Module III

MODULE – III

CONTENTS:

Nuclear Power Engineering

Introduction-Nuclear reaction- Fission and fusion – chain reaction- Principal parts of a Reactor-
Main parts of a reactor- Brief description of reaction-control by Control rods- Brief description
of the fuel material- Uranium- Thorium- Plutonium- moderators – Graphite, Beryllium -
Beryllium oxide- light - heavy oxidecoolants – water- liquid metal- gas -organic liquids –
Nuclear reactors-name different types
– working of Boiling water reactor (BWR) - Pressurized water reactor (PWR) - Fast Breeder-
Reactor (FBR) power plants -Working of a nuclear power plant – schematic diagram.

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3.1. NUCLEAR POWER PLANT

The cheap and abundant power is essential to the modern world in the coming years. The
rapid increase in industry and living standard of the people creates pressure on conventional
sources of power i.e., coal, oil and gas. It is now obvious that these sources will soon be unable
to meet the increasing demands of the world.

The adoption of nuclear energy for the generation of power is inevitable to the nations
where other sources of generation are inadequate. One of the outstanding facts about nuclear
power is a large amount of energy that can be released from a small mass of active material.

The complete fission of one kilogram of uranium contains energy equivalent to 3100 tons
of coal or 1700 tons of oil. The nuclear power is not only available in abundance but it is
cheaper than the power generated by conventional sources.

3.2. IMPORTANCE OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANT

Despite the higher initial cost of a nuclear plant, the lower fuel cost permits conservation of
foreign exchange in the power sector. A large amount of energy can be released from a small
mass of active material i.e. the complete fission of one kilo of uranium includes energy
equivalent to 3100 tons of coal or 1700 tons of oil. Nearly 1012 tonnes of uranium and thorium
is available in the earth crust. The other factors which are in favour of nuclear energy are:

1. Lower fuel cost.

2. Upgrades the local industry through the use of cheap electric energy.
3. Minimises the ecological effects of power generation.
4. It does not require any fuel transportation facilities.
5. It does not requires large storage facilities.
6. Develops national scientific capabilities through national nuclear research developments.
7. Improves the way of life and makes the people free from burdensome tasks which can be
easily performed by electrical energy.

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8. It has no combustion products and it is a clean source of power which does not contribute
to air pollution.
3.3. NUCLEAR FUSION AND NUCLEAR FISSION

Nuclear fusion and nuclear fission are different two types of reactions that release energy
due to the presence of high-strength nuclear bonds between particles found within the nucleus.
In fission, an atomic is split into two or more smaller, lighter atoms. In fusion, two or more
smaller atoms fuse together, creating a large, heavier atom.

3.3.1. Nuclear Fusion

The nuclear fusion can be defined as the reaction in which the energy is released by
means of combining two or more nuclei and forming a new element with a higher atomic
number.

The energy released in fusion is related to,

E = mc2 (Einstein’s energy-mass equation)

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[Link] Fission

The nuclear fission can be defined as the reaction in which the energy is released by means of
splitting of a massive nucleus into photons in the form of gamma rays, free neutrons and other
subatomic particles.

The typical nuclear reaction involving 235U and neutron.

Followed by

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3.3.3. Chain Reaction
Chain reaction is a chemical or nuclear reaction , in which a neutron colliding with
an atomic nucleus causes fission and the ejection of one or more other neutrons,
which induce other nuclei to split.
The three additional neutrons emitted during above nuclear reaction are called
secondary neutrons. They, in turn, can cause fission in the neighboring nuclei, producing
more and more secondary neutrons. This is called chain reaction , which continues until
whole of the fissionable material undergoes fission.
Chain reaction produces tremendous amount of energy in a very short interval of time.

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3.4. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN NUCLEAR FUSION AND FISSION

NUCLEAR FISSION NUCLEAR FUSION

1. Fission is the splitting of a large atom into 1. Fusion is a fusing of two lighter atoms into a
two or more smaller ones. larger one.

