eliminate existing the emerging weeds..

Plant protection:
If sucking pests are noticed spray methyl dematon 25EC 500ml or dimethoate 30EC 500ml or phosphomidon
85WSC 250ml/ha in 250 litres.of water. stop spraying 15-20 days before harvest.
.
Harvesting:
As a fodder crop, cowpea can be cut in 60-75 DAS or at 50% flowering to formation of pods.

Yield: 20-30 t/ha under irrigated conditions and about half this quantity under rainfed conditions
can be obtained.
Cropping systems:
Inter cropping at1:1 ratio with maize, jowar or bajra or 2:1 with grasses or creal fodder crops will help to
improve fodder yield as well as fodder quality.
Cwpea-sorghum+cowpea-berseem.

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Lecture No.30

Introduction- Origin, distribution,soils,land preparation-varities,seasons –

seeds&sowing,fertilizer,irrigation,weed management,harvesting,yield and major cropping systems of
Napier hybrid

HYBRID BAJRA NAPIER

Common Name : Giant Napier /Pusa gaint napier / Gajraj / Giant Elephant grass

Plant Characters & Uses :

More vigorous, nutritious, succulent and palatable than napier grass.
It is a triploid and hence sterile.
Highly responsive to fertilization.
It is tall growing (200-300 cm), erect, stout, deep-rooted perennial grass.
Lodging resistant a nd resistant against pests and diseases.
Crude protein: 9-11% DCP : 5.5%TDN : 58%

Origin and Distribution

A Cross between Bajra X Napier grass
P. americanum x P. purpureum was developed in South Africa with the name “Babala Napier hybrid” or Bana
grass. It produced more number of tillers and leaves, grew faster and yielded more fodder than the napier
grass, but the stem of the hybrid was hard it comes up well in all tropical and sub tropical areas of high
rainfall in the world. It is important component of orders in intensity dairying for continues supply of
fodder year round.

Climate & soil:

It is cultivated in areas receiving more than >1000 mm rainfall.
It can withstand drought and recover the growth quickly with the onset of monsoons.
Optimum temperature is around 24-28oc.
It can tolerate low air temperatures but less than 10oc makes the crop remain dormant.
It is sensitive to frost. Even a light frost kills the crop but the underground rhizomes will sprout again
when the temperature rises.
It performs better under long day than short day photoperiods.

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Soil: Sandy loam or clay loams are the best.
pH range : 6.5 – 8.0. In sandy soils, its vigour is low and yield is reduced.
It cannot withstand flooded or water stagnated condition.
It should be grown in well-drained soils with good moisture retention capacity.
It comes up well in saline sodic soils better than guinea grass.

Land preparation: It needs thorough land preparation plough the field 4-6 times followed by harrowing. Then
made into ridges and furrows.

Varieties:
In India, first hybrid developed is NB-21.
CO 1: It is profusely tillering, highly leafy, tall growing and non-lodging, yields 300 t/ha. Released during
1982.
CO 3: Released during 1996. It is tall growing, highly tillering and non-lodging with low oxalic acid ad crude
fibre content. Yield 300-350 t/ha.
APBN 1: Released during 1998 by AICRP on Forage Crops, L.R.S., ANGRAU.
It is tall growing highly tillering, more leafyness (high L:S ratio) with
low oxalic acid content. It is found to be drought resistant and adopted for cultivation.
Other varieties:
Pusa giant – For cultivating all over India PBN – 83 – Punjab
Yeshwant (RBN-9) – Maharashtra K K M-1 – Tamilnadu
IGFRI No: 3: It is a profusely tillering type with erect growth habit. It is good for
intercropping and has the capacity to yield 100-150 t /ha green fodder per year. It is suitable for NE hills,
U.P., M.P. hills of N. India.

