Geography

Revision
Lecture
Notes
2023
(Compiled by Marilda van Niekerk and Jocelyn Potter
and presented by Jocelyn Potter)

“Geography is the
tapestry that
weaves the world
together”.
~ Gill Grosvenor

Geography Revision Notes 2023 Page 1

 MAPWORK NOTES

1. Equipment
Make sure that you always have the correct equipment for mapwork.
• a good ruler
• a 360⁰ protractor
• a sharp pencil
• a piece of string
• a few coloured pencils/ highlighters.
• a THIN piece of string
wonkeedonkeetools.co.uk
2. Political Map of South Africa
• This map shows the major political features of a region.
• Know your map of RSA with provinces, capitals, neighbouring countries, oceans &
currents.

3. Co-ordinates
• The ‘A’ of Latitude comes before the ‘O’ of Longitude so Latitude is always FIRST.
• Write co-ordinates in ONE line.

3.1. Latitude
• ‘Flat’itude (the lines going across the page) in a flat line.
• South Africa is always South of the equator between 22° S and 35° S.

Geography Revision Notes 2023 Page 2

3.2. Longitude
• South Africa is always East of the Greenwich meridian between 16° E and 33° E.
• The lines go long ways down the page from top to bottom.

Marilda van Niekerk

3.3. Calculation of co-ordinates

GOLDEN RULES for LATITUDE & LONGITUDE

• Write the S for Latitude and the E for Longitude straight away.
• IEB has got stricter with SECONDS, so see a more accurate method below.
• Do the DEGREES & MINUTES as usual.
• Use the following formulas:
For latitude

Distance of 1769 from top of block

Latitude Seconds of 1769 = x 60
Total distance from top of block

For longitude

Distance of 1769 from right side of the block

Longitude Seconds of 1769 = x 60
Total distance from the right side of block

• Measure the distances in the formula in MILLIMETRES.

Geography Revision Notes 2023 Page 3

 Latitude line = S

17 mm

26 mm
13 mm

22 mm

Longitude line = E

• LATITUDE: S of Equator

17 mm
x 60 = 39 seconds S (south)
26 mm

• LONGITUDE: E of Greenwich

13 mm
x 60 = 35 seconds E (east)
22 mm

• Answer: 30° 54’ 39” S; 27° 32’ 35” E;

4. Scale & distance

4.1. Scale
• 1: 50 000 means 1cm on a map = 50 000 cm in reality.
• Let’s convert this to more realistic units:
As there are 100 cm in 1m, we divide 50 000 by 100 to convert to meters.
1cm = 500m = 0.5km
• GOLDEN RULE: SIMPLiFY AND MULTiPLY.

4.2. Distance on a map

• Distance can be asked in two ways:
▪ The straight-line distance between two places (as the crow flies).
▪ The actual distance = the real distance e.g., along a curvy road or river. It is
easiest to calculate distance on the map with a piece of string, then use your ruler
to measure it in cm and then convert it to the units asked for (usually km).

Geography Revision Notes 2023 Page 4

5. Area
• Area = L x B (in m or km)
• Always do the calculations the long way round by measuring in cm first and then
converting to km using the golden rule to simplify and multiply.
• On a topographic map, the scale is usually 1: 50 000 so 1cm = 500 m = 0.5 km
• On an orthophoto, the scale is usually 1: 10 000 so 1cm = 100 m = 0.1 km

Calculation:
NB! Always do conversion BEFORE applying the formula for km or m.

a) Answer in kilometres
Scale: 1: 50 000
L = 8 cm x 0.5 = 4 km
B = 3 cm x 0.5 = 1,5 km
Area = l x b
= 4 km x 1,5 km
= 6 km2

b) Answer in meters
Scale: 1: 50 000
L = (8 cm x 0.5) = 4 km ÷ 1 000 = 4 000 m
B = (3 cm x 0.5) x 0.5 = 1,5 km ÷ 1 000 = 1500 m
Area = l x b
= 4 000 m x 1 500 m
= 6 000 000 m2

c) Answer in hectares
• Do your calculation in meters (as above) and convert your answer to hectares.
• 1 ha = 10 000 m2
Area = 6 000 000 m² (÷ 10 000 to convert to ha)
= 600 ha

