ELB1502

Study Guide

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING ROBOTICS

Unit 4: Introduction to Robot Control

Diploma in Electrical Engineering

In the Department of Electrical Engineering

School of Engineering

College of Science, Engineering & Technology (CSET)

University of South Africa

Compiled by: Dr. E.M. Migabo (PhD Computer Science & DEng Electrical Engineering)

Instructors: Dr. M.E. Migabo & Mr. A.M. Dlamini

May, 2023
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Study Guide

I. Learning objectives

The learning objectives for the study unit "Introduction to Robot Control" include:

a. Understand the difference between open-loop and closed-loop control and their
advantages and disadvantages.
b. Understand the concept of feedback control and how it can be used to improve the
performance of a robot.
c. Understand the principles of proportional, integral, derivative, and PID controllers and
how they can be used to control a robot's motion.
d. Understand the concept of stability and how it relates to robot control.

II. Study Unit Summary

II.1. Open loop versus Closed Loop Control (benefits and disadvantages)

In robotics, control refers to the process of regulating the behavior of a robot. The two main types
of control systems used in robotics are open-loop and closed-loop control. Understanding the
difference between these two systems, along with their advantages and disadvantages, is essential
in robotics.

Open-loop control is a simple and straightforward method that involves sending a pre-determined
set of commands to the robot without any feedback. The robot follows these commands regardless
of any external factors that may affect its performance. This type of control is often used in robots
that perform repetitive tasks, such as assembly line operations, where the robot's environment
remains constant. One example of an open-loop control system is the programming of a robot arm
to move to a specific location.

On the other hand, closed-loop control is a more complex system that involves feedback from the
robot's sensors to adjust its behavior in real-time. The robot continually receives feedback from its
sensors, which it uses to modify its movements and actions. This type of control is often used in
robots that operate in dynamic environments, where external factors may affect their performance,
such as obstacle avoidance or path planning. One example of a closed-loop control system is a
robot vacuum cleaner that uses sensors to detect the presence of obstacles and adjust its path
accordingly.

The advantages of open-loop control include simplicity, low cost, and high speed. However, it has
several disadvantages, such as a lack of adaptability and the inability to compensate for external
factors that may affect the robot's performance. Closed-loop control, on the other hand, offers
adaptability, accuracy, and robustness. However, it is more complex and expensive than open-
loop control.

A practical example of the advantages of closed-loop control can be seen in robotic arm motion
control. Without feedback, the arm may fail to move to the desired location due to unexpected
obstacles or external factors. By using closed-loop control, the arm can adjust its movements in
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real-time based on feedback from sensors, such as cameras or distance sensors, to ensure that it
reaches its target location.

In summary, understanding the difference between open-loop and closed-loop control, along with
their advantages and disadvantages, is crucial in robotics. Open-loop control is suitable for
repetitive tasks in a static environment, while closed-loop control is more suited to dynamic
environments where external factors may affect the robot's performance. By selecting the
appropriate control system for a particular task, robots can perform efficiently and effectively,
increasing their reliability and accuracy.

II.2. Feedback Control and How it can be used to improve the performance of a robot.

Feedback control is an essential concept in robotics that involves using information from sensors
to modify the behavior of a robot. The main goal of feedback control is to improve the performance
of a robot by adjusting its actions in real-time based on its environment. Understanding how
feedback control works and its various applications is crucial in developing efficient and effective
robots.

The basic concept of feedback control involves comparing the desired output of a system with its
actual output and using this information to adjust the input. In robotics, feedback control involves
the use of sensors to provide information about the robot's environment, position, and other
relevant variables. This information is then used to modify the robot's behavior to achieve the
desired outcome.

One of the main advantages of feedback control is that it allows robots to adapt to changes in their
environment, making them more versatile and robust. For example, a robot used in a
manufacturing plant may need to adjust its movements based on changes in the position of the
objects it is handling. By using feedback control, the robot can adjust its movements in real-time
based on feedback from sensors, such as cameras or proximity sensors.

There are several different types of feedback control systems used in robotics, including
Proportional (P), Integral (I), Derivative (D), and Proportional Integral Derivative (PID)
controllers. These controllers use different methods to adjust the behavior of a robot based on
feedback information from sensors.

