BPHY: 3101 EXPERIMENTAL PHYSICS

This course covers area of

1. What constitute experimental physics?
2. Factors to be considered in measurement of physical quantities
3. Determination of uncertainties in experimental measurements
4. Graph plotting
5. Analysis of experimental results
6. Writing of experimental reports
Nature of experimental physics
Physics can be considered to be made of theoretical and experimental physics. Experimental
physics is an aspect of Physics concerned with observation of physical phenomena and
experiments. In this respect, it deals with data acquisition, [measurement] data acquisition
methods/techniques[instrument use and handling] and conceptualization of experiments and
the realization of the experiments in the laboratory. Experimental physics is different from
theoretical physics in as much as theoretical physics deals with predicting and explaining
physical behavior of nature rather than acquiring knowledge about its physical quantities.
Experimental physics provides data about the universe which can be analyzed to understand the
universe. Experimental physics is therefore very important in the study of physics because in
addition to discovering relationship between data for meaningful interpretation and explanation
of nature it is also used to test the validity of theories. The classical theories of Newton’s law
have been disregarded in favour of Quantum mechanics and Special theory of Relativity for
example at micro particle level through results of experiments
The study of physics in general is a way of acquiring knowledge about natural and artificial
phenomena and objects by use of observation, experimentation and by use physical concepts.
The physical concepts are novel ideas developed and adopted by scientists to describe and
explain interactions and structure of all physical objects in the universe. A particle for example is
a concept that refers to a point in space that does not have dimensions and can only undergo
spinning action but not rotational motion. A field is another concept that refers to a region in
space where an interactive force is experienced by a body. Energy is another central concept in
physics that refers to the ability of bodies to influence others due to their state of composition or
behavior.
The study of Physics o f n a t u r a l w o r l d h a s b e e n p o s s i b l e b y f i r s t c o n s i d e r i n g
everything around in the universe being made of matter and considering
matter being composed of particles of matter in terms of entities such as
atoms, molecules, nucleons ,protons, neutrons, electrons etc. The
arrangement and interaction of these particles can be described and
explained by use of physical quantities. A physical quantity in physics is

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 a property of a substance, material or a system that can be quantified
and measured. It is a measurable quantity that can be used to
describe and explain the structure and behavior of matter .
Practical Physics is therefore concerned with handling the
measuring instruments and its units to get reliable values of
physical quantities and manipulation of the values obtained to
give dependable interpretation of the structure or process being
investigated.
[Link] Instrument
1.1 Techniques of reading Measuring Instruments

The success of carrying out an experiment depends to a large extend on how well the
apparatus has been set up and in particular how well the measuring instruments have been
connected and read. Some of the instruments may be complex and difficult to use but a
little attention and help from a teacher is advised and should always be sought. The
accuracy of any reading from an instrument depends on the characteristics of the
instrument and how the characteristics have been considered in reading the instrument. In
particular pay attention to the sensitivity and calibration of the instruments.

The best method of learning how to use an instrument is for one to use it but not simply be
told how to use it. For a start there are general guidelines you need to be aware of about
instruments. When given an opportunity to use an instrument, observe the following simple
guidelines if you are to get accurate readings.

 First find out if the scale has been marked and calibrated with an appropriate unit and if
so whether is linear or non-linear. This helps you decide whether the estimation of
instrumental error is uniform or not.
 Look for the number of ranges of scales on the instrument and decide which one to use.
For example a voltmeter may have 0-5V range and 0-1.5V range.
 Find out the smallest scale division or graduation of the scale you have chosen. It may be
for example 0.1V, 0.2V, 0.5V or even 1.0 V on the voltmeter. The choice of scale
determines the accuracy of your reading or experiment.
 Examine the pointer position to find out if the instrument has a zero error. You should
always find out if the pointer of an instrument either exactly corresponding to the zero
mark or not when not connected. Such an error if detected should be taken into account
or the pointer should
be re-adjusted to zero mark.

 Read the instrument when the line of sight of the eye is in the same plane and parallel
with the pointer position and the scale mark.

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 P R S

Figure 1

The best position for line of sight to avoid parallax error in the above Figure is R.

1.2 Units of Measuring Instruments

Experiments in Physics involve measurement of physical quantities and most the physical
quantities have units.

A physical quantity is expressed as a combination of a numerical

value [magnitude] and a unit. The physical quantity Q can be
expressed as Q=n U, where Q is the physical quantity, n is the
numerical value of the quantity and u is the unit in which it is
measured.
Study the table of the commonly used physical quantities their units and their symbols in
the table below. You need to acquaint yourself with the names, units and symbols of some
of these commonly used physical quantities you may meet in your physics textbooks. There
are as given table 1 below:-

Table 1: Commonly used Physical Quantities

Physical Quantity Symbol of Unit of Symbol of

Quantity Quantity Unit
Length L metre M
Mass M kilogram Kg
Time T second S
Temperature ɵ kelvin K
Electric charge A ampere A
Luminous intensity I candela Cd
Amount of substance N mole Mol
Capacitance

Displacement

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Angular displacement ᶿ radian Rad

Volume V litre L

Force F Newton N

Power P watt W

Energy or Work E Joule J

Pressure P Pascal Pa

Frequency F hertz Hz

Absorbed doze of radiation E gray Gy[J/kg]

Activity of Nuclear radiation A Becquerel Bq[s-1]

Potential difference or V volt V

voltage

Electric resistance R Ohm Ω

Magnetic flux ᶲ webers Wb

Magnetic flux density B Tesla T

Inductance I henry H
Electric charge Q Coulomb C
Conductance C siemen S
Capacitance C Farad F
Illumination I Lux Lx
Luminous flux F Lumen Lm
Effective Radiation dose Q Sievert Sv
Supplementary Quantity
Plane angle ɵ radian Rad
Solid angle Ω steradian Sr
It is therefore important that all values of physical quantities should have
numerical figures with their appropriate units. Writing physical quantities
without their units renders them useless unless the quantity is one of the
few without units attached to them like refractive index. Remember that
there are some quantities which express ratios of the same quantity but still
have units. An example is the ratio of the length of an arc divided by the

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radius of the arc. The unit for this is the radian. You should always write
units in full or use the correct symbols
The measurement of a physical quantity requires comparison with a
reference. Each unit of a fundamental quantity has a reference unit which
are different. Since each quantity has a different reference and unit, we
c a n n o t c o m p a r e d i f f e r e n t p h y s i c a l q u a n t i t i e s . One cannot compare the time of
travel from point A to B with the distance between t h e two points, although two quantities
may be related. The time of travel is a physical quantity, time while the distance is a physical
quantity, length. They are completely different types of physical quantities measured by
different references and units.

T h e m a k i n g s e n s e o f a p h y s i c a l p h e n o m e n o n o n e begins with observations of

phenomena. Through rigorous and controlled experi- mentation and logical thought process, the
physical phenomena are described quantitatively using mathematical tools. Any quantitative

stick. In this process we recognize a very obvious fact that properties of different kinds cannot be
description of a property requires comparison with a reference For example, length needs a meter-

compared. You cannot compare the time of travel from point A to B with the distance

quantity, time while the distance is a physical quantity, length. They are completely different
between two points, although two quantities may be related. The time of travel is a physical

types of physical quantities measured by different references and units.

Scientists found that it was very inefficient and confusing to use different [Link] decided to
set up a universal system of units, International System of Unit (SI).

You do not have to write the units of physical quantities in full but you can use the accepted
symbols of the units of these physical quantities. You also need to know the prefixes for the
sub-units. You will find that very small and very large values of physical quantities are
written using prefixes instead of using power of ten in conjunction with the units. For
example a length of 0.005m is expressed as 5mm instead of 5x10 -[Link] physical
quantities such as capacitance are expressed using prefixes as 5pF or 100μF. It is therefore
very useful to acquaint yourself with the prefixes and their symbols.

The commonly used prefixes and their symbols are as given table 2 below:-

Table 2: Commonly used prefixes and their symbols

PREFIX SYMBOL OF PREFIX POWER OF TEN

Exa- E 1018

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 P

Peta- T 1015

Tera- G 1012

Giga- M 109

Mega- k 106

Kilo- h 103

Hecto- da 102

Deca- d 101

Deci- c 10-1

Centi- m 10-2

Milli- μ 10-3

Micro- n 10-6

Nano- p 10-9

Pico- f 10-12

Femto- a 10-15

Atto- 10-18

There are guiding rules that should be followed in writing values of physical
quantities and their units as spelt out below:-
 Record a measured value of a physical quantity in the unit of the
instrument used. For example if you measured an electric current in a
circuit using a milliameter as 10 mA, do not record it as 10 x10-3 A but
simply write it as 10 mA.
 Note that there should be a space between the value of a physical
quantity and the unit
 A measured quantity should be recorded in one unit. E.g. l=15.2 cm and
NOT as
l =15 cm 2 mm.
 The plural form of a unit carries an s only when it is written in full but not
when the symbol has been used. E.g. “The height was ten metres.” “The
height was 10 m.”

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 A unit named after a personality should not start with a capital letter if it is
written in full but the symbol should always start with a capital letter as is
defined.. E.g. “The weight was five newtons.” Or “The weight was 5 N.”
 Never put a full stop after a symbol of a unit except when it is at the end
of a sentence.

 When two or more unit symbols are used to express a derived physical
quantity they should be separated by a single space. E.g.”Moment of
force
τ = 20 N m”
 Unit symbols used to express a physical quantity in a quotient form should
involve the use of a negative indices. E.g. “The velocity was 25 m s-1.”.
Take care and do not write the above unit as [Link] would stand for per
millisecond and not metre per second. Prefix symbol and unit symbol are
written close to each other but unit symbols are separated by a space.
 The symbol for a prefix should always come before the unit symbol. E.g.
10 Mm for ten mega metres or 10 x 106 metres. (Study table for the
different symbols of unit prefixes )
 Do not leave any space between a prefix symbol and the unit symbol.
E.g.” The figure 10 ms stands for ten millisecond but 10 m s stands for
ten metre seconds”
 Use only one prefix symbol in expressing a unit of a physical quantity and
attach it to the first unit except for few cases such as for density in g cm -3.
Electric field should for example be expressed as kV m -1 but NOT as V
mm-1.
 The final calculated values of a quantity after substituting them into a
formulae or equation should always be in SI units and expressed in
standard form or using standard prefixes.

