Chapter – 9

Command Area Development and Drainage

9.1 Command Area Development

9.1.1 Location and Classification of Land in the Command Area

The command area of Polavaram project is spread in the following mandals of West
Godavari and Krishna districts. List of mandals is given in Table 9.1

Table 9.1
List of Mandals in the Command Area

I. West Godavari District 13. Eluru

1. Polavaram 14. Pedavegi
2. Gopalapuram 15. Pedapadu
3. Tallapudi 16. Pentapadu
4. Devarapalli 17. Bhimadole
5. Chagallu
6. Kovvur II. Krishna District
7. Nidadavolu
8. Nallajerla 1. Bapulapadu
9. Tadepalligudem 2. Gangavaram
10. Ungutur 3. Vijayawada
11. Dwaraka Tirumala 4. Ungaturu
12. Denduluru

Major portion of the command area is presently under cultivation as indicated in

Table 9.2.
Table 9.2
Details of irrigation in the command area

Description Area (ha)

Gross geographical area 166710
Gross command area 162691
Cultivable command area 139740
Total unirrigated area 39985
Area under tanks and channels, 99755
tube wells etc.

9.1.2 Climate of Command Area

Normals of the climatological data of Kakinada IMD station are furnished below in
Table 9.3.

Table 9.3
Monthly normals of climatological data of Kakinada IMD Station

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Month Normal temperature Normal Normal relative Normal cloud
(oC) wind humidity cover (Octa)
speed At (percent)
Mean Mean (kmph) 0830 1730 0830 1730
Maximu Minimum hr hr hr. hr.
m
Jan 27.3 19.1 10.3 72 70 2.0 1.5
Feb 29.6 20.7 10.3 72 70 2.0 1.5
Mar 33.0 23.1 8.3 73 62 2.2 1.3
Apr 35.3 25.8 9.1 73 65 3.7 2.3
May 36.9 27.7 11.1 71 64 4.3 3.0
Jun 35.9 27.1 12.1 72 61 5.1 5.1
Jul 31.8 25.4 12.3 81 73 6.1 6.0
Aug 31.8 25.6 11.0 81 74 5.6 5.7
Sep 32.0 25.5 8.6 80 76 5.4 5.5
Oct 30.8 24.5 9.5 78 74 4.5 4.8
Nov 28.7 21.6 12.0 71 69 3.4 3.6
Dec 27.1 19.2 11.3 71 69 2.2 2.2
Annual 31.7 23.8 10.4 75 69 3.9 3.5
Source: India Meteorological Department

9.1.3 Present Sources of Irrigation

The present sources of irrigation in the command area are open head channels,
tanks and wells.

9.1.4 Socio-economic Aspects

NWDA has got a study conducted by the National Council for Applied Economic
Research (NCAER), New Delhi to generate micro-level information on agro-economic
and socio-economic aspects of the command areas under the proposed six link canal
projects for inter- basin transfer of water in the Peninsular Rivers Development
Component. Polavaram - Vijayawada link is one of those six projects studied by the
NCAER.

The study has generated information at household level on various aspects of crop
cultivation, pattern of employment, income, consumption, assets, demographic
characteristics, access to various amenities etc., based on the data pertaining to the
agricultural year 1991-92, which was the reference period for the study. The study
has highlighted the differences between the households with and without irrigation
facilities. The NCAER, based on the benchmark survey carried out by them, has
submitted their report in October, 1993.

The selection of the sample households and methodology for data collection are
discussed here. A total of 150 households spread over 10 villages in the command
were selected by NCAER for the bench mark study.

Selection of Villages: The village level information on cultivated area and

irrigation area was compiled from Census Handbooks. The proportion of irrigated
area in the cultivated area was worked out. The villages were also grouped by
geographical locations to ensure wide dispersion of the sample villages in the
command area. The village strata for the link canal project are as under:

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 Stratum 1: Villages having good irrigation facilities.
Total villages - 184; Selected villages - 8.

Stratum 2: Villages having average irrigation facilities.

Total villages - 30; Selected villages - 2.

Selection of Households: All the households in the selected villages were listed.
The listed households were stratified according to the major source of income
(occupation) of their Heads. The cultivating households were further classified
(strata) by size of land area cultivated. Keeping in view of the overall limit of sample
households (1524), the number of households selected from each village was 15.
Random selection procedure was used for the purpose. The findings of the study
done by NCAER are presented here:

a) Population and Major occupations

The command area spreads over 17 mandals in West Godavari district and 3
mandals in Krishna district. The population in the command area as per 1991 census
works out to 8.08 lakh out of which rural population consists of 7.04 lakh. The
occupational distribution of rural population is given in Table 9.4.