For example, a PID controller uses a combination of P, I, and D feedback to adjust the input of a
system based on the error between the desired output and the actual output. This type of controller
is commonly used in robots that require precise control, such as robotic arms or autonomous
vehicles.

Overall, feedback control is an essential concept in robotics that allows robots to adapt to changes
in their environment, increasing their versatility and robustness. By using feedback control
systems such as P, I, D, or PID controllers, robots can achieve precise and efficient performance
in a wide range of applications. Understanding the different types of feedback control and their
applications is crucial in developing advanced robotics systems that can perform complex tasks
with high accuracy and reliability.

II.3. Understand the principles of proportional, integral, derivative and PID controllers and
how they can be used to control a robot’s motion.
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Proportional, Integral, Derivative (PID) controllers are an essential tool in controlling the motion
of robots. PID controllers use feedback from sensors to modify a robot's behavior and achieve the
desired outcome. Understanding the principles of PID controllers and how to use them is crucial
in developing efficient and effective robots.

A proportional controller adjusts the robot's behavior in proportion to the error between the desired
output and the actual output. The proportional controller's output is proportional to the error signal,
and the higher the error signal, the greater the controller's output. The proportional controller is
effective in reducing overshoot, but it can lead to steady-state errors, which is the difference
between the desired output and the actual output when the error signal is zero.

An integral controller reduces steady-state errors by summing up the errors over time and adjusting
the robot's behavior accordingly. The integral controller's output is proportional to the integral of
the error signal, and it adjusts the robot's behavior to eliminate the steady-state error. The integral
controller is effective in systems with constant disturbances, but it can lead to overshoot.

A derivative controller adjusts the robot's behavior based on the rate of change of the error signal.
The derivative controller's output is proportional to the rate of change of the error signal, and it
adjusts the robot's behavior to anticipate and reduce overshoot. The derivative controller is
effective in systems that require rapid response, but it can amplify noise.

A PID controller combines the principles of proportional, integral, and derivative controllers to
achieve the desired outcome. The PID controller's output is a combination of the three components,
and it adjusts the robot's behavior based on the error signal, its integral, and its derivative. A well-
tuned PID controller can improve the robot's response time and accuracy, reduce steady-state
errors, and eliminate overshoot.

There are various methods for tuning PID controllers, such as the Ziegler-Nichols method, the
Cohen-Coon method, and the Lambda method. These methods involve adjusting the controller's
gains, which are the parameters that determine how the controller responds to changes in the error
signal.

In conclusion, understanding the principles of proportional, integral, derivative, and PID

controllers and how to use them is essential in developing efficient and effective robots. These
controllers use feedback from sensors to adjust the robot's behavior and achieve the desired
outcome. By tuning PID controllers using various methods, robots can achieve precise and
efficient control of their motion in a wide range of applications.

II.4. Understand the concept of stability and how it relates to robot control.

The concept of stability is crucial in robot control, as it ensures that the robot's behavior is
predictable and safe. A stable system is one that responds to disturbances and returns to its original
state over time. In this chapter, we will discuss the concept of stability in robot control and how it
relates to different control methods.

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The stability of a robot system can be analyzed using transfer functions, which represent the
relationship between the input and output of the system. The transfer function of a robot system
can be expressed as:

G(s) = Y(s)/X(s)

where Y(s) is the output of the system, X(s) is the input of the system, and s is the Laplace variable.

In robot control, stability can be achieved using different control methods such as proportional,
integral, derivative, and PID controllers. To determine the stability of a control system, we need
to analyze the closed-loop transfer function of the system. The closed-loop transfer function of a
control system can be expressed as:

T(s) = G(s)/(1 + G(s)H(s))

where H(s) is the transfer function of the feedback path.

A control system is stable if all the poles of the closed-loop transfer function are in the left half of
the s-plane. The poles represent the points where the transfer function becomes infinite, and they
determine the behavior of the system. If any of the poles are in the right half of the s-plane, the
system will be unstable, and it may oscillate or diverge over time.

Example problem: Consider a robot arm with a transfer function of G(s) = K/(s^2 + 2ζωn s +
ωn^2), where K = 10, ζ = 0.5, and ωn = 5 rad/s. Determine the stability of the robot arm system.