PRACTICAL EXERCISE 1

Study the table of symbols of prefixes in order to attempt these exercises.

[Link] the following quantities using the most appropriate standard prefix symbols

(i) 1.2 x 10-19 m (v) 2 x1016 Hz (ix) 6 x 1019 Ω

(ii) 1.6 x 10-7 H (vi) 1.7 x 102 m (x) 1.5 x 10-2 m

(iii) 78 x 105 Pa (vii) 2.0 x 10-1 J

(iv) 4.2 x 10-10 F (viii) 5 x1013 V

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[Link] the following quantities in standard form but in SI units

(i) 8.9 pF m-1 (v) 9 EN (ix) 7.0 GPa

(ii) 1.5nm (vi) 20 dam (x) 5.2 Tm

(iii) 76 MHz (vii) 1.1 fF

(iv) 69 aN m-2 (viii) 6. 0 hm

2. RECORDING VALUES OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

2.1 Recording of readings from instruments

The readings from instruments should always be written to the number of significant figures
permissible by the instrument. The least permissible figure from a metre rule for example is
0.1 cm. You are allowed to estimate a re4ading up to half of the smallest scale division.
There is no point writing and calculating values involving such a measurement to 0.01 cm.
This implies that the measured or calculated value is more accurate than what the
instrument can give which is not possible.

Significant Figures

In the measured value of a physical quantity, the number of digits about the correctness
of which we are sure plus the next doubtful digit, are called the significant figures.

Rules for Finding Significant Figures

1. All non-zeros digits are significant figures, e.g., 4362 m has 4 significant figures.
2. All zeros occuring between non-zero digits are significant figures, e.g., 1005
has 4 significant figures.
3. All zeros to the right of the last non-zero digit are not significant, e.g., 6250 has
only 3 significant figures.
4. In a digit less than one, all zeros to the right of the decimal point and to the left of a
non- zero digit are not significant, e.g., 0.00325 has only 3 significant figures.
5. All zeros to the right of a non-zero digit in the decimal part are significant, e.g.,
1.4750 has 5 significant figures.

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 Significant Figures in Algebric Operations

(i) In Addition or Subtraction In addition or subtraction of the numerical values the final
result should retain the least decimal place as in the various numerical values. e.g.,

If l1= 4.326 m and l2 = 1.50 m

Then, l1 + l2 = (4.326 + 1.50) m = 5.826 m

As l2 has measured up to two decimal places,

therefore l1 + l2 = 5.83 m

(ii) In Multiplication or Division In multiplication or division of the numerical values, the final
result should retain the least significant figures as the various numerical values. e.g., If
length 1= 12.5 m and breadth b = 4.125 m.

Then, area A = l x b = 12.5 x 4.125 =

51.5625 m2 As l has only 3 significant

figures, therefore

A= 51.6 m2

Rules of Rounding Off Significant Figures

1. If the digit to be dropped is less than 5, then the preceding digit is left unchanged. e.g.,
1.54 is rounded off to 1.5.
2. If the digit to be dropped is greater than 5, then the preceding digit is raised by one.
e.g.,
2.49 is rounded off to 2.5.
3. If the digit to be dropped is 5 followed by digit other than zero, then the preceding
digit is raised by one. e.g., 3.55 is rounded off to 3.6.
4. If the digit to be dropped is 5 or 5 followed by zeros, then the preceding digit is raised
by one, if it is odd and left unchanged if it is even. e.g., 3.750 is rounded off to 3.8 and
4.650 is rounded off to 4.6.
It is also important in that in all mathematical operations, the final results should not show
more accurate values than the input values. This principle requires final figures to be
rounded off so that the final result is consistent with the input values. Numbers are rounded
off to desired number of figures by dropping one or more digits from the right hand side of
the number.

The simple rules for rounding off numbers are as follows:-

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 If the digit to be dropped is less than 5, the digit on the left to be retained remains
unchanged.
E.g. If 4.674 is to be written to 3 significant figures since 4 which is to be dropped is less
than 5, the figure 7 to be retained remains the same and the number after rounding off
becomes 4.67.

 If the digit to be dropped is greater than 5, one is added to the digit on the left to be
retained.
E.g. If 5.646 is to be written to 3 significant figures then since 6 which is to be dropped is
more than 5, the figure 4 to be retained becomes 5 and the number after rounding off
becomes 5.65.

 If the digit to be dropped is 5 followed by a zero, figure one is added to the digit on the
left to be retained provided it is an odd number. If the digit to be retained is an even
number, it is left unchanged.
E.g. If 7.3275 is to be written to four significant figures and since the digit 5 to be
dropped is not followed by any number and digit 7 to be retained is an odd number, it
becomes 7. The rounded off number becomes [Link] the number was 7.3265 it would
become 7.326 after rounding it off to four significant numbers.

 In case of dropping more than one digit, just move to the last digit to be dropped and
apply the above rules.
E.g. If 1.73465484 is to be rounded off to three significant figures, move to digit 4 and
since it is less than 5 the final value becomes 1.73.

2.2 Addition of numbers

The final result of the sum of several numbers should always be rounded off to retain the
number of significant figures up to that of the number with lowest decimal place. Look at the
examples below:-

(i) 47.25 (ii) 6.30 (iii) 87.1 (iv) 75

8.47 0.165 1.244 3.6

+ 0.51 +3.6725 +5.0064 +5.38

Ans. 56.23 10.1375 93.3504 83.98

Ans. 10.14 Ans. 93.4 Ans.84 .

2.3 Subtraction of numbers

(i) 160 (ii) 79.38 (iii) 9.45 (iv) 62

- 45 - 2.23 - 1.2 . - 0.3

Ans. 1 15 Ans. 77.15 8.25 61.7

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 Ans. 8.2 Ans. 62 .

2.4 Multiplication of numbers

The final results should be rounded off such that it contains only as many significant figures
as are in the number with the least estimated figure except where the rounding increases or
reduces the percentage error introduced by the smallest estimate in it by a much greater
value than that of the input number with least estimate.

(i) 3.52 (ii) 258 (iii) 58.3 (iv) 9.123

x 0.2 x 0.612 x 0.064 x 3.05

0.704 157.896 3.7312 27.82515

Ans. 0.7 . Ans.158 . Ans. 3.7 . Ans. 27.83 .

2.5 Division of numbers

The rule for rounding off the final result of division is the same as for multiplication. For
example the number 7.7 has least estimated figure than 7.74 and its smallest estimate of
0.1 introduces an error of 1.3%. If you divide 7.7 by 7.74 you would get 0.99 and if you
rounded it to 1.0 to be consistent with 7.7 in number of significant figures you would
introduce an error of 10% and therefore you have to leave the answer as 0.99.

(i) 5.3 =1.08 (ii) 77.5=21.9 (iii) 21.45=30.0 (iv) 0.036=6

4.9 3.54 0.715 0.006

Note when the numerator and denominator are of same order of magnitude, the answer can
have more number of significant numbers

2.6 Use of standard form

Many calculations in physics involve either very small numbers with very many decimal
places or very large numbers with very many digits. It is much easier to deal with
calculations involving such numbers if they are expressed in standard forms.

Writing a number in standard form shortens writing the numbers and makes detection of
error in the final answer easy too by estimating it. Take for example the following

calculation:-A=

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It could be expressed as A= and the estimated order of magnitude of

A= .However the accurate answer is A=4.2 x [Link] that the

number of significant figures in the answer agrees with that of the number with least
number of significant figure in the calculation and that is 3.5 x 10 -6.

PRACTICAL EXERCISE 2

The following exercises are to help you practice how to round off final values of results of
calculations according to the guidelines you have read above.

1. The inductance L of a coil is expressed as , where N=1000 turns of coil,

a=30 mm, b=12 cm, and h=10 [Link] the value of the inductance of the coil.
(2.8x10-4 H)

2. A uniform magnetic field threads perpendicularly through a single coil of radius r=62cm
and rises from zero to a maximum value Bm=0.75 T in a time interval of 2.1 ms.
Calculate the

(a) maximum magnetic flux through the cross sectional area of the coil.

(9.1x10-1 Wb)

(b) average value of . (4.3x102 V)

3. The magnetic field at the centre of a solenoid is given by the equation B= μ0NI, where
N=400 turns of coil and I=0.75 A.

(a) Find the value of magnetic field B. (3.8x10-4 T)

(b) If the radius of the solenoid is 2.2 cm, find the magnetic flux Φ through the solenoid.
(0.57x10-6Wb)
4. Electrically charged particle each with a charge e=1.9 x 10-19 C are

accelerated by a cyclotron of frequency f=12 MHz.

(a) Find the magnetic field B required to accelerate the charges if , where
m=3.2 x 10-27 kg.(1.3 T)

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 (b) Calculate the energy E gained by a charged particle if where R=51cm.
(1.2x107 J)
5. A generator delivers 370 kW power to a factory using two cables each of 0.35 Ω.

(a) Calculate the voltage drop across the cables if the voltage across the

load at the factory is 80 kV.

(b) What power is lost in the cables?

6. An inductor L=3.0H is connected across an a.c. power supply of [Link] the
current flowing through the inductor if the frequency of the power supply is

(a) 2.0 kHz.

(b) 8.0 kHz.

7. An inductor L=130 mH is connected across an a.c. power supply of 35V of frequency 50

Hz. Find the

(a) inductive reactance of the circuit.

(b) current through the inductor.

8. A capacitor c=25 μF is connected across an a.c, power supply of 25 V and of

frequency [Link] the

(a) capacitive reactance of the circuit.

(b) Current through the circuit.
9. In an oscillating LC circuit the value of L=10 mH and C=1.0 μF.

(a) Find the frequency of oscillation .

(b) What is the period of oscillation?