IGFRI No: 7: Suitable for temperate zone of the country. It is an erect growing and leafy variety with high
regenerative capacity. 120-150 t/ha. It may be grown under acidic conditions.
IGFRI No: 10: It can be grown throughout the country. It is also erect growing, leafy and multicut variety. It
produces 100-160 t/ha green fodders per year. The variety is also suitable for acidic soils and sub-temperate
situations.

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Season: It can be grown during any part of the year provided sufficient water is provided. Optimum time of pla
nting during Kharif and summer is June and February respectively winter sowing is not recommended due to
low temperatures.

Seeds & sowing:

Seed rate : 40,000 rooted slips or stem cuttings/ha.
Spacing is 50 x50cm .Irrigate the field through furrows and plant the one rooted slip or stem cutting per
hole at a depth of 3-5cm on one side of the ridge

Method of sowing : The seed of hybrid napier is sterile. Therefore hybrid bajra napier is multiplied only
through stem cuttings or rooted slips. The stem cuttings are obtained from clumps grown upto 2.5 to 2 m
ht. Top ¼ is removed and remaining 3/4th is used. Rooted slips are obtained from clumps, which are 1 m
width.

Stem cuttings: Stem cuttings can be stored for about 20 days for planting by covering with moist gunny bag
but in sub tropics, with cold weather, they can be stored during the entire winter season.
450 angle method: Stem cuttings are obtained from basal 3/4th portion of the plant. Each stem cutting with 2
nodes measures about 30-40 cm inserted in the soil in a slanting position at 450 angle. One bud should be
inside the soil and one bud should be exposed over the soil surface. Buds inside the soil develop roots and,
the bud over the soil produce shoots.

End to End Method: 2 budded or 3 budded setts are pla ced in the furrow such that eyes on the node are
exposed to the sides of the furrows and then cover with soil. Then irrigation is given.
Rooted slips: Break up the old clumps and separate the tillers along with their roots. Each slip should consists
of 1-2 tillers measuring 10-12 cm height. Dig a small hole in the furrow and insert the roots into these holes.
Propagation by this method is best in Summer Season. The stem cuttings are likely to dry up due to
desiccating winds and hot summer.

Manuring:
Being the heavy feeder this hybrid should be manured with 25t/ha FYM or compost.50kg/ha of
nitrogen,50kg/ha of phosphorus and 40kg/ha of potassium. Band application of the fertilizer mixture prior to
the planting is preferred.for this open furrows 5cm deep on the one side of the ridge, apply fertilizer mixture
and cover with soil. Repeat the basal application once in year for the sustained higher yields. Top dress
with 100 kgN/ha after each cut.

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Irrigation:
Irrigate immediately after sowing and give light irrigation on the 3rd and thereafter can be irrigated at 10-15
days interval depending upon the requirements of crop.

Weeding and inter cultural operations:

Hand weeding or hoeing and weeding should be followed on the 30th day. Gap fill to maintain population.
Subsequent weeding may be carried out preferably after each harvest. Earth up once after three cuts and
removal of dried tillers and quartering once in a year is recommended.

Harvesting :
When cutting the crop for forage, a fairly long stubble of 13-15cm has to be left, to avoid damaging the
growing point near the base of the plant . first cut at 60-75 days after planting and subsequent cuts once in 45
days. In case of sewage or high N containing effluents irrigation, the harvest interval may be increased to 55-
60 days to minimize the nitrate/oxalate problem.
Yield: Green fodder yield is about 350t/ha/year

Major cropping systems:

Intercropping/mixed cropping with Desmanthus at 3:1 ratio will help to improve fodder quality and yield of
green fodder. The other compatible mixtures include Lucerne.
N-B hybrids+velvetbean-berseem_sarson.

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Lecture No.31

Introduction- Origin, distribution,soils,land preparation-varities,seasons –

seeds&sowing,fertilizer,irrigation,weed management,harvesting,yield and major cropping systems of
Paragrass&guinea grass

Paragrass (Brachiaria mutica)

Common name : Water grass, Buffalo grass, Mauritius grass, Angola grass, California grass

Plant characters This grass is a coarse trailing perennial, rooting at the nodes with ascending flowering stems
even upto 2.5m high.