Solution: The closed-loop transfer function of the system can be expressed as:

T(s) = K/(s^2 + 2ζωn s + ωn^2 + K)

The poles of the closed-loop transfer function can be determined by setting the denominator equal
to zero:

s^2 + 2ζωn s + ωn^2 + K = 0

Using the given values, we can solve for the poles:

s = -0.5 ± 2.2236i

Since the real part of the poles is negative, the system is stable.

Example problem: Consider a robot arm with a proportional controller with a transfer function of
G(s) = Kp, where Kp = 2. Determine the stability of the robot arm system.

Solution: The closed-loop transfer function of the system can be expressed as:

T(s) = Kp/(1 + Kp)

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The pole of the closed-loop transfer function can be determined by setting the denominator equal
to zero:

1 + Kp = 0

Solving for s, we get:

s = -Kp

Since Kp is positive, the pole is in the right half of the s-plane, indicating that the system is
unstable.

In conclusion, stability is a crucial concept in robot control, and it can be achieved using different
control methods. Analyzing the closed-loop transfer function of a control system can help
determine the stability of the system and ensuring that all the poles are in the left half of the s-
plane is necessary for stability.

II.5. Prepared Slides

A set of summary slides on the chapter has been prepared and is also shared with this study unit.
Please go through them.

III. Tutorials

Questions:

Here are 20 test-type tutorial questions based on Chapter "Introduction to Robot control" from
"Introduction to Robotics Mechanics and Control" by John Craig:

1. What is the difference between open-loop and closed-loop control?

2. What is feedback control and how does it improve robot performance?
3. What is the difference between a proportional, integral, derivative, and PID
controller?
4. What is the transfer function of a system?
5. How do you calculate the error signal in a feedback control system?
6. What is steady-state error?
7. What is the relationship between gain and stability in a control system?
8. What is the concept of a root locus plot and how is it used in control system
design?
9. What is the Nyquist stability criterion?
10. What is the Bode plot and how is it used in control system design?
11. What is the concept of phase margin and how is it related to stability?
12. What is overshoot and how can it be minimized in a control system?
13. What is rise time and how can it be improved in a control system?
14. What is settling time and how can it be improved in a control system?
15. What is a lead compensator and how is it used to improve stability in a control
system?
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16. What is a lag compensator and how is it used to improve stability in a control
system?
17. What is the concept of feedforward control?
18. How can trajectory planning be used to plan the motion of a robot?
19. What is the concept of joint space and task space trajectories?
20. What are the advantages and disadvantages of joint space and task space
trajectories?
Answers:
1. Open-loop control does not use feedback while closed-loop control uses feedback to adjust
the output.
2. Feedback control involves measuring the output of a system and using that measurement
to adjust the input to improve performance. It can improve accuracy, stability, and
responsiveness.
3. A proportional controller adjusts the output based on the magnitude of the error signal. An
integral controller adjusts the output based on the accumulated error over time. A
derivative controller adjusts the output based on the rate of change of the error signal. A
PID controller combines all three controllers.
4. The transfer function is a mathematical relationship between the input and output of a
system.
5. The error signal is the difference between the desired output and the actual output of a
system.
6. Steady-state error is the difference between the desired output and the actual output when
the system has reached a steady state.
7. Gain and stability have an inverse relationship in a control system.
8. A root locus plot is a graphical representation of the roots of the characteristic equation of
a system. It is used to analyze the stability of the system.
9. The Nyquist stability criterion is a graphical method used to determine the stability of a
control system.
10. A Bode plot is a graphical representation of the frequency response of a system. It is used
to analyze the stability and performance of the system.
11. Phase margin is the amount of additional phase shift needed to cause the system to become
unstable. It is related to stability because a system with a large phase margin is more stable
than a system with a small phase margin.
12. Overshoot is the amount by which the output exceeds the desired value before settling. It
can be minimized by adjusting the controller gain or using damping techniques.
13. Rise time is the time it takes for the system output to rise from 10% to 90% of the desired
value. It can be improved by increasing the controller gain or using faster actuators.
14. Settling time is the time it takes for the system output to settle within a certain range around
the desired value. It can be improved by using damping techniques or increasing the
controller gain.
15. A lead compensator adds a lead to the phase of the transfer function. It is used to improve
stability and increase the speed of the system.
16. A lag compensator adds a lag to the phase of the transfer function. It is used to improve
stability and reduce the steady-state error of the system.
17. Feedforward control involves using a model of the system to predict the output and adjust
the input accordingly.
18. Trajectory planning involves planning the motion of a robot in order to achieve a desired
task. It can be used to optimize performance and ensure safety.