10 A resistor R=20 Ω and an inductor L=4 H are connected in series with a

5.00V supply. Determine the current I that flows when If the circuit is

closed for t=0.300 s and ,where τ =0.30 s , determine the current

(a) through the circuit.

(b) through the circuit if the resistance is 55.7 Ω and inductance is 7.3 H.

11. A diffraction grating has 10000 rulings within 28.2mm and is illuminated

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 by a mixture of light of wavelength λ=546 nm and λ =546.55 nm. If for a

bright fringe d sinθ=m λ

(a) at what angle will the first bright fringe occur for the first wave length?

(b) calculate the angular separation Δθ between the first order bright

fringes of the two wavelengths if .

12. The displacement current Id between circular discs is given by the

expression .Determine the

(a) value Id if ε0=8.9 x 10-12 F m-1, R=70 cm and .

(b) induced magnetic field B if .

13. Given that speed of light c is given by where ε0=8.85 x 10-12 F m-1

and μ0=1.26 x 10-6 H m-1, calculate the value of c.

14. A point source of light produces power at P0=3.0 kW. Determine the

following at a point 2.0m away from the source

(a) Electric field E given that where μ0=4 x 10-7 H m-1 and
c=3.0 x 108 m s-1.

(b) Magnetic field B given that .

15 A glass plate of refractive index n=1.50 is used to polarize light. Determine

(a) the polarizing angle θp given that tan θp =1.50.

(b) the angle of refraction θr if .

16. Light of wave length λ=546 nm is directed onto a slit of separation

d=0.20mm so as to form the fringes at a distance D=60cm away. Find the

distance Δy between adjacent maxima given that .

17. Angular separation between two points that can be resolved using a lens is

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 given by the expression .If the diameter d of a lens used is 50mm

and wavelength used is 480nm, determine the angular separation for the

wavelength used.

3. ACCURACY OF EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

3.1 Estimation of errors from instruments

Physics experiments always require the setting up of apparatus or circuits and taking of
measurements using measuring instruments. The measured values could be to determine a
physical quantity such as resistivity of a wire or investigating the relationship between two
quantities such variation of p.d across a conductor and the current through it.

The measurements must be truthfully recorded and should be as reliable as possible. This
means that every measurement should be what the instrument has given and show how

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reliable the reading is. Every time you record the reading of an instrument, record the
numerical value and the unit as read from the instrument.

Apart from digital electronic instruments which give numerical values directly, most
instruments have scales engraved on them with appropriate units and you have to read the
position of the pointer on the engraved scale. Very often the pointer is not directly pointing
to an engraved line on the scale and therefore you have to estimate the reading. The
convention in estimating a reading is that you take the value which is nearer the pointer and
if the pointer is half way between two graduations you take the higher value. The convention
is illustrated in the Figure 2 below.
0 1 2 3 4 cm

PR S

Figure 2

The points P and R are recorded as 2.4 cm while S is recorded as 3.5 cm.

The value of every measurement is not absolute but approximate. It is always estimated to
smallest scale unit on the instrument. The width of a sheet of paper recorded as 21.1 cm
means that the width had been measured to the nearest tenth of a centimeter. Certainly a
metre rule has been used to measure this width because its smallest scale division is 0.1
[Link] value has been written to three significant figures of 2, 1 and 1. The figures are
reasonably reliable or correct. The true value of the width however lies some where
between 21.05 cm and 21.15 [Link] the width was measured to the nearest hundredth of a
centimeter i.e. reasonably reliable up to a hundredth of a centimeter it would be written as
21.10 [Link] this case it has been written to four significant figures. As seen in Figure 2
above, the last figure in a value is an estimate considered significant and hence reasonably
reliable. It guarantees the certainty of proceeding figures.

A mass of 2.5633kg is possible only if the instrument can read up to a hundredth (0.1g) of a
gram. The mass has been recorded up to five significant figures to the hundredth of a gram.
If a distance was recorded as 2300m, it means it has been reasonably accurate to the
nearest hundred metre. We are comfortable up to figure 3 and hence the distance has been
written to two significant figures. The distance could be expressed in standard form as 2.3 x
103 [Link] it was measured up to one tenth of a metre then it would be 2.30 x 10 3 [Link] last
figure which is zero is to allow for estimation.

3.2 Determination of errors in Measurements

The lack in accuracy in the measurement due to the limit of accuracy of the

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instrument or due to any other cause is called an error.
In Physics when we refer to an error, we actually mean uncertainty in the reading. Strictly
speaking an error should be giving the difference between a “true value “or “expected
value “and the measured value but a true value is difficult to determine. Uncertainty
which shall be referring to as error here gives us the range within which the true reading is
likely to lie. A reading like l=45.5±0.6 cm does not mean that the true value of l is 45.5
cm but that the true value most likely lies between 44.9 cm and 46.1 cm. The uncertainty
which we shall continue to call error in this case is ±0.6 [Link] simply gives the range within
which the expected or true value is likely to be found.

1. Absolute Error

The difference between the true value and the measured value of a quantity is
called absolute error.

If a1 , a2, a3 ,…, an are the measured values of any quantity a in an experiment

performed n times, then the arithmetic mean of these values is called the true
value (am) of the quantity.

The absolute error in measured

values is given by Δa1 = am – a1

Δa2 = am – a2

………….

Δam = Δam – Δan

2. Mean Absolute Error

The arithmetic mean of the magnitude of absolute errors in all the measurement is
called mean absolute error.

3. Relative Error The ratio of mean absolute error to the true value is called relative

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 4. Percentage Error The relative error expressed in percentage is called percentage
error.

The term precision of a value is used to refer to the degree to which a

series of values obtained under the same conditions will give values which agree
closely with one another. The precision of a set of values is obtained by calculating the
mean of the values obtained and compare it to the probable error in the mean. If the
probable error is small then the mean value is more precise. For example if the values of g
obtained by a particular method were 9.9 m s-2, 9.8 m s-2, and 9.7 m s-2 then the mean
value becomes 9.8 m s-2 and the probable error would be ±0.1 m s-2 .This method gives a
more precise value of g than others that may give a probable error of more than ±0.2 m s-
2
.The value that has a very low error is very precise. The method in the example above
gives a precision of 1%.

The accuracy of a value is determined by finding how close the value is

from a standard or accepted value. If for example the standard length of
a “biro” pen is14.4cm and the experimentally determined length is 14.6cm,
then the accuracy of the measurement of the length by the method used
would be determined by finding the difference between 14.4 cm and 14.6cm
and express it as a percentage of the accepted length. In this case the
accuracy of the measured length of the “biro” is 1.4%.

Statement of the precision and accuracy of experimental results are very

important because they tell whoever is looking at the results how much to
trust the results. All experimental results therefore must have an indication
of the limit of error (uncertainty) indicated. A value without an indication of
uncertainty (error) cannot be trusted and it simply shows that the value is
absolutely accurate which is impossible.

The maximum possible error (uncertainty)due to an instrument should be

taken as half of the smallest scale division. For ease of reference we shall
call the limit of uncertainty or precision error. For example the smallest scale
division on a metre rule is 1mm or 0.1 cm and therefore the maximum
possible error by a metre rule is 0.05cm each time a reading is taken. In the
case of electrical meters assume them to be accurate to 2% of their full scale

18
reading for d.c meters and between 3% to 4% for a.c. meters. This error of
calibration is at times much smaller than the error introduced by the
sensitivity of the set up of the experiment. Take the example of measuring
the image distance in an experiment of determining the focal length of a
lens. You find that you can move the screen through a distance of 2 cm for
which the image appears focused. In this case the error in measurement of
the image distance is ±1 cm and not 0.05 cm.

3.3 Types of experimental errors

There are two major types of errors and these are random errors and
systematic errors. Random errors appear as variability each time a reading is
taken. You may get low and high values each time you repeat a reading due
to the random errors.

Random error could be due to factors such as parallax discrepancy in

reading a pointer position on a scale, variation in hand pressure or
inconsistent handling of an instrument or variation of reaction time when it
comes to timing an event. The random error can be reduced by repeating a
reading at least four times. It can be shown that by repeating a reading four
times the error will be halved while repeating it a hundred times would
reduce it to one tenth. This is why it is important to always repeat single
readings at least four times even if one is not specifically asked to repeat the
reading. You are expected to remember the importance of repeating single
readings in your subsequent experiments.

Systematic errors are due to intrinsic properties of the instrument or

apparatus set up. It could be due to discrepancy in the standard of
calibration, dimension of the instrument, zero scale setting, or worn up parts
of the instrument. It is difficult to detect a systematic error except by using
another standard or calibrating instrument.
Another serious source of error is the human introduced error. This error can
be introduced by the experimenter due to blunders such as reading of the
wrong scale if one is using a multi scale instrument. One could read the 0-5 V
scale instead of 0-3V scale. In this case the values of pd would be higher
than expected and therefore getting at the end a wrong high final result with
very low accuracy even if it has a high precision. The common human
blunder is to misread the smallest scale division. One could read a voltage as
1.2 V instead of 1.1 V thinking the smallest scale division is 0.2 V when

19
actually it is 0.1 V. Some of the human blunder is simply due to failure to
follow instructions and observe readings carefully.
3.1.1 Reduction of errors in experiments
Some general advice to minimize errors in experiments include:-
 Following instructions systematically and logically so that an essential
instruction about precautions to avoid errors are not omitted or carried in
the wrong sequence.
 Checking for the zero error of an instrument and correcting it before using
it or catering for it when taking measurements.
 Examining the scale of an instrument for the most suitable range to be
used, the smallest scale division of chosen scale and the corresponding
unit of chosen scale before using it.
 Using different portions of the scale where possible when repeating
measurements instead of always starting from zero scale. This may be
possible with a metre rule and may not be possible with for example an
ammeter.
 Repeating readings at least four times to get mean reading for single
readings which are not to be plotted on a graph.
 Repeating readings which give strange pattern when plotted on a graph.
 Measuring more values for points to give maximum or minimum curves.
 Repeating values which appear to give subsequent values which are very
close.
 Taking care of non-parallax when reading instruments.
 Using different parts of an object when repeating the measurement of its
dimensions.