2. This reaction does not normally occur in

2. Fusion occurs in stars, such as Sun.
nature.

3. Fission produces many highly radioactive 3. Few radioactive particles are produced by the
particles. fusion reaction.

4. The critical mass of the substance and 4. High density, high-temperature environment
high-speed neutrons are required. is required.

5. The energy released is 3 to 4 times greater

5. Lower energy is released.
than the energy released by fission.

6. It is used in nuclear power plants. 6. Used for bomb production.

7. Uranium is the main fuel. 7. Hydrogen isotopes are the main fuel.

3.5. COMPONENTS OF NUCLEAR REACTOR

A nuclear reactor is a device in which nuclear fission is controlled as a self-stabilizing

chain reaction. In other words, it is a nuclear furnace which burns fuels like U 235, U233 or Pu239 to
produce the heat, neutrons and radio-isotopes as shown in the figure.

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A nuclear reactor consists of the following:

1. Fuel rod
2. Moderator
3. Reflector
4. Coolant
5. Control rods
6. Shielding
7. Reactor vessel.
1. FUEL ROD

The fuels used in reactors are uranium, plutonium and thorium. Among the three uranium
and its content are naturally available up to 70% to 90% in the uranium ore and the other two are

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formed in the nuclear reactor during the fission process. The fuel rods are used to produce the
heat, neutrons and radio-isotopes.

The known fissile materials are:

 Uranium-233
 Uranium-235
 Plutonium-238
 Plutonium-239
 Plutonium-241
 Neptunium-237
 Curium-244
Uranium-235
The most often isotope of Uranium found in Nature is U-238, U-235 is only found in low
proportions (0.71%). U-235 is created from U-238 via isotope separation. The critical mass for
an unreflected sphere of U-235 is about 50 kg (17 cm of diameter).
One slow neutron strikes a U-235 atom; the result is U-236. U-236 is highly unstable and
it fissions. There are twenty different fission processes, the products masses always add up 236.
Example: U-235 + 1 neutron -> 2 neutrons + Kr-92 + Ba-142 + ENERGY
Plutonium-239
Plutonium is very rare in nature. For military purposes, it is obtained processing
Uranium-238 in breeder reactors. It has a reasonably low rate of neutron emission due to
spontaneous fission. It is usually contaminated with Plutanium-240 which is more unstable (4%-
7% of plutanium-240 is considered bomb-grade). This is the reason why plutonium-based
weapons must be implosion-type, rather than gun-type.

Thorium

Thorium is a basic element of nature, like Iron and Uranium. Like Uranium, its properties
allow it to be used to fuel a nuclear chain reaction that can run a power plant and make
electricity

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Reactors that use thorium are operating on what’s called the Thorium-Uranium (Th-U) fuel
cycle. The vast majority of existing or proposed nuclear reactors, however, use enriched
uranium (U-235) or reprocessed plutonium (Pu-239) as fuel (in the Uranium-Plutonium cycle),
and only a handful have used thorium.
2. MODERATOR

Its main function is to absorb the part of the kinetic energy of the neutrons. The neutrons
collide directly with the moderator and thus reduces the kinetic energy of fast neutron to slow
neutron. The light water, heavy water and graphite are the most common moderators used in
reactors. The moderator is also used to increase the probability of reaction.

Common Moderators

1. Light Water
Hydrogen is a good candidate for a neutron moderator because its mass is almost
identical to that of the incident neutron, and so a single collision will reduce the speed of the
neutron substantially. However, hydrogen also has a relatively high neutron absorption cross-
section due to its tendency to form deuterium, and so light water is only suitable for enriched
fuels which allow for a higher proportion of fast neutrons.