Scale: 1: 10 000
L = 8 cm x 0.1 = 0,8 km
B = 3 cm x 0.1 = 0,3 km
Area = l x b
= 0,8 km x 0,3 km
= 0,24 km2

6. Gradient

• Gradient is a ratio written as 1: 23

1m

23 m
Marilda van Niekerk

Geography Revision Notes 2023 Page 5

 • In this example, for every 1 m to go up, you move 23 m forward.
• The gradient (steepness of the slope) is labelled on the diagram.
• A ratio of 1:10 and less is classified as a steep slope.
• Anything progressively more than this is a gentle slope.

• The formula is: Vertical Rise (VR)

Gradient = Horizontal Distance (HD)

• Calculate the VR, distance in height between the 2 points (in meters)
• Measure the HR, distance between the 2 points (convert to km and then METERS)
• Simplify your fraction to get 1 for the numerator.
• Given as a ratio of 1: …

• Calculate the Vertical Rise (VR)

VR = Highest point – Lowest point
= 1254.1 m – 1084 m
= 170.1 m

• Calculate the Horizontal Distance (HD) The Vertical Rise

HD = Map distance in meter and Horizontal
= 5.7 cm (x 0.5 to convert to km) Distance must
= 2. 85 km (x 1000 to convert to m) both be in
= 2 850 m METERS!

• Calculate the Gradient

VR
Gradient
HD
=
170.1m ÷ 170.1 (divide numerator by itself to get 1)
=
2 850m ÷ 170.1 (what you do on top, you must do below)

1
=
16.75

= 1: 16.75 or 1: 16,8

7. Direction and Bearing

7.1. Direction
• Direction is indicated by a compass.
• There are 16 CARDINAL compass directions.
• Read the question carefully – look out for the word ‘from’.

Geography Revision Notes 2023 Page 6

 What is the direction from A to B? What is the direction of A from B?
East-north-east (ENE) West-south-west (WSW)

B
A

Marilda van Niekerk

7.2. Bearing
• This is the angle measured clockwise from north.
• It is more accurate than direction.
• Read the question carefully.

What is the bearing from A to B? What is the bearing of A from B?

68° 180° + 69° = 249°

68° B R

B 180°

R
69°
A

Marilda van Niekerk

7.3. The direction a river flows in

• Rivers flow downhill from high lying areas to lower
lying areas (the sea).
• Tributaries enter the main river and point
downstream.
• A dam wall always faces downstream (water
can only get through the wall through sluice
gates).

Marilda van Niekerk

Geography Revision Notes 2023 Page 7

8. Map reference number / Map code
• Each map sheet has a number at the top which indicates exactly where the sheet fits
into the Index chart of all the 1 : 50 000 sheets of South Africa.
• This is known as the reference number of the map e.g., 3320AB Tweedside.
• The first number 33 refers to the latitude line.
• The second number 20 refers to the longitude line.

3320AB Tweedside

A A B
S S
C D C D
A B A B
S S
C D C D

Marilda van Niekerk

Geography Revision Notes 2023 Page 8

9. Magnetic declination and magnetic (compass) bearing.

9.1. Magnetic declination

• Magnetic north, as indicated by a compass, is west of True north.
• The angle between magnetic north and true north is called the magnetic declination.
• The magnetic bearing is used by aircraft when they fly.
• Magnetic north is not stationary and changes every year (annually).
• Always write down the information given on the map.

Example:
Calculate the MD in
Feb 2023.

▪ Magnetic Declination in 2010 = 21°04’ W

▪ Annual change = 3’ W
▪ Use the following steps:

a) Calculate the number of years.

▪ Current year minus given year.
▪ 2023 – 2010 = 13 years

b) Calculate the change in magnetic declination.

▪ Number of years multiplied by the annual change.
▪ 13 years x 3’ W = 39’ W

c) Calculate the magnetic declination for the current year (2023)

▪ If the change is West, ADD
▪ If the change is East, SUBTRACT
▪ Magnetic declination in 2010 + change
▪ 21° 04’W + 39’ W = 21° 43’ W
9.2. Magnetic (compass) bearing.
This refers to the bearing measured on the map PLUS the current magnetic declination as
calculated in 9.1.