3.1.2 Combination of errors

Experimental readings are often used to calculate some physical quantities
using given equations. Since each reading would have an error associated
with it, you will be required to combine the errors to get the error in the final
answer.
If you are able to determine systematic error and random error, first combine
the two errors separately before you combine both of them

(i) Mean values of several quantities

When several readings are taken and the average [Link] mean
valueis taken to be the best true [Link] standard deviation δ is taken to
be the uncertainty in each reading. The uncertainty in the mean,δ1=δ/√n

20
taken to be the error in the mean. Note sd refers to the spread of the
readings from the mean. This is obtained first by calculating the deviations of
the individual readings from the mean. Since some of the deviations will be
negative while others positive there is no point calculating the mean of these
deviations. Instead the mean of the squares of the deviations are obtained
and the square root determined to give the error in the mean value.
1 δ
2
Note δ =
n−1
∑ [ x−x ]❑2 and error in mean δ 1= √ n
Take the diameter d of a wire to be as follows:-1.25 mm, 1.24 mm, 1.22 mm,
1.25 mm, 1.21 mm and 1.24 mm.

The mean diameter and

=0.02

(ii) Addition or subtraction of quantities

If quantities are added or subtracted, the individual errors should simply be
added.
If A= x±Δx and B=y±Δy then A+B=(x+y) ±(Δx+Δy) and A-B=(x-y) ±
(Δx+Δy)
E.g. If l1=56.4±0.5 cm and l2=98.6±0.5 cm then l2- l1=42±1 cm or
l2+l1=.155±1 cm
(i) Error in Addition or Subtraction Let x = a + b or x = a – b

If the measured values of two quantities a and b are (a ± Δa and (b ± Δb), then
maximum absolute error in their addition or subtraction.

Δx = ±(Δa + Δb)

(iii) Multiplication or division of quantities

If quantities are multiplied or divided, first convert the individual errors into percentage
errors and then add the percentage errors to give you the overall percentage error. You can
finally convert the overall percentage error into numerical error. If A= x±Δx and B=y±Δy

for AxB or to give C, then = =c%.

The value of or AxB=

(i) Error in Multiplication or Division Let x = a x b or x = (a/b).

21
 If the measured values of a and b are (a ± Δa) and (b ± Δb), then maximum relative
error

E.g. If t=60±3s and T= 25±10C and you are to get the value of then the calculation in
the table below will be made

Quantity Value Actual Error Percentage error

T 25 ±1 4%

T 60 ±3 5%

T/t 0.417

Total percentage error in the value of is 9 and therefore the error in =0.09x

0.417=0.038. The final result of =0.42 ± 0.04 0 C s-1.

(iv) Variables involving exponents

When a variable is expressed to a power of a number, the individual errors
should be converted into percentage errors and multiply the percentage
error by the value of the exponent.

1. Take that A= Bn where n is a number, then =c% and ΔA=

E.g . I=2.5±0.2 A then y=I3. This gives hence

Δy=0.24x15.625=3.75
The final value of y=16±4 A3. Note that if the exponent was a fraction you
would multiply the percentage error by the fraction.

2. Take that A=ex where x is a variable, then =c% and

22
E.g. If N=N0e-λt and a= -λt then N= N0ea so that and .

This gives and

(v) Quantities in form of reciprocals

A quantity expressed as a reciprocal will have its percentage error as that of

the quantity. If then and that is if x=40±2 cm then

would give . If x was raised to power 2 then the

percentage error would be multiplied by [Link] in an experiment the volume of
a metal was given as
V=(9.26±0.02)x10-6 m3 and its mass was given as M=2.5±0.1x10-1 kg, the
error in its density would determined as follows:- The percentage error in
the volume would be

=2% and the one in mass would be giving

total percentage error in density .This gives the error in density

Δρ= kg m3. The density would be ρ=(2.70±0.05) x 103

kg [Link] the error in the mass was also given as 3% then the error would now

be Δρ= kg m3. This gives a density of ρ=(2.7±0.2) x 103

kg m-3

(vi) Quantities in form of logarithmic functions

Suppose the quantity is in form of y=ln x then the error Δy= or percentage

error .If the intensity of sound Ia= (10±1) x10-2W m-2 and
Ib= (40±2) x10-1 W m-2, calculate how louder the second sound is in decibels

if the difference in decibels is expressed as .First, the error in

the ratio of the intensities 15%.

The percentage error in 0.94% i.e. ΔdB

=.0094x16=[Link] value of the difference =16.0±0.1dB

23
(vii) Quantities expressed by trigonometric functions
The error in a quantity expressed using trigonometric functions arises from
the error in the angle measured. The fractional error in such a quantity will
be that of the function and not that of the angle as shown below. The
negative signs often associated with trigonometric functions areignored
since we are dealing with magnitudes of the changes. The simple method of
estimating errors in trigonometric functions is illustrated below.
 If y=sinθ and error in the angle is Δθ then Δy =[ sinθ.-sin(θ+Δθ)] or
==[ sinθ.-sin(θ-Δθ0] and therefore the fractional error becomes .
E.g. If y=sinθ and θ=20.0±0.10 then Δy=0342-0.343=0.002
That is if y=sinθ first find y1=sin(θ+Δθ) then the difference between y and
y1 gives the estimate of error Δy.
You could as well use the above method for example to estimate the error in
a function like y=sinθ.sinΦ. In this case let y1= sinθ and y2= sinΦ so that

y=y1.y2 and .The value of

Δy1= sinθ- sin (θ+Δθ) and Δy1= sinΦ- sin (Φ+ΔΦ)
EXERCISE 3
All calculations in Physics must be carried out accurately and the results
must finally be expressed in SI units and to acceptable number of significant
figures as has already been discussed in the guidelines of calculating
readings. In the following exercises, you are given individual readings from
experimental results. Use them to calculate the value of the unknown
physical quantities in the given equations. The teacher will mark your work
taking into account the methods you have used, the accuracy of the result
you have obtained and the calculated error in the final result. Only one
correct answer is expected for each exercise.
1. In determining the specific heat capacity of a liquid using an electrical
method, the following readings were obtained by a student.
Electric current I=2.80±0.05A
Resistance of coil R=15.57±0.02Ω
Mass of calorimeter Mc=64±1g
Mass of liquid ML=245±1g
Initial temperature of liquid is Ti=25.6±0.20C

24
 Final temperature of liquid is TF=69.7 ±0.20C
Time for heating t= 4.75 ± 0.01 minutes
(a) Calculate the value of the specific heat capacity C of the liquid if

(b)Determine the error in C and write the final value of C.

(c) What is the accuracy of your result?

2. The following figures on a rectangular block, as shown in Figure below,

were to be read in order to find the dimensions and calculate the density
of the block.
40.2 mm 90.6 mm
12.5 mm 25.4 mm
2.4 mm
h
l b 65.6 mm

Figure 3

Take error in the instrument to measure the dimensions to be ±0.1mm

and
the mass of the block to be 55.0±0.5 g.
(a) Find the length of length l, height h and breadth b to calculate the
volume of the block.
(b)Calculate the density of the block indicating the error involved.
3. The diameter of a spherical metal block was measured and found to be
equal to d=2.51±0.02 mm and its mass was equal to M=563±1 g.
(a) Determine the density of the metal sphere.
(b)Indicate the value of the density including the error involved.
4. In determining the Young’s modulus E of a steel metre rule, its
dimensions were measured and recorded as follows:-width of metre rule
b=2.5±0.1cm, free length of wire l=10.2±0.2 cm, thickness
d=0.25±0.01mm and a load M=125 g caused a depression x=4.2±0.1
cm.

25
 (a) Determine the magnitude of Young’s modulus of the wire if
where g is acceleration due to gravity.
(b)If the percentage error in the weight to cause the depression was
1%, calculate the value of Young’s modulus including the value of the
error involved .

5. The surface tension γ of a liquid was determined using capillary rise

method. The following measurements were recorded.
Radius of capillary tube r =0.34±0.02 mm
Height of liquid rise h = 44.6 ± 0.1 mm
Density of the liquid ρ =1.2 x 103 kg m-3
Acceleration due to gravity g=9.8 m s-2

If the surface tension is expressed as

(a) Determine the value of γ.
(b) Calculate the magnitude of the error in γ .
6. Water of coefficient of viscosity η=1.1 x10-3 N s m-2 flows through a pipe
of length l=5.13±0.02 km and of radius r=10.0±0.2cm .The pressure
difference between the ends of the pipe P=2.5 ±0.1 N m-2.
(a) Determine the volume per second V flow through the pipe if

.Indicate the error Involved.