2. Heavy Water
Heavy water has similar benefits to light water, but because its water molecules already
have deuterium atoms it has a low absorption cross section. Additionally, because of the high
energy of the fast neutrons, an additional neutron might be knocked out of the deuterium atom
when a collision occurs, thus increasing the number of neutrons present. The main disadvantage
of heavy water as a moderator is its high price.

3. Beryllium
Beryllium-9 is favoured, because in addition to being a light element, on collision with a
fast neutron, it can react as follows:

9
Be + n → 8Be + 2n

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The main problems with beryllium are its brittleness as a metallic phase and its toxicity,
which make it less favoured as a moderator than the other materials mentioned here.

[Link]
Historically, graphite has been a very popular neutron moderator, and is used in the
majority of British reactors. However, the graphite used has to be highly pure to be effective.
Graphite can be manufactured artificially using boron electrodes, and even a small amount of
contamination from these electrodes can make the graphite unsuitable as a moderator since
boron is a highly effective neutron absorber, and so it “poisons” the graphite by increasing the
overall absorption cross section. It also has unique problems: it stores energy in metastable local
defects when it is irradiated, particularly at lower temperatures. This so-called Wigner energy
can be released suddenly when the graphite spontaneously returns to its stable phase, and this
sudden rise in temperature is not desirable since it can cause further structural damage within the
reactor. This means that graphite has to be annealed to remove the excess energy in its lattice in
a controlled manner.

3. REFLECTOR

Its main function is to reflect back the escaping neutrons back into the core from the
surface of the core. A reflector is usually placed around the core. The neutrons produced in
fission process can be absorbed by the fuel itself, a moderator, coolant, and some neutrons may
escape from the core without absorption. To reduce the loss of neutrons, the reflector is placed
around the core.

4. COOLANT

The main function of coolant is to absorb a large amount of heat produced in the reactor.
The heat carried by the coolant is used for power generation. If water is used as a coolant, it
absorbs the heat and gets converted into steam for power generation.

Types of coolants
1. Water

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2. Molten metal
i. Mercury
ii. sodium
iii. Lead
iv. Tin
3. Gas
1. Water:
The two major types of water-cooled reactors are light water reactors (PWR) and boiling
water reactors (BWR). In a BWR, the water turns into steam in the reactor core and is then
pumped directly to the turbines that power electrical generators. In a PWR, the primary loop of
coolant flowing through the core is at very high pressure (2250 psi) so it will remain a liquid. It
then transfers heat to a secondary loop of water that vaporizes and turns the turbines. This latter
method ensures that any radioactivity activated in the coolant remains within the reactor. Light
water is a good coolant for thermal reactors but not for fast breeders. An even more effective
coolant and moderator is heavy water, or deuterium (liquid D2O), because its absorption cross
section is three orders of magnitude smaller than that of hydrogen., it is also prohibitively
expensive
2. Molten metals:
i. Mercury:
Clementine was the very first liquid metal cooled nuclear reactor and used mercury
coolant. However, because of the disadvantages including high toxicity, High vapor pressure
even at room temperature, Low boiling point, Producing noxious fumes when heated, Relatively
low thermal conductivity, High neutron cross-section.
ii. Sodium :
When it comes to fast breeder reactors, molten sodium is the coolant of choice because it
causes negligible moderation. One of the cheapest available metal. Advantageous because it
carries a high power density and is non-corrosive to stainless steels. Its large heat capacity and
good thermal conductivity prevent significant temperature rises. Liquid sodium has significant
disadvantages as well: It ignites spontaneous upon contact with the air. Reacts violently with