Origin and Distribution :

Though it is a native of tropical Africa and tropical south America (Brazil), it is widely distributed as a
fodder grass in tropical and subtropical areas of the world. It grows well on moist soils (a water loving grass)
and withstand prolonged flooding or water logging, bur makes little growth during dry weather. More suited
for water inundated condition and sewage farms. It can be used for green soiling, hay and should be grazed
rotationally as it will not withstand heavy grazing.

Climate and soil:

Grows well in areas with Rainfall 1000-1500 mm., with optimum temperature is around 15-38ºC. Can
tolerate water logging and most suitable for marshy areas. Comes up well in sewage water. But sensitive to
cold and frost. Semi-aquatic grass grows well in rice growing areas of world. Highly tolerant to saline and
sodic soils and used for reclamation of saline soils than any other grass.

Land preparation: It needs thorough land preparation plough the field 4-6 times followed by harrowing.
Then made into ridges and furrows.

Season:
In irrigated condition throughout the year it can be sown suitable time for kharif is June -

204
July or the onset of spring. In rabi conditions growth is very poor. Summer: as it is water
loving crop summer crop cultivation is rare phenomenon.

Seeds & sowing:

Propagated by seed, rooted slips and runners/ stem cuttings.Seed setting is poor and has dormancy. So
mostly propagated by rooted slips and runners. In summer, rooted slips are safer than runners.Seed rate- 2.5-
3.0 kg/ha.Transplanting method- 40,000- 50,000 rooted slips/ha or 2-4 q/ha planting material is required.
Spacing is 50cm × 50 cm. planting should be done to a depth of 3cm on the side of the ridge.

Manures & Fertilizers:

Apply 25 t/ha of FYM or compost after the second ploughing. The rcommended nitrogen (20kg/ha),
phosphorus (40kg/ha) and potassium (20kg/ha). Should be applied in band prior to the sowing is. Top
dressing of nitrogen 20kg/ha after each harvest.

Irrigation:
Irrigate immediately after sowing and give light irrigation on the 3rd and thereafter can be irrigated as and
when depending upon the requirement of crop.

Weeding :
Hand weeding or hoeing and weeding on the 30th day should be practiced. Gap fill to maintain population.
Subsequent weeding may be carried out preferably after each harvest. Earth up once after three cuts and
removal of dried tillers simultaneously.
.
Harvesting and yield:
The crop is ready for the first cut in the three months after the planting and subsequent cutting can be taken
at an interval of the 30-35days. Para grass is reported to have yielded 200-240 t/ha/year.
Guinea grass (Panicum maximum )
Plant characters:
The grass is a tall, densely tufted perennial, with numerous shoots arising from the short stout rhizomes.
A full grown plant attains a height of 1.8 to2.7m under favourable conditions. Culms are erect ,glabrous,
nodes densely hairy, leaf blades are about 60cm long. The inflorescence is an open panicle ,about 30cm long

205
Has a variable species. Depending on agronomic characters like habit, height, stem thickness, degree of
branching etc. They may be identified into two distinct types
Large or medium types suitable for soilage and grazing.
Small or low growing types mainly suitable for grazing.

Origin and Distribution :

This grass is native of tropical Africa. Introduced in our country in 1798. It is one of the oldest introduced
grass in our country.

Climate and soils:

The grass thrives best in warm moist climates with annual rainfall 600-100 mm. Tolerates drought fairly wells
but susceptible to frost. Frost burns the plant tips and leaves rapidly loose their succulence and stems become
hard and dry. Optimum temperature is 15-380C.Best grass suits under orchards or forestry trees because of
shade tolerance ability.
Adopted to wide range of soils except water logging and acidity, can tolerate medium salinity Fertile of well
drained medium loamy soils are most suitable. Can be grown along the field bunds and sides of irrigation
channels to prevent erosion.