(b)What variation in the rate of volume flow would be caused if the
pressure was varied by 10%?
7. Neutrons directed at a crystal plane are reflected according to Bragg’s
law nλ=2d sinθ where λ is the de Broglie wavelength, d is the spacing
between the reflecting planes of the atoms, and θ is the angle between
the incident neutrons and the atomic planes.
(a) If θ=110.12’±6’, calculate the percentage error in the value of de
Broglie wavelength.
(b) What would be the percentage error in the de Broglie wavelength if
the error in d is 2%?
8. The frequency f of a monometer wire is related to its length l and the
Young’s modulus E of the material by the equation .In an
experiment the temperature of the wire was raised by 10 C and the
0

frequency of vibration of the wire was found to drop by (0.800±0.001)%

26
 and the Young’s modulus also dropped by (0.583±0.003)%.If the

coefficient of linear expansion  is given by the expression

(a) Determine the coefficient of linear expansion of the wire.
(b) Calculate the error in the value of linear expansion of the wire.
(c) Determine the percentage error in linear expansion of the wire.
9. A convex lens is placed at 50cm mark and an object pin is placed at 25
cm mark. The position of the image pin on the opposite side is found to
be at 66.7±0.3 cm mark.
(a) Determine the focal length of the lens indicating the error involved.
(b) If the percentage error in the measurement of image distance was
2%, determine the new focal length of the convex lens including the
error.
10. The relationship between the radius R of a circular coil and the
distance

x from the centre of the coil is given as .Given that

R=2.5±0.1cm and x=20.0±0.2 cm
(a) Calculate the percentage error in y.
(b)Determine the magnitude of the error in y.
(c) Which quantity introduced the largest error and by how much?
11. The value of resistor R=2000 Ω is determined by measuring the
voltage V across the resistor when a current I is discharging through a
1.0 μF capacitor. A current I=3.4±0.2 mA from a battery of emf

E=10.0±0.2 V was read at time t=0.80±[Link]

(a) Calculate the percentage error in the value of R.
(b) Determine the magnitude of error in R
(c) What is the highest percentage error and which quantity produced
it?
12. A voltmeter of smallest scale division of 0.05 V and an ammeter of the
smallest scale division of 0.05 A were used to measure pd across a
resistor
and a current flowing through the resistor. When the pd was 2.7 V the
current was 0.45 A and when the pd was 4.8 V the current was 0.8 A.
(a) Determine the percentage error for the values of the resistances.
(b) How does the overall percentage of error vary with the vales
measured?
13. The following results were obtained in one experiment to determine

27
 Young’s modulus of a loaded beam.
Mass of the beam M = 200 g
Thickness of the t = 2.230 to ±00.5 mm
Breath of the beam b= 2.45 cm.
If the slope of the graph S when T2 is plotted against l3 is (5.47 ±0.02)
x
10-5 s cm-3

(a) Calculate the value of the young’s modulus Y given that .

(b) Find the percentage accuracy of this method if the Young’s
modulus of the material is 2. 11 x 10 11 N m-2.
14. In an experiment the following values were obtained
X = (3.8 ±0.1) x 10-5
y = (8 ±1) x 10-6
p = 2x 107
q= (4.0 ± 0.2) x 10-5

r = (8.0 ± 0.3) x 106

(a) Calculate the value of S given that .

(b) Which of the quantities in the above equation introduced the
largest
error in S?
(c)Estimate the order of magnitudes of S.
15. Write the following number to there significant figures but in standard
form.
(a) 0.00003256 (b) 4567000
(c) 0.0000016 (d) 810000000
16. The following results were obtained in an experiment to determine the
magnet flux density B along the axis of a circular coil.
Number of turns of coil N = 50

28
 Diameter of the coil d = 15.25 ± 0.01 cm
Current though the coil I = 1.7 A
Distance from the centre of the coil x = 1.7 ± 0.1 cm
(a) Estimate the order of magnitude of the magnetic flux density B.
(b) Calculate the magnitude of the magnetic flux density assuming the

ammeter is 1% accurate and ,where r is the radius of the coil

and
µo = 4 x 10-7 H m-1
[Link] thermal conductivity of copper was determined using, Searle’s
apparatus. The following readings were recorded
Steady thermometer reading θ4 = 36.8± 0.1 0C
Steady thermometer reading θ3 = 54.0 ± 0.1 0 C
Steady thermometer reading θ2 = 60 0
±0.2 0 C
Steady thermometer reading θ1 = 78.0 ± 0.2 0 C
Diameter of copper block d = 4.5 ± 0.02 cm
Distance between thermometer 1 and 2 given by the
 Reading at thermometer1 10.2 ± 0.05 cm
 Reading at thermometer2 14.3±0.05 cm
Mass of water collected in 1 minute M= 250± 1 g
If the stop clock used was 0.1% accurate
(a) Calculate the thermal conductivity λ using the expression

,where t is the time to collect the water mass M,

and x is the distance between thermometer1 and thermometer2.
(b) Which quantity should have been more accurately measured?

18. Given that ,where l= 72 ±1 cm and d = 48±1 cm

(a) Calculate the value of f including the value of the error.
(b) Which measurement should have been more accurately done and
why?

29
19. The pd across a carbon resistor was recorded as 3.0 V using a voltmeter
of
range 5 V and the current through it was recorded as 0.3 A using an
ammeter of range 1 A.
(a) Determine the resistance of the carbon resistor.
(b) Calculate the power dissipated in the carbon resistor

(c) What is the actual error in the values calculated above?

20. The following results were obtained by a student in determining rigidity

modulus n of a wire .

Mass attached at the end of the wire M = 101±1 g

Diameter of the wire d = 0.72 ± 0.01 mm

Length of the wire l = 39.9±0.02 cm

The slope of the graph S = 1.69 ±0.05 s2 cm-2

(a) Calculate the rigidity modulus η of the wire given that ,where r is the
radius of the wire.

(b) What is the percentage error in η?

(c)I What was the smallest unit on the instrument used to measure l?

21 (a) Calculate the apparent coefficient of cubical expansion β of glycerin if

where me is the mass of glycerin expelled, ml is the mass of glycerin

left after heating and Δθ is the temperature rise using the data below:-

 Mass of specific gravity bottle = 30.24 ±0.02 g

 Temperature of glycerin at room temperature = 26.2±0.10 C
 Mass of specific gravity bottle and glycerin =94.39±0.01 g
 Temperature of boiling water = 96±0.10 C
 Mass of specific gravity bottle and glycerin after heating in water bath =
92.20±0.02 g
 Mass of specific gravity bottle and glycerin after heating in water both =
92.16±0.02 g
(b) Which of the quantities in the data above introduced the largest error

in β?

30
22. A set of reading for 5 turns of wire were recorded as shown below:-

Lengths of turns of wire =38.6 cm, 38.5 cm, 38.4 cm, 38.7 cm, and 39.0 cm.

(a) Calculate average length of one turn of the wire.

(b) Calculate the precision of the method.

23. In an experiment to determine the value of g using a simple pendulum three

different stop watches were used and the results are as below:-

A B C

Time for 20 oscillations/s 36.0±05 36.45±0.05 36.43±0.01

(a) Calculate the periodic time for each stop watch reading.

(b) If the length of the pendulum l = 80.0 ±0.2cm, and calculate for each stop
reading, the value of g.
(c) What can you say about stop watches A, B and C? (Hint smallest graduation unit)

[Link] AND GRAPH PLOTTING

4.1. Uses of graphs

Most experiments in physics require the results to be plotted on graphs so that some
information can be deduced directly from the graph. The shapes of the line graphs
themselves give indications of the type of relationship that may exist between the quantities
plotted. When the equation relating the quantities plotted are known certain values in the

31
equations can be read from the graph. This chapter on graph plotting is to highlight
important points about graphs and graph plotting.

Graphs can be used

(i) To show a relationship between a pair of physical quantities. The shape of the line
graph can give an indication of the type of relation ship that may exist if variation of
one quantity causes a corresponding variation in the other. If a change in one
quantity causes a change in other the relationship can linear, non-linear or a
combination of both. In many instances experiments are carried to find the point at
which a relationship ceases to hold.
(ii) To determine the mean value of a ratio of two related quantities. For

Example refractive index is a ratio of the sine of the angle of incident to

that of refraction. Instead of each time calculating each ratio of the sine

of incident to refraction a graph of sine of the angle of incidence is plotted against

the angle of the sine of angle of refraction. The value of the slope would give the
average of the ratio.

(iii) To determine the constants of an equation relating the two quantities

through evaluation of the value of the slope and intercept or simply deduce a
mathematical relationship the two quantities.

(iv) To find out how individual values vary from the mean value. The

scattering of individual values on a graph can be used to judge reliability

of the points or even the suitability of a method or set of apparatus used.

Some points far from the mean line can be re-checked or even ignored.

(v) To keep data of instrument calibration relating the response of the

instrument to the quantity to be measured giving sensitivity of the

instrument rather keeping a table of such data.

4.2 Types of graphs

32
The results of experiments to be plotted involve two quantities (variables) and these are the
independent and dependent variables. The independent (varied) variable is the one whose
values are varied or chosen by the experimenter. The dependent (measured) variable is the
one whose value is measured as a result of changing the independent variable. The usual
convention is to plot the dependent variables along the (y-axis) or vertical axis and the
independent variables along the (x-axis) or horizontal axis.

For example in the simple pendulum experiment, the length l of the pendulum could be
chosen to be 20cm and the time t for twenty oscillations for the length could be measured to
determine the periodic time T. In this case the periodic time T is a dependent variable and
the pendulum length l is the independent variable. The values of T should then be plotted
along the y-axis and the values of l should be plotted along the x-axis.

There are two major types of line graphs and these are the linear and non-linear graphs.
The linear graphs are also called straight line graphs. The straight line graphs are the most
preferred to the nonlinear graphs because they are easier to understand and values of some
quantities can readily be drawn or deduced from them. They also represent simple
mathematical equations. It is important to know the relationship between the different
straight line graphs and their equations.

(a) Linear graph through the origin

This type of graph is obtained when the dependent variables y and the independent
variables x are related by the equation of the form y=kx .
y

y2

y1

0 x1 x2 x

Figure 4

The straight line passes through the origin and that is through the co-ordinates (0,0).It
shows that the dependent variable y is directly proportional to the independent variable x.
The constant of proportionality k is equal to the slope of the graph.

Example

33
 The resistance R of a wire of a uniform cross-sectional area A is related to its length l and

resistivity ρ by the equation . In an experiment the length l (independent variable)

could be varied and for each length l of the resistance R (dependent variable) could be
measured. A graph of R along the y-axis against l along the x-axis should give a straight

line through the origin where the value of the slope should be equal to .

(b) Linear graph not through the origin

Another type of straight line graph is the one which does not pass through the origin. There
are three types of this graph.

(i) The first type of this linear graph is one where the dependent variable y is related
to the independent variable x by the equation y=kx + c where k is the constant
of proportionality relating y to x and c is a constant not dependent on the
variables.
y

y2

y1

b 0 x1 x2 x

Figure 5

The value of the slope gives the value of the constant of proportionality k and the constant c
can be obtained from the intercept on the y-axis when x=0. The intercept on the x-axis b

gives the value of .