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water. Sodium exposed to the air produces aerosols that are highly toxic and can cause
equipment damage to the surfaces onto which they are deposited
Alternate of sodium:
An alternative to liquid metal is molten salt. This coolant can run at high temperatures for
better thermodynamic efficiency. Remains at a low vapor pressure, which reduces the effects of
mechanical stress and increases the intrinsic safety of the reactor. Since heat transfer by molten
salt is so efficient, reactors can be designed with smaller cores and less complicated piping
systems.
iii. Lead:
Lead has excellent neutron properties (reflection, low absorption). It is a very potent
radiation shield against gamma rays. The higher boiling point of lead provides safety advantages
as it can cool the reactor efficiently even if it reaches 700 degrees celsius above normal
operating conditions. However, because the lead has a high melting point and a high vapor
pressure. It is tricky to refuel and service a lead cooled reactor. The melting point can be
lowered by alloying the lead with bismuth.
iv. Tin:
Although tin until today is not used as a coolant for working reactors because it builds a
crust. It can be a useful additional or replacement coolant at nuclear disasters or loss-of-coolant
accidents. Mercury and lead — used in the chernobyl disaster — are highly poisonous . Sodium
is highly flammable. Water vaporizes or flows away — by carrying radioactive substances it
causes long time contamination and serious incidents. Further advantages of tin are the high
boiling point and the ability to built a crust even over liquid. Tin helps to cover poisonous leaks
and keeps the coolant in and at the reactor.
3. Gas:
Gases have also been used as coolant. Helium is extremely inert both chemically and
with respect to nuclear reactions but has a low heat capacity, necessitating rapid circulation.
Carbon dioxide has also been used in Magnox and AGR reactors. Gases, however, need to be
under pressure for sufficient density at high temperatures.
5. CONTROL RODS

The control rods are used to :

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1. Start the reactor from the cold.
2. For maintaining the chain reaction in a steady-state.
3. To shut down the reactor automatically under emergency condition.
The control is necessary to prevent the melting of fuel rods and destruction of the reactor
under emergency situation. Cadmium, boron or hafnium are commonly used as a control rod.

6. SHIELDING

A thermal shielding is provided through steel lining and external shield is be reactor
installation to protect the operating provided with concrete surrounding the reactor installation to
pro actor walls from radiation damage. personnel from exposure to radiations and reactor walls
from radiation damage.

7. REACTOR VESSEL

It encloses the reactor core, reflector and shield. It also provides entrance and exit
passage for coolant. The control rods are passed through a holder from the top of the vessel. The
reactor vessel has to withstand a pressure of about 200 bar or more. The reactor core is placed at
the bottom of the vessel.

3.6. WORKING OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANT WITH LAYOUT

The simple construction of a nuclear power plant as shown in the figure. It consists of a
nuclear reactor, coolant circulating pump, heat exchanger, feed pump, condenser, turbine and
generator as shown in the line diagram of the nuclear power plant.

The heat is generated in a reactor by the fission reaction. The coolant in the primary
circuit gets heated by absorbing the heat and enters into the heat exchanger. In a heat exchanger,
the feed water is heated and converted into steam by the hot coolant by means of heat transfer.
The steam from the heat exchanger enters the turbine and the turbine is connected to the
generator which generates power. The steam after doing the work enters into the condenser and
converted into the water which is pumped again to the heat exchanger by the feed pump.

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The hot coolant gets cooled in heat exchanger is recirculated into the reactor by a coolant
circulating pump. This cycle is repeated for continuous generation of power. The generated
power is supplied to the distribution line for consumers as shown in the line diagram.

3.6.1. Advantages

1. Less fuel is required.

2. It requires less space than thermal plant.,
3. Compact and simple in maintenance.
4. Less water is required.
5. Transportation cost of the fuel is less.
6. Low cost of erection.
7. Fuel handling is negligible.
3.6.2. Disadvantages

1. High capital investment.

2. High maintenance cost.
3. Radioactive wastes should be disposed of carefully.
4. Skilled workers are required.
5. It is not suitable for varying loads.
3.7. TYPES OF REACTORS

The reactors can be classified into the following categories:

1. Depending on neutron energy:

1. Fast reactors
2. Thermal reactors or slow reactors
3. Intermediate reactors.
2. Types of fuel used:
1. U235 reactors
2. U238 reactor
3. Th22 reactor

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3. Types of coolant used:
1. Gas-cooled reactor
2. Water-cooled reactor
3. Liquid metal cooled reactor
4. Type of moderator used:
1. Graphite reactor
2. Beryllium reactor
3. Water reactor
5. Type of core:
1. Homogeneous reactor
2. Heterogeneous reactor.
3.8. PRESSURIZED WATER REACTOR (PWR)

The arrangement of a pressurized water reactor is shown in the figure. In its simplest
form, it is light water-cooled and moderated reactor. It uses enriched uranium as a fuel.