Land preparation
Thre land is prepared by giving 1-2 ploughings, fallowed by 3 to 4 harrowings.

Varieties:
The following are some of the commercial varieties of large or medium types.
Queensland common: East African Origin. It is a well-tillered buchy type grows to 150 cm height. Stem
nodes are hairy and finer leaf sheath and blades.
Rivers dale : is a selection from 9 C made by South Johnstone Research Station
at Riversdale.
Makueni: Drought resistant one. Grows to a height of 1 m in height and light green in colour.
Gatton panic : is a medium type variety. Easily distinguished from Queensland guinea, as the stem nodes are
smooth. Resistant to grazing and creates less management problems.

206
Hamil: very tall variety of guinea grass. Robust, smooth, erect that grows from 3 to 3.5 m hight. Foliage is
dark green than Riversdale and Makueni and stem nodes are free of exposed hairs. Well accepted by animals.
Colonial guinea: Very palatable type but less productive than other guinea grass varieties. Very tall variety
growing upto 3 m. Practically hairless and thick fleshy stems. Well accepted by cattle. The foliage is blue
green and flowers later than other varieties due to long growing season. Very drought resistant.

Small types: Green panic or slender guinea var. (trichoglume). This is a French grass has an ascending habit
crown expanding by short horizontal stems. It shows drought resistance and survives well in situations where
Rhodes grass dries at completely. Leaves are fine and soft and stems are slender. Has a good (unique)
regenerative capacity and most responsive to improved fertility.

Season :
In South India under irrigation conditions all months are suitable Except in Dec-Jan. Under rainfed condition it
is sown during June-August. In North India Mid Feb- August is favourable under irrigated conditions.

Seeds & sowing :

Propagated by seed, rooted slips and stem cuttings. In summer Root stocks are safer than stem cuttings. seeds
may be broad casted in the nursery bed and seedlings transplanted in the field with the break of the monsoon.
Straw mulching can improve the establishment. 4-10 kg seed/ha under direct seeding, 2-3 kg/ha for
transplanting, 40,000-45,000-stem cuttings/ha. Or 66,000 rooted slips are sufficient spacing is 50 x 30 cm or
90 x 45 cm. Seeds have to be stored for more than six months before sowing for breaking dormancy. Plant
the rooted slips to a depth of 3cm on the side of the ridge or sow the seeds on the marked lines or raise
seed in nursery and transplant 20- 25 days after ger mination.

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Fertilizers:
The grass responds well to manuring. To ensure high yields a basal dose of 10-15 t FYM/ha or compost after
the second ploughing should be incorporated. The rcommended doses of nitrogen 50kg/ha, phosphorus
50kg/ha and potassium 40kg/ha should be applied in band prior to the sowing. Repeat the basal application
once in a year for sustained higher yields.Top dressing of nitrogen 25kg/ha after each cut.

Irrigation:
Irrigate immediately after sowing and give light irrigation on the 3rd and thereafter can be irrigated at 10-15
days interval.

Harvesting & Yield:

The first cut can be taken in six to eight weeks after planting . The average production is about
200-250t/ha/yr in 7-8 cuttings. The yield however, declines with age and it is advisable to replant the field
with fresh slips every fifth year. The replanting can be done in the standing field of guinea grass in between
the rows and the old plants removed after the new plants get established. The fodder supply can thus be
maintained at an uniform level.

Major cropping systems:

Legumes should be grown along with guinea or rotated. Australia – Centro and Stylo Desmodium
North India – Berseem, Senji, peas.
South India – cowpea, guar or rice bean, Lucerne. Under humid -red soil conditio ns guinea grass is grown
under coconut garden.

Toxicities:
Heavy N fertilization Causes nitrate toxicity. Small levels of HCN % is also noticed
Panicum sps. Contain Heptotoxins which may cause secondary photo sensitization. Animal with white skin
or with white patches usually suffer from the disease.
Remedy: - Affected animal may be given chlorophyll free diet and kept in darkness for a few days till
recovery.