Example

The period oscillation T of a simple pendulum is related to the length l of the pendulum by

the equation .The equation can be expressed as T=kl0.5 where k=2.01. This
equation could be expressed as logT=0.5logl+ logk. It now has taken the form of y=kx+c
where the slope should be equal to 0.5 and the intercept on the y-axis c= logk.

(ii) The second type of this linear graph is where the dependent
variable y is related the independent variable x by the equation

34
 y=kx-c. The only difference with the first type is the negative
value of the intercept c.
The graph will be of the shape below.
y

y2

y1

b x1 x2 x

Figure 6

The value of the intercept of y-axis gives the value c while that on x-axis b gives the value

of .

Example

The magnification M produced by a convex lens is related to the object distance u and the

focal length f by the equation . A graph of M along the y-axis against u along the

x-axis should gives a graph of the above shape where the slope is equal to and the value
of the intercept on the y-axis should be equal to one.

(iii) The third type of linear graph has a negative value for the slope and has

positive values of intercepts on both axes. The dependent variable y is

related to the independent variable x by the equation y=-kx+c. The graph

is

of the shape below.

y2

y1

0 x1 x2 x

35
 Figure 7

The value of the intercept on the y-axis should be equal to c while that on the x-axis should

be equal to .

Example

The typical example of an experiment that gives this type of graph is when a graph of

(along the y-axis) is plotted against (along the x-axis) in the determination of focal length
of a convex lens when the image distance V is determined for given object distances u.

The relationship in this case is expressed as and is of the form y=-kx+c. The

value of the slope is 1 while the value of the intercept on the y-axis is equal to .

(j) Non-linear graphs

Many experiments give variables when plotted do not give linear graphs. One of the major
interests in plotting such graphs may be to obtain values of dependent variables at specific
values of independent variables such as the maximum or the minimum value of the
dependent variable. At times it is the slope of the graph at a specific point that may be
required or simply to obtain the shape of the graph relating two variables for a device
commonly called characteristics of the device.

A graph of count rate against applied voltage across a Gieger–Muller tube for example gives
a shape of graph as shown below.

Count rate

V1 V2

Applied voltage

Figure 8

From the above graph for example, some typical values of voltages can be determined
where the count rate remains almost constant. The graph is hence called the characteristic
curve of the Gieger-Muller tube.

36
The shapes of the non-linear graphs give some ideas about the relationship between the
variables. Some of the commonly plotted shapes are as illustrated below:-

(i).When the dependent variable y is related to the independent variable x by the equation

xny=k, where k is a constant and n is a whole number or fraction the graph will be of the
shape below. A typical experiment that gives this shape of graph is when the pressure P of a
gas at constant temperature is plotted against its volume V in which case n=1.

Figure 9

(ii)Another common shape of graph is obtained when the dependent variable y is related to
the independent variable x by the equation y=ke-λx.

Figure 10

The value of the intercept on the y-axis gives the value of k. This shape of graph can be
obtained when the voltage V across a capacitor is plotted against time t when it is being
discharged.

(iii)When the dependent variable y is related to the independent variable x by the equation

a graph of the shape below is obtained .

37
 Figure 11

This shape of graph can be obtained when the distance between an object and its image d is
plotted against object distance u in an experiment using a convex lens. The minimum value
of d=4f and the corresponding value of u=2f.

(iv)When the dependent variable y is related to the independent variable x by the

equation y=k(1-e-λx) where k and λ are constants.

Figure 12

This type of graph can be obtained when the voltage V across a capacitor is plotted against
time t when the capacitor is being charged

(v)When the dependent variable y is related to the independent variable x by

the equation y=kx-cx2 where k and c are constants. The graph of gives a

parabolic curve of the shape below.

Figure 13

This shape of a graph can be obtained when the emf E produced by a thermocouple junction
is plotted against the temperature T of the hot junction.

(vi) When the dependent variable y is related to the independent variable x by

the equation y=kx2 and y= kx3/2 the graphs of shapes (a) and (b) below will

be obtained.

y y

38
 x

(a) x (b)

Figure 14

The graph of the potential energy E of spiral spring against its extension x should

give the shape of graph (a) while that of electric current I against voltage V

across a diode should give the shape similar to that of graph (b).

(k) Guidelines for Plotting graphs

The experiments in this book require you to plot different shapes of graphs. Whether the
graph obtained is linear or not it is important to plot the points as accurately as is possible
so as to get reasonable deductions from the graph. The following guidelines have been
outlined to give good practice in plotting and drawing graphs.

(i) Title of the graph

A graph should always have a title which states the dependent variable (measured variable
or ordinates y-axis) against the independent variable ( varied variable or abscissa x-axis). It
could for example be “ A GRAPH OF ELCTRIC CURRENT AGAINST POTETIAL
DIFFERENCE” written at the top of the graph

(ii) Marking and Labeling of the axes

The axes of the graph should be drawn and marked to indicate which parts of the graph
paper have been included in the graph work and which lines correspond to the figures or
numbers written along the axes of the graph.

It is a good practice to use the whole of the graph paper and therefore the axes should be
drawn along the edges of the graph paper as indicated by the bold lines below.

A GRAPH OF I AGAINST V

I/A

A Q B

V/V

Figure 15

39
It is a convention to plot dependent variables along the vertical-axis or y-axis and the
independent variables along the horizontal-axis or x-axis. You can use the symbols given in
the instructions or the ones you have defined at the top of your table of results or simply
write the names of the variables in full to label the axes. The labels must have the units
indicated by use of forward slash as shown above where I is the symbol for electric current
and V is the symbol for potential difference but A and V are the unit symbols standing for
ampere and voltage respectively in this example.

(iii) Choice of Scale

The choice of scale to plot a graph depends on the information to be deduced from the
graph. If the experiment demands only for the determination of the slope of the graph, it
means the graph is expected to be a straight line graph. In this case you do not need to
start your scales from zero. You can start the scales from least convenient values from your
tables of result. The choice of scale must allow for all the values in your table of results to
be plotted and the straight line so obtained should lie between 30 0 and 600 with the axis
where possible. Let the distance between extreme points plotted along the x-axis (AB) and
along the y-axis(PQ) cover over half of the length of the paper grid or more. If however
the value of the intercept is required you have to start scale appropriately from zero. For
example if the intercept on y-axis is to be determined, the scale on the x-axis must start
from zero and if the intercept on the x-axis is required then the scale on y-axis must start
from zero. Choose a scale which can allow you plot the values from the table as
accurately as possible. Avoid awkward scales where for example ten squares represent
three, seven, nine, eleven, thirteen etc. digits unless your values are multiples of these
odd numbers.

(iv) Plotting of points

Mark each value from your table on the graph by use of a cross or an x surrounded
by a small circle of the size of the smallest square. Let the two lines forming the cross or x
intersect at nearly the exact point as possible. After plotting all the points, they can be
examined to find out if they lie on a straight line or define a curve. Five points are enough to
define a straight line graph

If the points appear to lie on a straight lie, place a transparent ruler on the points to see the
distribution of the points about the straight edge. The best straight lie is that one which has
about the same number of points on each side and the equivalent points on each side are
almost of equal distance from the line as shown by AB.

The points do not all have to lie on the line any point found to lie well off the line can either
be re-checked or ignored but should be left marked on the graph.

40
 (x A,yA)

B (xB,yB)

Figure 16

In the case of a curve ,a smooth curve should be drawn through the points using the same
criteria as for a straight lie. The curve should be drawn while the elbow is resting on the
table and the concave side of the curve is towards the wrist of your hand. It is a useful
practice to take extra points and plot them to get more accurately the minimum or
maximum points of a curve.


 
 
 

Figure 17

(e)Determination of the slope of a graph

In calculating the slope of a straight line, select two points on the straight line which are far
apart but include where possible all the points plotted. The points should be such that you
can accurately read the coordinates of the points from the graph e.g.A and B as shown in
Figure 16

Draw a triangle to read the coordinates and record them on the graph. Then the slope S can

be worked out as

The slope at a point on a curve has meaning only if it is the slope of a tangent at the point.
This requires a normal first to be drawn at the point. The normal can very easily be drawn by
use of a straight edge reflecting surface placed vertically at the point. The reflecting surface
is rotated until the image of the curve appears as a continuous smooth curve. This occurs
when the surface is normal to the curve and therefore a line along the reflecting surface
gives the normal.

Using a protractor a tangent AC can be drawn to determine the slope at the point.

41
 Reflecting surface Normal

B C

Figure 18

The slope at the point will be equal to .

(l) Determination of errors from linear graphs

The spread of plotted points on a graph indicate the amount of error that may have been
made in reading the values. The choice of scale also determines the level of error in your
plotting. Assume the results for a coordinate from your table of results is (2.34, 0.253). If
you chose a scale that can allow you to plot the above point to one decimal point (2.3) on
the x-axis and two decimal (0.25) places on the y-axis then you will have raised the error by
ten fold from 0.4% to 4%.This is why you should chose a scale that allows you to plot your
readings up to the number of significant figures as from your table if possible.

In determining the slope of the graph first draw the best straight line ED as described
earlier to pass through most of the points if possible with the other points evenly distributed
on either side of the straight line. Two other possible straight lines with a higher slope FG
and a lower slope AC should be drawn to help determine the limit of error in the value of the
slope.

A
D

D P

Figure 19

42
The slope of the graph , that of higher value and that of lower value

.The error in the slope .In case the plotted points lie almost on
best drawn straight line the individual errors in each value of y coordinate and x coordinate
are considered in the calculation of the error in the slope. Suppose the reading of y 1
coordinate is 3.7±0.2 that of y2 coordinate is 15.6±0.2 while that of x1 is 2.3±0.1 and x2 is

5.7±0.1 ,the slope could be written as to give

EXERCISE 4

The following exercises are to help you practice how to present experimental results
according to guidelines you have already covered and plot the appropriate graph. First take
note of information given about the data in the tables provided so that you convert the
presentation in the acceptable format. Each of the exercise must have a title and be
presented in only one page for the teacher to mark taking into account how you have
manipulated the results. Each exercise requires you to plot the results on a graph. The
accuracy of plotting points and deduced values of the slope and intercepts will be expected
to be within acceptable limits of error of less than 5%.