• 210° + 21° 43’ W = 231° 43’ (no direction needed)

10. Map symbols

Most map symbols are printed on the map, shown in the key.

10.1. Types of map symbols:

• Points: Buildings, Trigonometrical beacons, Reservoirs etc.
• Lines: Rivers, Railway lines, Roads, Borders etc.
• Areas (polygons): Golf course, Dam, Cultivated land etc.

Geography Revision Notes 2023 Page 9

10.2. Colour of the map symbols:

10.2.1. Red:
• Construction features e.g., national, arterial and main roads, lighthouses and
marine lights.

10.2.2. Grey:
• Construction features e.g., built up areas and walls of farm boundaries. The
different street patterns are shown in built-up areas.

A C

A = Grid pattern e.g., Piet Retief

B = Irregular planned e.g., Sasolburg
C = Irregular unplanned e.g., Old Jerusalem
Window on the World, Standard 10

10.2.3. Black:
• Construction features e.g., roads, railways, bridges cemeteries, dam walls, power
lines, trig beacons, cutlines, a weir, etc.

▪ Cutlines are areas where vegetation is cut to bury pipes or put up a fence.

▪ A weir is a small wall built over a river to hold back water for
use by farmer or prevent flooding.

10.2.4. Blue:
• Mostly water landmarks e.g., canals, rivers, lakes, dams, furrows, swamps etc.
• Furrow – man made canal to divert water from river to cultivated lands
• A national freeway is also indicated in blue.

10.2.5. Brown:
• Height landmarks and relief e.g., contours, dunes, eroded areas etc.

10.2.6. Green:
• Vegetation landmarks (natural) e.g., cultivated fields, golf courses,
trees, firebreaks, protected areas etc.
• A firebreak is an area where vegetation is removed to prevent a fire.

Geography Revision Notes 2023 Page 10

11. Height on maps
• This is given as height in meters above sea level.
• There are 4 ways of showing it:

▪ A trig beacon Beacon number

Height in meters

▪ Spot height 242

▪ Benchmark (height of roads/ railways)

▪ Contour lines (usually in 20m intervals, every 5th one is darker)

12. Contour lines

• A contour is a line drawn on a map that connects places with the same height above
sea level.
• Certain contour lines are printed DARKER.
• They are known as INDEX CONTOURS.
• The difference in height between successive contours is known as the CONTOUR
INTERVAL.

howstuffworks.com

12.1. Slopes
Gradual slope:
• Contour lines are far apart.

12.1.1. Steep slope:

• Contour lines are close together.

12.1.2. Concave slopes:

• Hollow /cave shaped.
• Hold your hand as shown in the photo below: Your fingers represent the land which
is steep on top (contours close together) and gentle at the bottom (contours far
apart).

Geography Revision Notes 2023 Page 11

 B

A
A
B

pinterest.com

Marilda van Niekerk

12.1.3. Convex slopes:

• Bulb shaped.
• Hold your hand as shown in the diagram: Your hand represents gentle land on top
(contour lines far apart) and steep land below (contour lines close together).

A B

A
B
pinterest.com

Marilda van Niekerk

12.2. Landforms

12.2.1. Spur: a tongue of land descending from a mountain

• Contour lines curve towards the lowest contour (see 2 on page 12).

12.2.2. Valley: a low area between hills/ mountains

• Contour lines curve towards the highest contour (see 3 on page 12).
• Usually, a valley has a river flowing in it.

1 = Mountain Ridge 2 = Spur 3 = Valley

Marilda van Niekerk

Geography Revision Notes 2023 Page 12

13. Cross sections

• A cross section is a side profile of the

topography indicated with contour lines.
• What do the actual landforms on the ground
look like based on the contour patterns?

pinterest.com
13.1. Drawing a cross section:

1) Draw a connecting line to connect the 2 points.(A & B) NB! The point from which
you are working is always on your LEFT.

2) Place a white strip of paper just under the connecting line.