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19. Joint space trajectories plan the motion of the robot in terms of the movement of its
individual joints. Task space trajectories plan the motion of the robot in terms of the
movement of its end effector.
20. Joint space trajectories are simpler to plan but can be less precise, while task space
trajectories are more complex to plan but can be more precise.

Exercises and problems:

Exercises & answers:

1. Define open-loop control and provide an example of a robot that uses this type of control.
Answer: Open-loop control is a method of controlling a robot where the control input is
predetermined and does not depend on the output of the system. An example of a robot
that uses open-loop control is a CNC milling machine.
2. Define closed-loop control and provide an example of a robot that uses this type of control.
Answer: Closed-loop control is a method of controlling a robot where the control input is
based on the output of the system. An example of a robot that uses closed-loop control is
a self-driving car.
3. What are the advantages of closed-loop control over open-loop control in robotics?
Answer: The advantages of closed-loop control over open-loop control in robotics are that
it can compensate for external disturbances and system uncertainties, it can provide better
accuracy and precision, and it can adapt to changing conditions.
4. Explain the concept of feedback control and how it is used in robotics. Answer: Feedback
control is a type of closed-loop control where the output of the system is compared to the
desired output, and the difference between them is used to adjust the control input. In
robotics, feedback control is used to improve the performance of a robot by continuously
adjusting the control input based on the robot's current state.
5. What is a proportional controller, and how does it work? Answer: A proportional controller
is a type of feedback controller where the control input is proportional to the difference
between the desired output and the current output. It works by reducing the error between
the desired output and the current output.
6. What is an integral controller, and how does it work? Answer: An integral controller is a
type of feedback controller where the control input is proportional to the accumulated error
between the desired output and the current output over time. It works by reducing steady-
state errors in the system.
7. What is a derivative controller, and how does it work? Answer: A derivative controller is
a type of feedback controller where the control input is proportional to the rate of change
of the error between the desired output and the current output. It works by reducing
overshoot and damping oscillations in the system.
8. What is a PID controller, and how does it work? Answer: A PID controller is a type of
feedback controller that combines proportional, integral, and derivative control to improve
the performance of a system. It works by adjusting the control input based on the error, the
accumulated error, and the rate of change of the error.
9. What is stability in the context of robot control, and why is it important? Answer: Stability
in the context of robot control refers to the ability of the system to return to its equilibrium
state after being disturbed. It is important because an unstable robot can lead to
unpredictable behavior and even damage to the robot or its environment.

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10. What is the difference between asymptotic stability and exponential stability? Answer:
Asymptotic stability means that the system returns to its equilibrium state over time
without oscillating, while exponential stability means that the system returns to its
equilibrium state with a certain rate of decay.
11. How can the stability of a robotic system be analyzed? Answer: The stability of a robotic
system can be analyzed by examining the system's transfer function, analyzing the poles
and zeros of the transfer function, and using techniques such as the Routh-Hurwitz criterion
or the Nyquist stability criterion.
12. What is the concept of phase margin in stability analysis, and how is it related to robot
control?

Phase margin is a key concept in stability analysis, particularly in the design of feedback
control systems for robots. It measures the amount of phase shift that can be added to a system
before it becomes unstable. In other words, it represents the amount of additional delay that a
system can tolerate before it starts to oscillate or become unstable.

The phase margin is directly related to the stability of the feedback control system. A higher
phase margin means that the system is more stable and less likely to become unstable under
external disturbances or changes in the operating conditions.

In robot control, the phase margin is particularly important for systems that require fast and
precise motion. For example, in a pick-and-place application, the robot arm must move quickly
and accurately to pick up an object and move it to a new location. If the control system does
not have sufficient phase margin, the robot arm may start to oscillate or overshoot the target
position, leading to slower cycle times and reduced productivity.

To ensure stability in robot control systems, it is essential to analyze the phase margin and
adjust the system parameters accordingly. This can be done using simulation tools or by
measuring the system response to a step or frequency input.

Problems
1. A robot is required to move from point A to point B, where the distance between the two
points is 10 units. If the robot has a maximum speed of 2 units per second, how long will
it take to complete the task using open-loop control?

Answer: The robot will take 5 seconds to complete the task using open-loop control.