The pressurising tank in the circuit keeps the water at about 100 kgf/cm. So that it will
not boil and picks up the maximum heat in the reactor. The electric heating coil in the

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pressurised boils the water to form the steam which is in the dome and pressurises the coolant
circuit before starting the reactor. To reduce the pressure, the water spray is used to condense the
steam.

The water in the primary circuit gets heated by absorbing the fission and the reactor core
and same energy are given in the heat exchanger to generate the steam of feed water. The water
coming out of the heat exchanger is recirculated by the pump to maintain the pressure in the
circuit in the range of 100 to 130 bar.

In the primary cooling circuit the water is also the moderator, and if any of it turned to
steam the fission reaction would slow down. This negative feedback effect is one of the safety
features of the type. The secondary shutdown system involves adding boron to the primary
circuit.
The secondary circuit is under less pressure and the water here boils in the heat
exchangers which are thus steam generators. The steam drives the turbine to produce electricity,
and is then condensed and returned to the heat exchangers in contact with the primary circuit.

The steam from the heat exchanger is supplied to the turbine to generate power. The
steam from the turbine goes to the condenser where it is converted into the water which is
pumped once again to the heat exchanger.

Advantages

1. Water is used as a coolant, moderator and reflector, hence its operation cost is less.
2. It requires a small number of control rods.
3. Due to separate circuit, there is no radioactive contamination in the steam.
3.9. BOILING WATER REACTOR (BWR)

In this type of reactor, enriched uranium is used as a fuel and water is used as a coolant,
moderator and reflector. In this case, the steam is generated in the reactor itself instead of a
separate steam boiler as shown in the figure.

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The steam produced in the reactor is directly used to run the turbine to generate power.
The steam from the turbine is condensed back to water and is recirculated into the reactor by
means of a feed pump, which is reheated and converted into steam in a reactor.

The water is circulated through the reactor where it converts to water steam mixture. The
steam gets collected above the steam separator. This steam is expanded in the turbine which
turns the turbine shaft. The expanded steam coming out of the turbine is condensed and is
pumped back as feed water by the feed water pump into the reactor core. Also the down coming
recirculation water from the steam separator is fed back to the reactor core
In a boiling water reactor, light water (H2O) plays the role of moderator and coolant, as
well. Part of the water boils away in the reactor pressure vessel, thus a mixture of water and
steam leaves the reactor core. Generated steam directly goes to the turbine, therefore steam and
moisture must be separated (water drops in steam can damage the turbine blades). Steam leaving
the turbine is condensed in the condenser and then fed back to the reactor after preheating.

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Water that has not evaporated in the reactor vessel accumulates at the bottom of the vessel and
mixes with the pumped back feed water.
Advantages

1. Heat exchanger circuit is eliminated, therefore the cost is reduced.

2. Increased thermal efficiency.
3. Low pressure in the vessel makes it much lighter.
4. BWR is more efficient than PWR.

3.10. FAST BREEDER REACTOR (FBR)

In this reactor the core containing U235 in surrounded by a blanket (a layer of fertile
material placed outside the core) of fertile material U238. In this reactor no moderator is used.
The fast moving neutrons liberated due to fission of U 235 are absorbed by U238 which gets
converted into fissionable material Pu239 which is capable of sustaining chain reaction. Thus this
reactor is important because it breeds fissionable material from fertile material U 238 available in
large quantities. Like sodium graphite nuclear reactor this reactor also uses two liquid metal
coolant circuits. Liquid sodium is used as primary coolant when circulated through the tubes of
intermediate heat exchange transfers its heat to secondary coolant sodium potassium alloy. The

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secondary coolant while flowing through the tubes of steam generator transfers its heat to feed
water.