Table 9.4
Occupational distribution of population in the command area

Activity Man days / percentage

Crop farming 65 / 12.68
Farm wages 358 / 69.40
Self employment 34 / 6.53
Non-farm wages 59 / 11.39
All activities 516 /100.00

b) Classification of Farmers

The command area of Polavaram - Vijayawada link canal lies in Lower Godavari sub-
basin, Kolleru catchment and Lower Krishna sub-basin. These areas are in West
Godavari and Krishna districts of Andhra Pradesh.

The farmers in this command area can be classified into three groups depending
upon their size of land holdings as detailed in Table 9.5.

Table 9.5
Classification of farmers based on size of land holdings
Group Percentage
Marginal farmers (less than 1 ha) 31.2
Small farmers (between 1 to 2 ha) 28.1
Medium and big farmers (more than 2 ha) 40.7

c) Land Tenure

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Farming is the main economic activity in the command area. Land is the principal
factor of production for farming activities and the ownership of the cultivated land is
likely to affect them. The land ownership status of household in the command area
of Polavaram - Vijayawada is given at Table 9.6.
Table 9.6
Land ownership status of households

Ownership status Percentage of households

No land 48.4
Land owners 47.9
Tenants 1.0
Both 2.7
Total 100.0

d) Income

Since the objective of this study is broadly to asses and quantify the likely impact of
irrigation on production, productivity and income levels in the command area, it was
essential to examine the sources and composition of income of households with
irrigation and without irrigation. Estimated average annual household income from
all activities with and without irrigation is given in Section 9.1.7.

e) Availability of Agricultural Labour

About 40% of work force has been classified as agricultural labourers. As such
availability of agricultural labour would be adequate even after introduction of
irrigation.

9.1.5 Infrastructure facilities

a) Railways and Roads

The Polavaram - Vijayawada link canal is running parallel and very close to NH-5 and
Howrah - Chennai Railway line. The area is also served by very good network of
district and other roads.

In the command area about 60% of the villages have Pucca roads and 50% of the
villages have Bus stands and 10% of the villages have Railway stations.

b) Marketing Facilities

Marketing infrastructure will be the major thrust area with the acceleration of
economic activities in the agricultural sector in the command area. Only 10% of the
villages have marketing facilities. 30% of the villages have outlets within the village
for agricultural inputs like seed and fertilizer.

c) Financial Institutions

Farmers need financial assistance for various purposes such as to meet cultivation
expenses, purchase of livestock, agricultural inputs, to acquire new land, land
improvement and drainage and other personal necessities. More than 60% of the
villages have Co-operative Societies and 30% of the villages have Bank branches
within the villages in the command.

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9.1.6 Awareness and Popular Participation

More than 70% of the households in the command area are not satisfied with the
existing irrigation facilities. Among cultivators 73% of the marginal farmers, 83% of
small farmers, and 80% of medium and large farmers have reported inadequate
irrigation facilities. The widespread view among the farmers of inadequate irrigation
facility suggests urgent need for creation of additional irrigation potential in the area.
10.8% of the households in the command area are aware of the proposed link
project. During the field enquiry the households were asked to indicate the likely
advantages and disadvantages on account of the introduction of canal irrigation in
their areas. 6.4% of households are expecting higher cropping intensity and 0.4% of
the households think that the introduction of the canal irrigation will result in higher
income. Regarding disadvantages, the waterlogging problem has been anticipated
by only 1% of the households.

The Union Ministry of Water Resources has been advocating the concept of farmers’
participation in the irrigation water management since a very long time. Under the
command area development programme, one of the objectives is to encourage
farmers in construction activities such as land levelling and shaping, construction of
field channels and equitable distribution of water among the farmers’ land holdings.
Formation of Water Users’ Associations offers considerable scope to improve the
farmers’ participation in the irrigation water management, in the command area.

9.1.7 Assessment of Likely Economic Impact

An attempt was made here to assess the likely economic impact of irrigation water
made available through the proposed inter-basin water project. The increase in
income from crop farming with the availability of irrigation facilities is considered as
the direct benefit of the project. The changes in income of the other activities of the
households in the command and consequent changes in total employment are taken
as the indirect effects due to higher benefits in agriculture.