2. A robot arm has a proportional controller with a gain of 3. If the error between the desired
and actual position is 2 units, what will be the output of the controller?

Answer: The output of the controller will be 6 units.

3. A robot arm has a derivative controller with a gain of 2. If the error between the desired
and actual position is changing at a rate of 3 units per second, what will be the output of
the controller?

Answer: The output of the controller will be 6 units per second.

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4. A robot is required to maintain a constant velocity of 4 units per second using closed-loop
control. If the robot has an acceleration limit of 2 units per second squared, what is the
maximum distance it can travel before it reaches its maximum speed?

Answer: The maximum distance the robot can travel before it reaches its maximum speed is 8
units.

5. A robot arm has a proportional controller with a gain of 4. If the desired position is 10 units
and the actual position is 8 units, what is the error?

Answer: The error is 2 units.

6. A robot is required to follow a trajectory given by the equation y = x^2 using closed-loop
control. If the robot has a proportional controller with a gain of 2, what is the output of the
controller when the robot is at x = 3?

Answer: The output of the controller is 12 units.

7. A robot arm has a proportional-integral controller with a proportional gain of 2 and an

integral gain of 0.5. If the desired position is 10 units and the actual position is 8 units,
what is the error after 4 seconds?

Answer: The error after 4 seconds is 0 units.

8. A robot is required to maintain a constant position using closed-loop control. If the robot
has a derivative controller with a gain of 1, what is the output of the controller when the
robot is at its desired position?

Answer: The output of the controller is 0 units.

9. A robot arm has a proportional-integral-derivative controller with a proportional gain of 2,

an integral gain of 0.5, and a derivative gain of 1. If the desired position is 10 units and the
actual position is 8 units, what is the output of the controller after 2 seconds?

Answer: The output of the controller after 2 seconds is 14 units.

10. A robot is required to move from point A to point B, where the distance between the two
points is 10 units. If the robot has a maximum acceleration of 1 unit per second squared,
what is the minimum time it will take to complete the task using closed-loop control?

Answer: The minimum time it will take to complete the task using closed-loop control is 7.07
seconds.

11. A robot arm has a derivative controller with a gain of 3. If the error between the desired
and actual position is changing at a rate of -2 units per second, what will be the output of
the controller?

Answer: The output of the controller will be -6 units per second.

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12. A robot is required to follow a sinusoidal trajectory given by the equation y = 5sin(2x)
using closed-loop control. If the robot has a proportional controller with a gain of 2 , what
is the steady-state error in following the trajectory?

To find the steady-state error, we first need to find the transfer function of the closed-loop
control system. The transfer function of a proportional controller is simply Kp, where Kp is
the gain of the controller.

Let e(t) be the error between the desired trajectory and the actual trajectory of the robot. Then,
the closed-loop transfer function T(s) is given by:

T(s) = Y(s)/E(s) = Kp/(1 + Kp)

where Y(s) is the Laplace transform of the output (i.e., the actual trajectory of the robot) and
E(s) is the Laplace transform of the error.

The steady-state error can be found by taking the limit of the error as t approaches infinity.
Since the input to the system is a sinusoidal function with no steady-state value, we need to
use the final value theorem:

e_ss = lim_{t->\infty} e(t) = lim_{s->0} sE(s)

Using the expression for the closed-loop transfer function, we can write:

E(s) = Y_d(s) - Y(s) = Y_d(s) - T(s)Y_d(s) = Y_d(s)(1 - T(s))

where Y_d(s) is the Laplace transform of the desired trajectory.

Substituting the given values, we get:

T(s) = Kp/(1 + Kp) = 2/3

Y_d(s) = 10s/(s^2 + 4)

Therefore,

E(s) = Y_d(s)(1 - T(s)) = 10s/(s^2 + 4)(1 - 2/3) = 30s/(s^2 + 4)

Taking the inverse Laplace transform, we get:

e(t) = 15sin(2t)

Therefore, the steady-state error is 15.

IV. References
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[1] J. Craig, "Introduction to Robot Control," in Introduction to Robotics Mechanics and Control,
4th ed. Harlow, England: Pearson Education Limited, 2015, pp. 1-35.

[2] Brogan, W. L. (1990). Feedback control principles. In Modern control technology:

components and systems (2nd ed., pp. 302-378). Prentice Hall.

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