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Introduction- Origin, distribution,soils,land preparation-varities,seasons –
seeds&sowing,fertilizer,irrigation,weed management,harvesting,yield and major cropping systems of
Berseem (Trifolium alexandrium)

Common name: Egyptian clover.

Plant characters:
It is considered as KING OF FODDER crops because of its nutritional qualities. It is main fodder for horses,
camels and donkeys. Annual bushy shrub and winter growing to a height of 0.9 to 1.0 m with upright and
decumbent succulent stem terminating in trifoliate leaves. Seed is pear shaped and yellowish brown colour.
crude protein is content 18-21% .and it is good soil binder.

Origin and distribution :

Berseem is believed to be indigenous to Egypt. It is introduced in India from Egypt in 1904 and tried at
various centers for its performance, with such good results by 1916 it was recognized as a widely adaptable
and valuable addition to the forage crops of India. Now it is the prominent fodder lugume in irrigated areas of
Punjab,Delhi, Rajasthan and Uttara Pradesh

Climate and soil:

Grows in tropics, subtropics and temperate regions.Temperature range is 25-350C optimum for seedling
growth. 15-200C optimum for vegetative growth and branching. 35-370C optimum for flowering and seed
setting. It cannot tolerate frost temperature below 4-5 0C.Well drained deep loamy soils rich in lime, P, K with
PH5.5-8.5 are recommended. Do not perform well on sandy soils, water logging and acidic soils. Can
tolerate salinity, alkalinity and is thus useful for reclaiming brackish and alkaline lands.

Land preparation: One MB ploughing followed by 4-5 harrowings are required to make a fine tilth . Fine seed
bed is prepared since the seed is small.

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Varieties:
Mescavi: varieties under this group develop short side branches at the base of the stem in advanced stage
of its growth. When the plant is cut or harvested, these branches elongate and produce new growth.
Therefore it is possible to take 5-6 cuts per year from this group. Varities: Wardan, JB-1, JB-2, JB-3, UPB-
103.
Fahl : develop small side branches in the upper portion of the stem very freely. They donot produce branches at
the base. Therefore there is no regeneration of these varities after harvest. They give only one cut.

Saidi: They develop shoots for a short time. Develops branches at the upper portion less freely than in Fahl.
They give 2-3 cuts per year. Ex: Khandwari, Pusa giant, IGFRI-99-1, IGFRI-54, Jawahar.

Season:
It is a rabi season crop. October to November sowings are adopted depending on prevailing temperatures
and vacation of kharif crop.

Seeds & sowing :

A seed rate of 10- 15 kg/ha in line sowing, 20-30.kg/ha in broadcasting would be sufficient. Bright yellow,
plump seeds should be used, discarding all the brown and immature seeds.
Spacing : Inter row spacing of 25-30 cm is adopted in solid rows. If seed production is taken intra rows
spacing of 10 cm is maintained.

Seed treatment: Seed should be treated with 10% brine (salt) solution to remove the seeds of chicory. Scarified
against hard surfaces to soften the seed coat for better germination. Seed is soaked in water for 10-12 hrs or in
diluted H2SO4 for 2-3 minutes and then rinsed with water 4-5 times.10% jaggery solution 1.25 kg with 1.25
litres of water is prepared by boiling and cooling to the room temperature. Then mix with 1.25 kg Rhizobium
trifoli bacterial culture which has 107 to 109 cells of bacteria per gram. Sprinkle the culture on the seed
uniformly and dry under shade. Mix the seed with 10 kg soil and broadcasted or drilled in the field.

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Methods of sowing: Can be sown dry or wet. The land is divided into small plots of convenient size, irrigate
the plots to a depth of 5 cm. soak the seed in water overnight and broadcast it in the standing water.