3) Indicate the start and end points (A and B) on the paper and make a mark for all
the other contour lines in between and write in the heights.
4) Write in these heights on the vertical scale of your graph paper (start with 20m
lower than the lowest contour on your paper strip at the bottom of the graph
paper).
5) Use the vertical scale given to you in the question e.g. 1cm ~ 20m.
6) Transfer the points on the paper strip to the graph paper.

Marilda van Niekerk

7) Join the dots with a free – hand line.

8) Add the title to the top, the vertical scale on the y-axis (this will be given to you)
and the horizontal scale on the x-axis (this is the same as the map scale).

Geography Revision Notes 2023 Page 13

 Marilda van Niekerk

13.2. Labelling features on a cross section:

Extract from 2526CA Zeerust topographical map

maps.sagta.org.
• A cross section from the reservoir to trig beacon 52 isza
given.

Geography Revision Notes 2023 Page 14

 • Indicate the following features on the cross section:
▪ Area of cultivated land (CL)
▪ National Route (NR)
▪ Secondary Road (SR)
▪ Hiking trail (H)

Marilda van Niekerk

13.3. Calculate the vertical exaggeration of the given cross section.

Vertical Scale (VS)

Vertical exaggeration =
Horizontal Scale (HS)

a) Vertical scale (VS) is always given to you in the question:

▪ E.g., 1 cm represents 100 m
▪ Convert to cm so that it’s in the same units as the map scale
▪ Always MULTIPLY by 100 (as there are 100 cm in 1 meter)
▪ Write in same format as the map scale 1: 10 000

b) Horizontal scale (HS) is always the same as the map = 1: 50 000.

VE = VS ÷ HS
= 1 1
10 000 ÷ 50 000

= 1 50 000 (golden rule: invert and multiply)

x
10 000 1

= 5 times (the cross-section has been enlarged 5 times)

Geography Revision Notes 2023 Page 15

13.4. Intervisibility

(b)

(a)

slideshare.net adapted by Marilda van Niekerk

a) Can point A be seen from point C? No, the two points are not intervisible.
Mountain B is blocking the line of sight (line a).
b) Can point B be seen from Point D? Yes, the two points are intervisible. There is
nothing blocking the line of sight (line b).

14. Aerial photographs

• Aerial photographs are photos of the landscape taken from an aircraft.

14.1. Oblique aerial photographs

• If the camera in an aircraft has its axis pointed at an angle to the ground
• There are two kinds of oblique photos:
• A low oblique shows no horizon (low shows no).
• A high oblique has the horizon (high has horizon).

theculturetrip.com Marilda van Niekerk

• An oblique photograph is used to show large areas and particularly features such as
communications, topography, vegetation and settlement patterns.
• Advantage of oblique photographs:
▪ They show objects from the side.
• Disadvantages of oblique photographs:
▪ They cannot show scale because the closest objects appear biggest and the
larger objects further from the camera appear smaller.
▪ Large objects near to the camera e.g., mountains, hide objects behind them.

Geography Revision Notes 2023 Page 16

14.2. Orthophotos

• These are special aerial photos with map symbols, contour lines and other
information on.
• The scale is 1: 10 000 so 1cm = 100m = 0.1 km.
• It is usually a zoomed in section of your map.
• Use obvious parts of the photo e.g., roads/ rivers to orientate where this is on the
map.
• If asked to label features on the photo, find them on the map. Do not guess!

Extract from 2730 DD 2 VRYHEID EAST

Rifle Range

Mason Street

NSC November Exam

2007 P2 School

15. Interpretation of topographic maps

• All work done in theory can be applied to topographic maps.

15.1. Climate graphs

• Climate graphs are often asked.
• Line graph shows temperature. Bar graph shows rainfall.
• Remember to read the information off the correct AXIS and to use the correct units.
• Make sure you can calculate temperature range (difference between highest and
lowest) and annual rainfall (ADD ALL UP)!

Geography Revision Notes 2023 Page 17

 IEB November Exam 2013
P2
15.2. Geomorphology
• Identify drainage patterns (dendritic, radial, trellis etc.)
• Know the difference between perennial vs non perennial rivers.
• High rainfall areas typically on the eastern half of RSA, trees & cultivated land is
widespread (not only along the river where it is irrigated).
• Look out for CIRCULAR cultivated lands – which are this shape due to the central
irrigation pivot.