1. The following results were obtained by a student who was to determine the focal length of
a thin converging lens using optical pins. She initially placed an object pin at a distance
U=60 cm from the lens and located the image of the object pin using a locating pin to
obtain image distance V of the image. She then displaced the lens towards the object
pin through a distance x to obtain image distance V a step which she repeated for seven
other values of x. She recorded her results as shown below:-
x/cm 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

V/cm 30.2 31.2 33.2 36.1 39.6 46.8 61.5 100.0

(a) Draw a suitable table of results to enable you draw a graph of against .
(b) Determine the values of intercepts of both axes and the value of
the slope S.

2. The results of an experiment obtained using a compound pendulum was as shown in

the table below. A metre rule was used to measure the oscillating length l of the
pendulum and a stop clock with the smallest scale division of two second was used to
obtain the time for ten oscillations.
l/cm 12.25 10.20 8.10 6.10 4.05 2.05

43
 Time for 10 83 80 78 78 84 107
oscillations/s

(a) Draw a suitable of results to enable you draw a graph of

(i) Periodic time T against l.
(ii) T2l against l2.
(b) Use the two graphs to find the values of constants k and g if

3. The experiment of determining the damping effect on forced oscillations of an electric

circuit produced the following results deflection θ and time for ten oscillations. The
smallest scale division of the galvanometer was 2 cm and the stop watch could read up
to 0.2 seconds.
Deflection/ 3.5 4.0 7.2 15.0 21.5 23.0 17.0 8.5 6.5 3.0 2.0
cm

Time for 10 100. 83.3 71.4 64.5 62.5 60.6 58.8 55. 52.6 45.4 41.7
oscillations/ 2 6
s

(a) Draw a suitable table to plot a graph of deflection against frequency.

(b) Find the value of Q-factor if , where f0 is the resonance frequency and Δf is

the width of the curve at the point where the deflection is and θm is the
maximum deflection from the graph.
4. The power P dissipated by a d.c. power supply in a variable resistor R was
investigated and the following results of pd V across the resistor for various resistances
were obtained.
P.d/V 0.573 1.021 1.382 1.926 2.317 2.733

R/Ω 1.0 2.0 3.0 5.0 7.0 10.0

P.d/V 2.937 3.104 3.354 3.541 3.680 3.886

R/Ω 12.0 14.0 18.0 22.0 26.0 34.0

(a) Draw a table of the above results to plot a graph P against R.

(b) Use the graph to find the maximum power and internal resistance of the
power supply.

44
 5 In an experiment to determine the relationship between the volume V of a liquid in the
container and the height h of the liquid, the following results were obtained.
V/cm3 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0 18.0 20.0

Initial liquid 4.0 3.5 3.1 2.9 2.7 2.6 2.4 2.3 2.2 2.1
level/cm

Final liquid 9.8 10.3 10.7 10.8 10.9 11.0 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.4
level/cm

(a) Draw a table of the above results to plot a graph of logV against log h where h is
the difference between the pin positions.
(b) Determine the value of the intercept Ix on the x-axis and the value of the slope S
of the graph.
6 The following results were obtained in experiment to find the refractive index of a
rectangular glass of width t=6cm.
Incident angle i/0 20 30 40 50 60 70

Distance x/cm 1.4 2.1 2.8 3.6 4.2 4.8

(a) Draw a table of results to plot a graph of y against where

y=(x2 + t2)

(c) Determine the value of the slope S of the graph and find the square
root of the slope.

7 In a metre bridge experiment to determine the resistance per unit length of a loop
of one metre long wire, the following results were obtained as shown in the table
below.
Length of resistance wire 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0 40.
x/cm 0

Metre bridge length l1/cm 39.7 43.9 46.9 49.0 51.1 52.6 53.
3

(a) Draw a table to enable you plot a graph of y against where l2 is the length
of the remainder of the metre bridge wire
and y=x (100-x).

(b) Determine the value of the slope S of the graph and the value resistance per

unit length σ if .
8 A student obtained the following results in an experiment to determine Young’s
modulus of a metre rule material.
Length l/cm 90.0 80.0 70.0 60.0 50.0 40.0

45
 Time for 20 16.0 13.5 11.0 9.5 8.0 6.0
oscillations/s

(a) Draw a table of the above results to plot a graph T2 against l3 where T is the
periodic time of oscillations and find the value of the slope S of the graph.

(b) Calculate the Young’s modulus E if ,where M=100g,b=2.5 cm and

d=2 mm.
9 Another experiment with a rectangular glass block gives the data below.
x/cm 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0

i/0 27.4 34.1 40.8 47.5 54.4 61.8 70.3

(a) Draw a table to help you plot a graph of against .

(b) Determine the slope S of the graph and the intercept I0 on the y-axis.

(c) Determine the refractive index n of the glass block given that and the
2
thickness t of the glass block if S=I0t .
10 In determination the electrical resistivity of a wire using a metre bridge, the
following results were obtained,
Length of wire x/cm 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0

Bridge length l1/cm 18.1 30.6 39.8 46.9 52.5 57.0

(a) Draw a table of results of the data above to plot a graph of y against x, where

and l2 is the remainder of the metre bridge wire.

(b) Determine the value of the slope S of the graph and the resistivity ρ of the
wire given

that and d=0.376 mm.

11 The following data obtained was obtained in an experiment to determine the Young’s
modulus of a beam.
Length of lever l/cm 40 50 60 70 80 90

Time for 20 oscillation, t/s 4.85 6.76 8.92 11.2 13.70 16.36
2

A meter rule with the smallest scale division of 1mm was used to measure l and a
stop watch with smallest scale division of 0.02 s was used to time the oscillations.

46
 (a) Compute the values of periodic time T, and T2 and length l3 and enter them in a
suitable table.

(b) Plot a graph of T2 against l3 and find the slope S of the graph.

(c) Calculate the value of the Young’s modulus Y given that ,

where M= 200±1 g, b = 2.2±0.1cm, and t = 2.50± 0.01mm

12. Work out the corresponding values of the data given in the tables
below
.(a)

I/ ± 0.1 A 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2

(b)

l/± 0.1 cm 29.2 25.0 23.8 21.5 20.0 17.5

(c)

θ/±0.5° 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0 40.0 45.0

Sinθ

Sin 2θ

13. (a) Compute and complete the data in the following table

including the values of and if u = 60.0±0.1cm

x/± 0.1cm 0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0

V/±0.2cm 30.2 31.2 33.2 36.1 39.6 46.8 61.5 100.0

(b)Plot a graph of against and determine the slope S of the graph.

(c) Find the mean of the intercepts on the x- axis and y-axis.

(d) Calculate the focal length f if it is equal to the reciprocal of the mean

of the intercepts.

14 A helical spring was rigidity damped vertically. The pointer position when different
masses were hung on the spring are as given in the table below:-

47
 Mass /g Pointer position reading /±0.1cm

Increasing mass Decreasing mass

0 24.2 24.1

40 22.3 22.2

80 18.3 18.2

120 14.3 14.4

160 10.7 10.6

200 6.7 6.7

(a) Plot a graph of mass against extension to determine the extension

per unit mass of the spring.

(b) Find the slope S of the graph.

15. In an experiment to determine the specific heat capacity of a liquid, equal

volumes of the liquid and that of water were heated and then allowed to

cool under identical conditions.

The table of results is as given below.

Time /min Temperature/ ±0.1 0C

Water Liquid

0 75.0 80.0

2 72.0 72.0

4 68.8 65.0

6 65.9 58.9

8 63.4 53.8

10 60.8 49.2

12 58.3 45.2

48
 14 56.2 42.0

16 54.0 -

(a) Plot a graph of temperature against time for both liquids on the same axes
(b) Find the rates of temperature drop at 60 0C from the curves.

16. The frequency f of a vibrating string is expressed as ,where l is the

Length the vibrating string, T is the tension in the string and M is the mass

per unit length of the string.

The following results were obtained in an experiment to verify the above

equation.

f/Hz 256 320 341 384 427 512

l/± 0.1 cm 29.2 25.0 23.8 21.5 20.0 17.5

(a) Plot a straight line graph to obtain the value of .

(b) Determine the error in .

17. The current I, through an external resistor R are related by the

equation , where E is the emf of the cell and r is the internal

resistance of the cell connected across them The values of the current I and

resistor R in a set up to verify the above relationship are as follows;

R/±0.1 ohm 7.6 3.6 2.3 1.6 1.2 0.9

I /A 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2

(a) Plot a suitable graph to obtain the values of E and r.

(b) Determine the magnitudes of errors in E and r.
18. In an experiment to determine the relationship between electric power P

delivered into a load and resistance R of the load, the following results were

recorded

R /ohms P/ ± 0.1 x 10-1 W R /ohms P /± 0.1 x 10-1W

1 4.1 14 6.6

2 5.1 16 6.2

49
 4 6.5 18 5.8

6 7.0 20 5.5

8 7.2 24 5.1

10 7.2 28 4.6

12 6.9 32 4.3

(a) Plot a graph of P against R.

(b) Find the maximum value of power delivered in the load.
(c) When is the power delivered in the load maximum?
(d) Determine the magnitude of the maximum value of the slopes the S of the falling
part of the curve.
(e) Find the value of the internal resistance r, of the power supply and its emf E.

(f) Determine the value of E, if .

19. A series of values of the time for twenty oscillations, and the length of the

string of a suspended bob is as follows:-

Length of string l /±0.1cm 20 40 60 80 100 120

Time for twenty oscillations t/ 17.8 25. 31.0 35.8 40.2 43.8
±0.1 s 2

The relationship between the periodic time T and l is T= kln

(a) Plot a graph of log 10 T against log 10 l to find the values of k and n
(b) Determine the errors in k and n.
20 The following data was obtained when a ball was dropped from various

heights h and the

h/± 0.02 m 0.06 0.20 0.28 0.38 0.49

Time t/ ± 0.1s 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.35 0.40

(a) If the quantities are related by the equation ,plot a graph of log10 h against
log10 t and use it to find the value of g.
(b) Calculate the margin of error in g and the percentage accuracy of the experiment.
21. A liquid was heated by an immersion heater in a thermos flask. The temperature of the
liquid was recorded against time as shown below:-
Temperature/ ± 0.05 0C 18.5 20.1 21.2 23.0 24.8 26.3 27.3

Time /s 0 15 30 45 60 75 90

(a) Plot a graph of temperature against time to determine the rate of

50
 temperature increase of the liquid.