Table 9.7 given below provides the information on average income per household in
various economic activities and total amount of employment generated for
households with and without irrigation facilities.

Table 9.7
Average annual household income from various sources and total
employment

Description With irrigation Without irrigation

Income from crop farming 34422 6185
Livestock and allied activities 4903 3201
Farm wages 2279 7352
Non-farm wage and salaries 800 1574
Other activities 2011 2712
Total income (Rs.) 44415 21024
Total employment
(Man days) 642 516

The information presented in the above table is collected through household survey
and reflects the comparison in income from different sources for households with and

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without irrigation facilities. The income from crop farming and livestock is higher for
house holds with irrigation facilities and this has resulted in higher income. Even if
the existing irrigation facilities, which are reported inadequate by the households,
have beneficial effect on total household income, then the better irrigation system to
be provided after the construction of the proposed link project will perforce result in
even better impact on household incomes.

Although the primary impact of link project is the generation of higher income in
agricultural sector but the level of income rises with time. This will generate demand
for various goods and services and give an impetus for various non -farm activities.

It is observed that for households having no access to the irrigation facility,

employment for farm wages is predominant in the command area. Crop farming
becomes the major activity with the advent of irrigation facility in the households.
The quantum of employment per households increased appreciably in the command
area of the proposed link. Crop cultivation accounted for about 71% of the total
employment in the command.

Farm wage activity comes next to crop farming and its share in the total
employment is about 18%. There is considerable decrease in the amount of
employment per household in this activity with irrigation.

Non-farm wage activity has slightly decreased with the introduction of irrigation.
Self-employment activity is the least important and there is considerable decline in
the per household employment for households with irrigation.

It is clear from the above discussions that the availability of irrigation directly
affects crop farming and related activities (like livestock, fisheries, etc). The
considerable increase of returns from these activities would take place. However,
decline in non-farm activities has been observed for households having access to
irrigation. But the situation is likely to change with further increase in the income.

9.1.8 Topography and Soils

Topography

In the first 30 km, the ayacut under Polavaram - Vijayawada link canal lies between
the canal alignment and the Godavari river and extends up to Godavari anicut near
Dowlaiswaram. Beyond 30 km, the ayacut extends up to the Eluru canal under
Krishna -Godavari Delta system. In the first 50 km, the width of the ayacut land
extends up to 10 to 20 km from the alignment while it narrows down to 6 to 8 km
beyond. As per the toposheets, the country is almost flat in the first 50 km except
for a few isolated patches. Beyond 50 km, the fall of the country is of the order of 1
in 300 to 1 in 500

Soils

The soils in the command area may be broadly classified as follows:

(i) Red soils with clay base
(ii) Black cotton soils (deep to very deep)
(iii) Deltaic alluvium

A brief description of these soils is given in the following paragraphs.

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(i) Red Soils with Clay Base

The red soils with clay base are located in low lying areas on flat lands without much
facility for surface run off and in valley bottoms overlying natural streams. In view
of the low lying topographic situation, in most of these soils paddy is grown either
rain fed or irrigated under bore wells.

These soils resemble the orchard soils but differ significantly in regard to colour,
texture and structure of the sub-soils. The sub-soil colour is greyish-grey brown
strongly indicating the seasonal wet conditions. The sub-soil merges into clay. The
structure is blacky-prismatic with secondary granular structure. Fluctuating water
table and seasonal high moisture conditions prevailing due to topographic location,
besides the heavy clay texture and the consequential partial oxidation and reduction
processes appear to be responsible for the mottlings. The soil reaction is not
seriously alkaline. The salt content does not exceed critical limit of 0.2 percent
throughout the profile. Different layers composing the profile have different
textures, and permeability percolation rates. As such the removal of excess water is
not accomplished at a uniform rate throughout the profile. As a result, percolation
water tends to over saturate the clay sub-soils and create temporary water logged
conditions impairing aeration. But under rainfed conditions this appears to be top
transient to adversely affect the crops, under irrigation farming. The same
favourable conditions may not be expected to continue unless good management
practices including provision of drainage are adopted. Difference in percolation rates
between the surface and sub-surface layers has to be minimised by deep ploughing
to incorporate a portion of the sub-soil in the surface layers and application of bulk
quantities of farm manure, green manure, etc to increase the water holding capacity
of the surface layer. These soils are found in the West Godavari district portion of
the command area.