Manures & Fertilizer:

Berseem response well to manuring and need about 10 t FYM /ha, 25 – 30 kg N, 80- 100 kg P2O5, 30-40 kg
K 20 kg /ha P is applied as SSP and K as MOP.½ N, total P and K as basal and remaining ½ N should be
applied 30 DAS. Micronutrient deficiencies are common with regard to B, Mo, Fe and Zn and has to be
corrected. Boron deficiency is very common in coarse textured and leached out soils. Its deficiency
causes several pale yellow spots on the leaves which resemble the leaf hopper damage. Corrected by foliar
application of 0.1% borax or soil application of borax @10 kg/ha as basal And Mo as Ammonium
molybdate @1- 1.5 kg/ha.

Irrigation:
Water requirement is quite high. Initially irrigation is given at weekly interval later at 10-12 days interval.
Crop requires 140cm of water in a year. In places where irrigation water is not sufficient for bersee m, oat
can be grown as an alternate crop.

Weeding :
Requires thorough weeding in initial stages. Chicorium intybus is associated weed of berseem. Remedy is
soaking in the 10% brine solution for 10-15 minutes, seeds floating on the water are removed with
supplemental hand weeding at 30 DAS. Do not allow the weed to set seed. The seed live in the soil for a
long time.Chemical treatment : 0.75 -1.0 kg a.i. /ha pendimethalin, as pre emergence herbicide is
recommended. Incidence of Cascuta is also noticed.

Harvesting:
The first cut can be taken at 55-60 DAS or at 50% flowering stage. Subsequent cuts are obtained at 25-30
days interval. Mescavi types are good for fodder purpose as it gives 5-6 cuttings.

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Yield: 35-55 tonnes/ha/year in / 4-6 cuttings.

Tox icities:

Bloat or Tympanitis: Occurs due to the presence of 4-5% cytoplasmic proteins which act as foaming agent.
Accumulation of gases is an important disorder due to fermentation process.

Remedy:
Punching the stomach with an instrument called Tracer and canula.

Administration of Prolaxalin @ 10-20 g/kg body weight. of animal.

Mixing the seed with linseed / mustard oil.

Early morning grazing on berseem should be avoided as dew fall on the berseem accentuates the bloat
problem in animals.

Cropping systems :

Berseem can be substituted with wheat in rice wheat sequence to minimize the incidence of phalaris minor in
wheat. Berseem can also be grown has inter crop with Napier Bajra for sustained supply of forage for dairy
units.
Maize + rice bean-berseem-sarson

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Lecture No.32

Introduction- Origin, distribution,soils,land preparation-varities,seasons –

seeds&sowing,fertilizer,irrigation,weed management,harvesting,yield and major cropping systems of
Lucerne (Medicago sativa)

Common name: Alfalfa/ snail clover/Chilean clover

It is regarded as QUEEN OF FORAGE crops.
Also called as GREEN GOLD of forage crops. Alfalfa is an Arabic word means ‘the best’
.
Plant characters and uses :
A Perennial bushy herb and growing to height of 1.6 m with upright or decumbent and quadrangular stem.
Trifoliate leaves with fast and quick growth habit. Seed is kidney shaped greenish yellow color. Readily
accepted by all animals especially horses.
CP: 18-21%
DCP: 15%
TDN: 58%

Origin:
It was originally a native of South western Asia.. It was introduced to India in the year 1900.

Climate and soil:

Comes up well in tropics, sub tropics and temperate regions upto 2400m above MSL. Temperature in the
Range of 15-25oC- day time10-20oC -night time, 20-30oC is required for seed set 15-20oC is optimum for
vegetative growth.
Well drained deep loamy soils rich in lime N, P, K with pH 5.5-8.5 are optimum . Do not perform well on
sandy soils. Can tolerate drought but not water stagnation and high humidity. Remains dormant under
conditions of drought and resume the growth in the availability of water in the soil. Acidic soils are not
suitable. Root growth is stunted due to less conc of Ca, S and Mg, can thrive on alkaline soils two.