15.3. Settlements
• Identify the settlement pattern (dispersed/ nucleated).
• Identify street patterns.
• Evidence of Apartheid Planning:
▪ ‘Townships’ are often seen outside ‘White towns’ on maps.
▪ The plot sizes are much smaller in townships, with less services.
▪ Buffer zones e.g., roads, rivers & railway lines, separate the ‘white’ and ‘black’
areas.

maps.sagta.org.
za
Geography Revision Notes 2023 Page 18
15.4. Economic Geography
• Know the different types of agriculture.
• Commercial farmers sell to market. Water management will be evident e.g.,
Irrigation schemes, reservoirs, weirs and dams.
• Subsistence farming occurs when farming is done for one’s own needs.
• Extensive – on vast areas e.g., cattle farming.
• Intensive – smaller areas with a patchwork pattern of green fields, all land used
e.g., growing vegetables in tunnels/ vineyards.

Tomato plants in a greenhouse.

Photo: Netafim South Africa from farmersweekly.co.za

Geography Revision Notes 2023 Page 19

 GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS (GIS) NOTES

1. Information layers
• GIS is a computerized system that deals with the digital collection of layers of spatial
data about a place, imbedded one of top of another (overlaying).
• The data is collected and used to answer various problems and offer models to
suggest possible solutions.
• Examples:
▪ Natural: Vegetation, drainage (hydrography), elevation (relief), etc.
▪ Man-made: Roads, land use, boundaries, built-up areas etc.

desktop.arcgis.com

2. Components of GIS

3. GIS concepts:

3.1. Remote Sensing

• The method of obtaining data about the environment and surface of the Earth from a
distance through an aircraft or satellite.

Geography Revision Notes 2023 Page 20

3.1.1. Passive remote sensing
• A system with sensors that measure energy signals radiating from Earth.

3.1.2. Active remote sensing

• A system that sends out its own radiations towards a landscape target on Earth.
• The sensors on the satellite then measure the radiation which the landscape target
sends back to the satellite.

dreamstime.com

3.2. Resolution
• Resolution refers to the sharpness of an image.
• It is a measure of the accuracy or detail of a graphic display expressed as dots per
inch or pixels per line.

sciencebuddies.org

3.3. Data management

• Computers (hardware) are used with special programs (software) that handle the
data.
• GIS software is able to handle spatial and attribute data:
• An ENTITY is a concrete feature that forms a unit e.g., a house, road, river or field.
• An ATTRIBUTE is information or data about a spatial feature, e.g., information about
a school could include the name and the number of learners.
• The OBJECT is the point or set of points that a GIS uses to represent a concrete
entity e.g., Points, Lines and Polygons
• Every GIS depends on having a database management system.
• This is a set of computer software that can store, retrieve and reorganise attribute
information.

Geography Revision Notes 2023 Page 21

3.3.1. Spatial data:

• This is data about the visual representation of

a geographic space such as the location and
shape of geographic features, for example:
▪ The co-ordinates of Bloemfontein are
29˚ 06΄S and 26˚ 12΄E
▪ Bloemfontein has an altitude of 1 398 m.

Google Earth

3.3.2. Attribute data

• This data is descriptions, measurements, and/or classifications of geographic
features in a map.
• Here are some attributes (characteristics) of Bloemfontein taken from various
school atlases:
▪ Population of 645 441.
▪ Vegetation is grassland.
▪ Mean annual rainfall is 559 mm.
▪ Mean temperature of 22,5°C in January, and of 8,5°C in July.

3.4. Storage of data

• Data that is fed into a GIS can be stored in two possible ways:

3.4.1. Raster method:

• Each given area is divided into rectangular grid cells (pixels or dots).
• A graphic is made up of a large number of pixels, each pixel having a location &
colour value in a grid-like format.
• Aerial photographs and satellite images are generally in a raster format.