(ii) Black Cotton Soils

These soils may be sub-grouped into two categories, viz., (a) deep black soils
developed from lime stones and (b) normal regurs developed from Archaean rocks.

(a) Limestone Soils

These soils are seen in the Krishna and West Godavari districts. They are derived
from sedimentary limestones of purana group and from Kurnool-Cuddapah
formation.

These clay and loamy-clay soils are grey to dark grey brown in colour and are
developed under the influence of arid type of climate. These soils are sufficiently
deep with depth commonly in the ranges of 75 to 120 cm. In the valley bottoms and
on the ridges, however, these soils are deeper and the depth is seen to exceed even
180 cm. These soils overlay either limestone slabs or cemented lime modular zone
or loose lime modular zone or lime gravel. Limestone slabs of varying sizes occur in
parts either as outcrops or embedded in the soil body. These stones have to be
cleared to develop the areas for irrigation as otherwise they are expected to
seriously interfere with tillage implements. In general, these soils have a mildly
alkaline reaction at surface (pH 8.0) and it increases with depth reaching a value of
8.5 and more. The major soluble salts of the top layers are bicarbonates with small
amounts of chlorides and occasionally traces of carbonate of soda. In general, the

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chloride content increases with depth. The salt concentration to a depth of 75 cm
from surface is well within the critical limit (less than 0.2 percent).

The sub-soil clay is wet throughout the year, very sticky and highly plastic. The
sub-soils excepting the zone of maximum salt accumulation is usually alkaline. An
efficient surface and sub-surface drainage system is necessary in view of the heavy
nature of these clayey soils and their poor drainage conditions.

These soils respond more to phosphates than nitrogen, and combined application of
nitrogen and phosphorous gives maximum yield. These soils are found to be
deficient in zinc.

(b) Regur or Black Cotton Soils

The regurs are grey, dark, and brown in colour. These are both shallow and very
deep types, the soil depth varying from 15 to 240 cm. There are gypseous and non-
gypseous soils in the deeper type. They are heavy in texture and high in salt
content (0.05% to 1.0%). These are found in the West Godavari and Krishna
districts. Invariably these soils are calcareous. These soils contain high amounts of
free lime which occur as modules of varying sizes. The structure is usually sub-
angular blocky to platy in the sub-surface layer and tends to be biconvex lentle with
depth in the case of moderately well drained profiles. The pH value ranges from 7.0
to 8.5. In the deeper soils yellowish salt accumulated horizon occurs at a depth of
90 to 180 cm, depending on the relief and drainage conditions. These soils are poor
in humus and nitrogen. These soils are well provided with potash. The clay content
varies from 30 to 60 percent. The clay minerals are of montmorillonite and baidelite
groups with exchange capacity of 1.0 milli equivalent per gram of clay. The shallow
and medium deep soils are suited for light irrigated rabi crops. Irrigated crops like
paddy and sugarcane can be successfully grown in these soils by providing adequate
drainage and application of bulky organic manures and water soluble phosphates.

(iii) Deltaic Alluviums

These occur in the deltas of West Godavari and Krishna districts. These are rich soils
with high content of fine fraction of 60-70%. A section of the profile shows
alternative layers of sand and silt deposited as they are brought down by rivers. The
Godavari alluviums are considered to be fertile, rich in lime, potash and phosphate.
The soils in Kovvur taluk of West Godavari are loamy fine sands and silts with either
loamy or clayey sub-soils. The Godavari alluvium is composed of brown clay and
sandy silts with modules of Kankars. The Krishna delta alluviums are composed of
loamy clay and sandy clay with flat basin type topography. These soils differ greatly
in texture and consistency, ranging from sands through loams and silts to heavy clay
that are ill-drained and some times charged with injurious accumulations of sodium
salts.

The old alluviums of Krishna and West Godavari districts are heavy clays with flat
and basin type topography without facility for either surfacial or vertical drainage.
These are very deep soils and the texture becomes heavy with depth. They are
invariably affected by salinity and/or high water table. Application of gypsum in
doses of 2.4 hundred weights per acre per season may help to promote internal
drainage and prevent accumulation of toxic products arising due to reduction
process. Agriculturally these are very important soils due to their high fertility status

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and also assured canal irrigation. A wide variety of crops are grown, such as rice,
turmeric, chillies, cotton, maize, vegetables, banana, sugarcane, groundnut etc.