Fast breeder reactors are better than conventional reactors both from the point of view of
safety and thermal efficiency. For India which already is fast advancing towards self reliance in
the field of nuclear power technology, the fast breeder reactor becomes inescapable in view of
the massive reserves of thorium and the finite limits of its uranium resources. The research and
development efforts in the fast breeder reactor technology will have to be stepped up
considerably if nuclear power generation is to make any impact on the country’stotal energy
needs in the not too distant future.
Coolants are used for Fast Breeder Reactors
The commonly used coolants for fast breeder reactors are as follows:
i) Liquid metal (Na or NaK).
ii) Helium (He)
iii) Carbon dioxide.
Sodium has the following advantages:

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i. It has very low absorption cross-sectional area.
ii. It possesses good heat transfer properties at high temperature and low pressure.
iii. It does not react on any of the structural materials used in primary circuits.

Advantages of fast-breeder reactor

1. A breeder reactor creates 30% more fuel than it consumes. After an initial introduction of
enriched uranium, the reactor only needs infrequent addition of stable uranium, which is
then converted into the fuel.
2. Heat developed per unit volume of core or per unit area of fuel surface is less.
3. Breeder reactors use a small core, which is important to sustain chain reactions. Besides,
they do not even need moderators for slowing down neutrons, as they use fast neutrons.
4. Breeder reactors can even use the uranium waste from uranium processing plants and
spent fuel from traditional fission reactors, along with depleted uranium from nuclear
weapons
5. Greater inherent safety.
Disadvantages of fast-breeder reactor
1. Breeder reactors use highly enriched fuels, which pose the danger of critical accidents.
They also work at a very high temperature and a fast pace.
2. Plutonium persists for a long time in the environment, with a half-life of 24,000 years,
and is highly toxic, causing lung cancer even if a small amount is inhaled.
3. Much larger size and weight of reactor per unit power.
4. The construction and operation is very costly.

3.11. EFFECTS OF NUCLEAR RADIATION

Following are the effects of nuclear radiation when it exposed to the atmosphere:

1. Radioactive may kill all living organisms within an area of about 100 square miles.
2. It affects human health such as –
1. Reduction in resistance to infection.
2. Vomiting, diarrhoea, fatigue, affects teeth.

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3. Damage the brain cells, cancer, damage Kidneys and lungs.
4. Thyroid problem.
5. Affects the blood system, weakens bones.
6. Cause heart failure etc.
3. Disruption of the ecosystem.
4. Damage to the plants and animals, soil and wildlife.
5. Water contamination.
6. Risk of fumes and gases entering into the atmosphere.
7. Damage the ozone layer.

3.12. ADVANTAGES OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANT

Following are the advantages of nuclear power plant:
1. It requires less space compared to other plants.
2. Well suited for large demands.
3. It gives better performance at high load factors (80 to 90%).
4. Less fuel consumption and no fuel handling.
5. Transportation cost of the fuel is very less.
6. Increased reliability of operation.
7. These are not affected by adverse weather conditions.
8. Less water is required.
9. The higher capacity of the plant can be installed.
10. Compact and simple in maintenance.
3.13. DISADVANTAGES OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANT
Following are the disadvantages of nuclear power plant:
1. High initial cost.
2. The danger of radioactivity hazards is always persisting.
3. Not suitable for varying load conditions.
4. The disposal of fission products is a big problem.
5. The maintenance cost is always high.
6. Skilled operators are required.
7. Working condition is always detrimental to the health of the workers.
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