(b) If only 80% of the immersion heater power raises the temperature
of the liquid, calculate the specific heat capacity of the liquid given

that 1 kg of the liquid was heated by an immersion heater rated at

200W.

22. A capacitor and an inductor were connected in series across a signal generator. The
values of current through the circuit were recorded for different frequencies as given
below:-
Current/mA 1.0 3.2 8.3 17.1 18.6 7.8 2.8 1.3

Frequency /Hz 200 4000 600 8000 9500 12000 14000 16000
0 0

(a) Plot a graph of current against frequency and determine the frequency when the
current has a maximum value.
(b) If the signal generator was set at 2.5V, calculate the resistance of the inductor
coil.
23. A capacitor of 500 µf charged to pd of 9 V. It was then discharged through a resistor.
The ammeter reading I was recorded at time intervals as shown in the table below:-
Current I/mA 90.0 60.3 40.4 27.1 18.2 12.2 8.2

Time /s 0 20 40 60 80 100 120

(a) Plot a graph of current against time. Mark on your graph any
instant t and record the current I at that instant. Find the time for the current
to fall from I to half the value i.e. 0.5I. Repeat this for two more values to get
the mean period during which the current is halved.

(b) Plot a graph of loge I against time and determine the value S of the
slope.

(c) Plot a graph of I against time on a log linear graph and compare
the graphs in (b) and (c) above.

5. EXPERIMENTATION AND PRESENTATION OF RESULTS

5.1Suggested sequence of carrying out experiments

Follow the guidelines given below in carrying out an experiment:-

1. The first activity in carrying out an experiment is to read the instructions through first
before assembling the apparatus. It will help you understand the instructions so that you
can plan the order of carrying out the instructions, think of the precautions you have to
take and plan the table of results. Remember an expression or formula can contain an

51
 instruction. For example the last instruction in experiment may be stated as follows;

“Calculate the resistivity ρ of the wire if it is expressed as , where d is

the diameter of the wire.” In this case you are required to measure the diameter d of
the wire without specifically been told so.
2. The presentation of the report of the experiment should be planned especially the results
after reading through the instructions and understanding what is expected to be done.
The record of the experiment should always start on a new page and should have the
following aspects of the experiment, the heading, procedure, results, graph, calculation
and concluding remarks on the experiment. All these aspects of the experiment must be
planned in advance.
3. The instructions should then be carefully and intelligently followed systematically. Failure
to follow instructions logically can lead to taking wrong results or even being unable to
complete an experiment. Electrical circuits should particularly be systematically set up
following the circuit diagram. The apparatus needs to be tested before beginning to take
the readings. The test should involve finding out if the whole range of readings, and the
increment as required are possible. The readings can then be systematically taken and
entered straight into the pre- planned tables of results.
4. While carrying out the experiment it is important to note down important procedures that
were not given in the instruction but were followed. Precautions and difficulties
encountered during the experiment need also to be noted. Possible sources of error and
strategies to get better results should be noted as well.
5. The apparatus should not be dismantled until after the graph and final calculations have
been done. This gives you the opportunity for checking points or values which may look
out of trend.
6. Finally the value of the quantity required should be worked out in SI unit. The value
should have an indication of the error in it. Lastly appropriate comments need to be
made about the suitability of the experiment and the procedures followed.

5.2Presentation of experimental results

The presentation of the results of an experiment is as important as carrying out the
experiment. The results should be presented in a clear, neat, orderly and concise form. The
report should be in accordance with technical format emphasizing clarity and compactness
of communication of the results. Clear and legible handwriting in writing experimental report
is very important. It is not only the results but other aspects of the experiment that should
be included in any report of an experiment.

The format below is suggested for students to adopt in presenting the results of routine
laboratory experiments for the teacher to mark. This is an important training for further
study in physics. However for examination purpose you are expected to have the title of
experiment, tables of results, the graph, calculations,estimates of errors, response to any
questions and concluding remarks.

 Heading or Title of Experiment

52
Every experiment should have a heading which often is given. The heading should be
underlined but in capital letters. The heading should indicate both the purpose and method
used.

E.g.” DETERMINATION OF RESISTIVITY OF A RESISTANCE WIRE BY

MEASURING THE RESISTANCE PER UNIT LENGTH OF THE WIRE USING
A METRE BRIDGE”

The phrase “USING A METRE BRIDGE” in the example above gives the method used in the
determination of the resistance per unit length in order to determine the resistivity of the
wire.

 Diagram of apparatus or Circuit

A simple two dimensional drawing of the apparatus set up or electric circuit used need to be
part of the experimental report. Such a diagram shortens the description of the experiment
especially the set-up of the apparatus. Only very important and essential parts of the set-up
should be drawn. The parts can be labeled including values.

 Method or Procedure
A brief description of how the experiment was carried out should be outlined. The
description should be in past tense and in passive voice to bring out only most essential
procedures and not everything given in the instructions. The account of the experiment
should show how the major readings were taken, precautions were taken, difficulties met
and the instructions could have been changed to get better results. E.g. “The circuit was
set up as shown below”

 Table of Results
The table of results should always be drawn before beginning to carry out the experiment
and taking readings. The tables should always be in columnar form. In case an experiment
requires the determination of a single reading and a set of readings to be plotted, always
start with the table for a single reading. The single reading must however be repeated at
least four times even if not specifically stated in the instructions. The table for the single
reading can then be followed by the one for the set of readings to be plotted on a graph.

Each column must have the quantity indicated at the top using the correct symbol given in
the instruction or the symbol should first be defined for the quantity above the table if not
given in the instructions. The quantity symbol should be separated from the unit symbol by
forward slash. The readings must be in the units of the instruments used. Also indicate the
limits of error for each instrument in the table.

E.g.

TABLE OF RESULTS

Trial d/±0.001mm

53
 2

Average diameter

The resistance of the wire R=2l1/l2

l/±0.05cm l1/± 0.05cm l2/±0.05cm R/Ω

The first column should be for the quantity to be varied (independent variable)
followed by the quantity to be measured (dependent variable) in response to the
varied quantity. The calculated quantities can then follow in order of their
manipulations. Make sure all columns are side by side but on one page. Do not split
the columns.

 Manipulation of Readings
The tables above should first have the readings as read from the instrument. You can
add a column for the values in converted unit or calculated value if necessary. For
example if an experiment requires you to get extension of a spring, you will first find
the positions of the pointer before you determine the extension by finding the
difference between the readings of the positions of the pointer. In this case you must
first record pointer positions before you work out the extensions. The extensions
without pointer positions are meaningless.

Very large or very small readings should be recorded using standard form. E.g. a
reading like 0.056mm can be expressed as 5.6x10-2 mm.

Remove the multiplier and place it at the top

E.g.

l/±0.05x10-2mm

5.6

Calculation of quantities-should be systematically done. The calculated value should

be expressed to the number of significant figures consistent with the values from

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 which they have come. In other words when you reverse the calculation it should give
a figure very close to the original figure. E.g. V=35 should give 1/V=0.0286 and not
0.03 nor 0.029.

There are values to be computed or read from calculators like reciprocals, ratios,
squares etc. which need to be rounded off before entering them into tables of results.
They have to be rounded off to the number of significant figures to give same limits of
error as the original numbers from which they have been computed.


Plotting of the graph
Results of an experiment should be plotted before the apparatus is dismantled. This
allows for very strange readings to be cross checked. The scale should be carefully
chosen to allow for easy plotting of actual results from the table of results and to
allow all points to be covered over a wide coverage of the graph paper.

 Calculating Final Value from an Equation

An experiment may have as its final objective the use of a formula or equation to
determine a physical quantity using given standard values and experimental values. In
such a case follow the steps below:-

(i) The formula should be accurately transcribed to the report and substitute all
values in the equation in SI units.
(ii) Express the values in standard form to help you at a glance detect arithmetic
error in the calculation.
(iii) Work out each section of the equation separately even if you are using a
calculator or a mathematical table and indicate the calculation aid you have
used against the answer. Take the example below to calculate the value of B.

E.g. may require six simple steps as follows;-

(a) μ0Nr2I0=4x10-7xNr2I0=a

(b) (r2+x2)=b

(c) (b)1/2=c

(d) I3 =d

(e) 2x(d)=e

(f) B=a/e

The final answer or solution should have the number of significant numbers as is consistent
with the least accurate value in the equation and the same magnitude of error as the least
accurate value. When the final error in the equation is determined it finally determines the
number of significant figures to which the final answer should be expressed.

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For example in experiment to find the focal length f of a convex lens, the object pin distance
is set as u=25.0±0.1cm and the image distance V found to be 16±[Link] the equation

, the value of f by calculation would be 9.7561cm. Whether the result should be

written as 9.8cm or 9.76cm depends on the estimated error .In this case the value is
9.8±0.9cm.

 Concluding Remarks
The last part of the experimental report should have concluding remarks. These remarks are
deduced from the final calculated value of the quantity and paying attention to the value,
unit in SI and limit of error paying attention to acceptable number of significant figures or
decimal places. The concluding remark should give a comparison between the standard
value from books and the determined value. Mention of the precautions taken should be
included here. The remarks therefore should consist of comments about:

(i)Precautions that you may have been taken to make the apparatus

function as instructed or to get more accurate values or to make the

experiment work better or overcome some difficulties you

encountered.

(ii) Suggestions that could be taken to improve the experimental set-up or

procedure which were not taken to get better results.

(iii) Any discrepancy that you may have noticed in any of the results and its probable
cause.
(iv) Indication of how reliable the final result has been.
(v) Mention other variables that you may have not controlled that possibly affected
the values.

THE END

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