9.1.9 Groundwater

In the command area of Polavaram - Vijayawada link, the thickness of weathered

zone varies from 10 to 15 m and depth of water table varies from near surface to 25
m below ground level.

The groundwater potential estimated by the Central Ground Water Board in respect
of West Godavari and Krishna districts is presented in Table 9.8. The potential in
respect of the command areas under the Polavaram - Vijayawada link canal as
worked out by NWDA is also presented in the same table.
Table 9.8
Groundwater potential in the command area (Mm3)

(i) District as a whole

District GCA Estimated Provisio Utilisable Net Balance
(km2) potential n for groundwate draf groundwater
drinking r resources t available for
and for exploitation
other irrigation
uses
West 7795 2345.6 351.8 1993.8 472. 1521.0
Godavari 8
Krishna 8797 1234.8 185.2 1049.6 166. 883.2
4
Source: CGWB Statistics – 1995

(ii) Under Polavaram - Vijayawada Link Command (worked out by NWDA)

District GCA Estimated Provisio Utilisable Net Balance
(km2) potential n for ground draft groundwater
drinking water available for
and resources exploitation
other for
uses rrigation
West 1306 392.99 58.94 334.05 79.21 254.84
Godavari
Krishna 321 45.06 6.76 38.30 6.07 32.23
Total 438.05 65.70 372.35 85.28 287.07

Once the irrigation is introduced after the construction of the canal system,
percolation from the irrigated and the canal distributary system will contribute
considerable amount of recharge to the groundwater. As such the scope for
groundwater development under the command of the link canal appears to be
reasonably good.

Groundwater quality in the command area is generally within the permissible limits
for irrigation. Florides vary from 0.25 to 1.75 ppm. However, it appears that the
crops in these areas have not been affected by the presence of rare elements.

9.1.10 Identification of Problems in the Command Area

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Physical Problems

There are no significant physical problems in the command area. The slopes of the
area are gentle ranging from 1 in 500 to 1 in 5000. The soils are suitable for
growing the crops proposed. There is also not much of a waterlogging problem.

Financial Problems

No financial problems could be foreseen. The farmers are already in the field of
agriculture. With the introduction of assured irrigation water under the link project
more inputs have to be put in to achieve greater yield. This may call for more
finances. Banks in general provide every assistance to the farmers, the present
policy of the Government both at Central and State level being to grow more food
and achieve self sufficiency by providing every conceivable assistance to the farmers.

9.1.11 Land Development Works

Detailed command area surveys have been got done by Survey of India by the
Andhra Pradesh Government. The maps have not yet been supplied by them. The
different items considered for estimating the costs under land development are as
under.

(a) Land Levelling / Shaping

Slope of the ayacut Extent

0 to 1% 1.60 lakh acres (50% of the total ayacut)
1 to 2% 0.80 lakh acres (25% of the total ayacut)
2 to 3% 0.80 lakh acres (25% of the total ayacut)
Clearance of forest, boulders 0.80 lakh acres (25% of the total ayacut)
and filling up of pits

(b) Field Channels

Field channels are proposed for the entire ayacut under the canal.

(c) Field Drainage

Field drainage is also proposed over the entire ayacut lands.

(d) Farm Road

There are a good number of village roads, which in turn are linked to district roads
because of the existence of developed towns and villages in the command area. No
further roads are contemplated under this link project. Further, development in the
road system will automatically take place as a sequence of the economic
development of the area.

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9.2 Drainage
9.2.1 Basin Characteristics
Geology of the Command Area

The geographical area of the command is 166710 ha. The cultivable command area
is 139740 ha. The description on the soils encountered in the command area of link
canal is furnished in Section 9.1.8.

Physiography

The country through which the link canal passes is undulating and the horizon is
broken up at some places, by scattered hills and hillocks. The general soils of the
track are river alluvium, red earth and black cotton and are best suited for both wet
and dry crops under irrigated conditions. The main crops grown are paddy,
sugarcane, pulses, groundnut and chillies.

Existing Drainage Lines

There are a number of natural streams, Chief among them are Kovvada Kalva, Yerra
Kalva, Gunderu, Tammileru, Ramileru and Budameru. Practically, there would not be
much of a drainage problem in the command area as the country has adequate slope
along the cross section of the main canal, which will facilitate free flow of drainage
water.

Farm Drainages

There are no definite courses for collecting the farm drainage. The drainage, flows
from field to field and enters into minor streams which drains off ultimately into
major ones.

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