Point Line Polygon

Focus Geography Grade 12

Geography Revision Notes 2023 Page 22

3.4.2. Vector method:
• This method uses points, lines & areas inside polygons to define data.
• These features are recorded in a digital format with a value attached to every location
co-ordinate.
• Vector graphics are used to represent features like roads, rivers, housing.

POINTS LINES POLYGONS

• These points are • A line consists of a series • A polygon consists of a
indicated by their of co-ordinates that series of co-ordinates
coordinates. indicates a small, one- that form a boundary
• For example, a dimensional geographical together.
lighthouse or a reservoir object. • The two-dimensional
or post office. • The start and end point centre that is boarded by
of a line are called a polygon is called an
NODES. area.
• For example, a street, • For example, a dam,
river or railway line. recreational area or a
park.

Marilda van Niekerk

• Raster and Vector graphics are frequently used together.

Raster method Real world Vector method

researchgate.net

4. Important concepts

4.1. Data standardisation

• GIS have been developed over the past 50 years with many different formats.
• There is a great increase in the number of organisations collecting data.
• It is now essential that all organisations producing and using GIS standardise the
methods they are using to collect and store data.

Geography Revision Notes 2023 Page 23

4.2. Data sharing
• Gathering high quality imagery and capturing data is very expensive, so it is
important for GIS practitioners to share information.
• Standardising makes data sharing easier.
▪ Advantages: Makes a wide range of data available to people all over the world.
▪ Avoids expensive repetition of data acquisition like placings sensors in orbit.
▪ It reduces workload and costs.

4.3. Data security

• Some government data is freely available to the public.
• Other information like tax records, bank accounts, medical information etc. is
confidential and must be protected.

5. Data manipulation
• This is the skilful treatment of information to make it more meaningful.
• A GIS allows us to analyse large amounts of information quickly.

5.1. Data integration

• Primary geographic data – data is downloaded directly into the GIS package from
remotely-sensed satellite images and GPS.
• Secondary data like paper maps & photos have to be converted into a computer-
readable form by a process called digitising.
• GIS is not just a way of making maps. It is a powerful way of making use of vast sets
of data and looking for patterns, trends and relationships between things.
• Different types of information can be combined in layers to make an analysis.
• The following factors or themes are often used: (Google Earth)
▪ Social factors (population statistics, activities of people)
▪ Land use (residential, industrial, commercial, greenbelts etc.)
▪ Natural features of the landscape (forests, different biomes, relief)
▪ Drainage (where the rivers and wetlands are)
▪ Infrastructure (road, rail and pipelines networks)
▪ Geology (the underlying rock)

5.2. Buffering
• Buffering occurs when lines are drawn a specific distance around a feature
• These areas are also called demarcated areas.
• It is used to:
▪ Determine the floodplain next to a river.
▪ Determine the number of students within a school's catchment area.
▪ Work out the bus routes to and from school.
▪ Plan the possibility of new schools.
▪ Determine the pollution in an area by looking at wind directions (mountain and
valley winds) from the nearest industrial area.

saylordotorg.github.io

Geography Revision Notes 2023 Page 24

5.3. Querying
• Querying is a way of asking questions, normally using a keyword, statement or
logical expression.

5.4. Statistical Analysis

• Statistical analysis helps you to extract additional information from your GIS data that
might not be obvious by simply looking at a map.
• For example, to find the risk of landslides in an area the following layers might be
needed:
▪ Altitude.
▪ Slope angles.
▪ Types of rock.
▪ Rainfall data.
▪ Vegetation cover.
▪ Distance from roads etc.

6. Uses of GIS
• GIS is very useful in any industry.
• Many economic activities can benefit from the analysis of information and many
problems could be solved by using GIS.
• GIS can be used to define boundaries and do government planning e.g., election
results.
• Most cities use a GIS to manage water and power networks.
• Census use GIS to create maps and models of the location and distribution of
people.
• GIS is used to map and manage protected areas.
• GIS can be used to decide where to put water points in a mountain bike race.
• GIS is used to manage disasters – we use it to gather and analyse all the
information so that we can reduce the impact and manage the consequences for
example, it can be used to decide where an exclusion zone should go around an
active volcano.

researchgate.net

Geography Revision Notes 2023 Page 25