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Land preparation:
One MB ploughing followed by 4-5 harrowing to make a fine tilth.Field is made into rectangular sized plots
for proper irrigation and better drainage.

Varieties:
Annual varieties: Anand-1,2,3, LLC-3, RCL-87-1 & LLC -5.
Perennial: CO-1, T-9 or sirsa-9, Sirsa-8, RL-88, sri ganga sagar, IGFRI-s-244 (chetak), alamdar-1 &
IGFRI –S-54.

Season:
It is a rabi season crop. Sowings are taken up during the months of October & November depending
upon the prevailing temperatures.

Seeds & sowing :

A seed rate of 20 kg/ha in line sowing, 30.kg/ha in broadcasting would be sufficient. Spacing : crop is sown
25-30 cm apart in solid rows.

Seed treatment: Seed should be treated with 10% brine (salt) solution to remove the seeds and inert material.
Scarified against hard surfaces to soften the seed coat for better germination. Seed is soaked in water for 10-12
hrs or soak in diluted H2SO4 for 2-3 minutes and then rinse with water 4-5 times. and cooling to the room
temperature. Then mix with 1.25 kg Rhizobiu m seed should be treated with recommended rhizobium culture
for nitrogen fixation. If sown first time in the land.

Manures and Fertilizer:

Lucerne respons well to manuring which needs about 25 t FYM /ha, 25 – 30 kg N, 120 kg P2O5, 40 kg K
20 /ha. P is applied as SSP and K as MOP.½ N, + entire applied and remained P and K as basal which are, ½
N at 30 DAS. Micronutrient deficiencies are common with regard to B, Mo, Fe and Zn to be corrected.

Weeding:
Require thorough weeding in the initial stages. Cuscuta is a complete stem parasite. Remedy is uproot the
plants along with host plants and burnt. Do not allow the weed to set seed. The seed will live in the soil
for a long time. Cultivation of Lucerne should be avoided in fields once infested with cuscuta at least for 3
years.
Chemical treatment: 0.75-1 kg Pendimethalin as pre emergence herbicide or imazethpyr @ 100 g/ha as early
post emergence (10-12 days).

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Irrigation: Water requirement is quite high. Initially at weekly interval then at 10-12 days interval. Crop
requires 10-15 irrigations in a year.

Harvesting & Yield:

The first cut at 55-60 DAS or at 50% flowering stage. Subsequent cuts at 25-30 days interval. yielding
about 60-80 t/ha/8-10 cuttings.

Cropping systems : N-B hydrid + guar – Lucernr under semi arid conditions or it is taken as inter crop with
N-B hybrid.

Toxicities:

Bloat or Tympanities: occurs due to the presence of 4-5% cytoplasmic proteins which acts as foaming agent.
Accumulation of gases is an important disorder due to fermentation process.
Remedy:
Punching the stomach with an instrument called tracer & canula.

Administration of prolaxin @ 10-20 g/kg body wt. Of animal.

Mixing the feed with linseed/mustard oil.

Isoflavonoides of oestrogen cause reproductive disorders due to production of excess heat in the animal body.
Remedy: by the addition of concentrated feed the severity can be reduced.

Dermatitis or photosensitization: caused due to histamines. The symptoms are inflammation of the skin like
reddening, swelling, oozing, scaling mostly in the white skinned animals.

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Remedy: keeping the animal under shade & stall feeding.

Saponins: are the glucosides present in roots, stem, leaves and flowers of lucerne. Cause haemolysis of blood and
reduces egg production. Saponins are more concentrated in young stages and reduces in maturity stage.
Symptoms: Bitter in taste and reduced cholesterol levels which Causes hypoglycaemia of
RBC and foam will be oozed out from mouth.

Remedy: supplementing mild strains of saponins containing feed. Supplying 1% cholesterol to animal.

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