CPU levels of cache

There are three levels of CPU cache memory:

Level 3 cache: L3 cache is the largest and slowest of CPU cache. However, it is
often twice as fast as RAM. L3 is the first CPU cache location to store data after
it is transferred from RAM. L3 cache is often shared by all of the cores in a
single CPU.

Level 2 cache: L2 cache holds less data than L3 cache, but it has faster access
speeds. L2 holds a copy of the most recently accessed data that is not currently in
use by the CPU. Each CPU core normally has its own L2 cache.

Level 1 cache: L1 cache is the fastest and smallest of the three CPU cache levels.
L1 holds the data currently in use by the CPU. Each CPU core usually has its own L1
cache.

Overclocking a CPU sets it to run at a higher CPU clock frequency rate than the
manufacturer’s original specifications. For example, if a processor is labeled as
having a 3.2 GHz base frequency rate, it may be possible to overclock the CPU to
run at 3.5 GHz. Achieving a higher CPU clock frequency rate means the CPU can
process a higher volume of instructions per nanosecond, resulting in faster
performance. A computer user might want to overclock their CPU to improve sluggish
speeds when performing processor-intensive tasks, like video editing or gaming.

Overclocking a CPU’s frequency involves three variables:

The base CPU clock frequency, often measured in GHz.

The core frequency, which is calculated by multiplying the base frequency by the
CPU core multipliers.

The core voltage, which needs to be increased in small increments to meet the
increasing power demand of the CPU during the overclocking process.

RPM - revolution per minute

SSD - Solid State Drive

Decimal nomenclature: kilobyte, megabyte, gigabyte, terabyte, petabyte, exabyte,

zettabyte, yottabyte

Binary nomenclature: kibibyte, mebibyte, gibibyte, tebibyte, pebibyte, exbibyte,

zebibyte, yobibyte

One kilobyte (1 KB):

Kilobyte (KB) decimal format: 103 = 1,000 bytes

Kibibyte (KiB) binary format: 210 = 1,024 bytes

Decimal inaccuracy: Off by -2.4% or -24 bytes

Name origin: “Kilo-” is a French derivation from the Ancient Greek word for
“thousand” A kilobyte is one thousand bytes.

1 KB can hold: A short text file or a small icon as a 16x16 pixel .gif file.

One megabyte (1 MB):

Megabyte (MB) decimal format: 106 = 1,000,000 bytes

Mebibyte (MiB) binary format: 220 = 1,048,576 bytes

Decimal inaccuracy: Off by -4.9% or -48,576 bytes

Name origin: “Mega-” is derived from the Ancient Greek word for “large.” A megabyte
is a large number of bytes.

1 MB can hold: Approximately one minute of music in a lossless .mp3 format or a

short novel.

One gigabyte (1 GB):

Gigabyte (GB) decimal format: 109 = 1,000,000,000 bytes

Gibibyte (GiB) binary format: 230 = 1,073,741,824 bytes

Decimal inaccuracy: Off by -7.4% or -73,741,824 bytes

Name origin: “Giga-” is derived from the Ancient Greek word for “giant.” A gigabyte
is a giant number of bytes.

1 GB can hold: Between 2.5-3 hours of music in .mp3 format or 300 high-resolution
images.

One terabyte (1 TB):

Terabyte (TB) decimal format: 1012 = 1,000,000,000,000 bytes

Tebibyte (TiB) binary format: 240 = 1,099,511,627,776 bytes

Decimal inaccuracy: Off by -10.0%

Name origin: “Tera-” is a shortened form of “tetra-”, which was derived from the
Ancient Greek word for the number four. The 1012 decimal format can also be written
as 10004 (one-thousand to the 4th power). “Tera-” in Ancient Greek means “monster.”
You might think of the word “terabyte” as a monstrously large number of bytes.

1 TB can hold: Approximately 200,000 songs in .mp3 format or 300 hours of video.

One petabyte (PB):

Petabyte (PB) decimal format: 1015 = 1,000,000,000,000,000 bytes

Pebibyte (PiB) binary format: 250 = 1,125,899,906,842,624 bytes

Decimal inaccuracy: Off by -12.6%

Name origin: “Peta-” is derived from the Ancient Greek word “penta” meaning five.
The 1018 decimal format can also be written as 10005 (one-thousand to the 5th
power).

1 PB can hold: The content from 1.5 million CD-ROM discs or 500 billion pages of
text.

One exabyte (EB):

Exabyte (EB) decimal format: 1018 = 1,000,000,000,000,000,000 bytes

Exbibyte (EiB) binary format: 260 = 1,152,921,504,606,846,976 bytes

Decimal inaccuracy: Off by -15.3%

Name origin: “Exa-” was derived from the Ancient Greek word for six. The 1018
decimal format can also be written as 10006 (one-thousand to the 6th power).

1 EB can hold: Approximately 11 million movies in 4k video resolution or 3,000

copies of the entire United States Library of Congress.

One zettabyte (ZB):

Zettabyte (ZB) decimal format: 1021 = 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 bytes

Zebibyte (ZiB) binary format: 270 = 1,180,591,620,717,411,303,424 bytes

Decimal inaccuracy: Off by -18.1%

Name origin: “Zetta” was derived from the Latin word “septem” which means seven.
The 1021 decimal format can also be written as 10007 (one-thousand to the 7th
power).

1 ZB can hold: Seagate reports one zettabyte can hold 30 billion movies in 4k video
resolution.

One yottabyte (YB):

Yottabyte (ZB) decimal format: 1024 = 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 bytes

Yobibyte (YiB) binary format: 280 = 1,208,925,819,614,6329,174,706,176 bytes

Decimal inaccuracy: Off by -20.9%

Name origin: “Yotta” is Ancient Greek for eight. The 1024 decimal format can also
be written as 10008 (one-thousand to the 8th power).

1 YB can hold: In 2011, a cloud storage company estimated that one yottabyte could
hold the data of one million data centers.

DC - Direct Current

AC- Alternating Current

110-120 VAC and 220-240 VAC. VAC stands for volts of alternating current.
Most countries use the 220-240 VAC standard for common wall sockets.
Install a power supply model that includes a dual-voltage switch that can be
toggled from 110-120VAC to 220-240VAC.
Micro USB is a small USB port found on many non-Apple cellphones, tablets, and
other portable devices.

USB-C is the newest reversible connector with either end having the same build.
USB-C cables replace traditional USB connectors since they can carry significantly
more power and transfer data at 20 Gbps.

USB4 uses Thunderbolt 3 protocol and USB-C cables to transfer data at speeds of 40
Gbps and provide power as well.

Lightning Port is a connector exclusive to Apple that is similar to USB-C. It is

used for charging and connecting devices to computers, external monitors, cameras
and other peripherals.
Plain Old Telephone Service (POTS) refers to cables transmitting voice through
twisted copper pair wires. Landline telephones, dial-up internet, and alarm systems
use POTS. The RJ-11 (Register Jack 11) connector is used for POTS.

Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) provides access to high-speed networks or the

internet through telephone lines and a modem. The RJ-45 connects a computer to
network elements and is mostly used with ethernet cables.

Cable Internet uses a cable TV infrastructure and a modem to provide high-speed

internet access to users. An F type connector is commonly used with cable modems..

Fiber-optic cables contain strands of glass fibers inside an insulated casing that
send data long-distance and allow for higher-bandwidth communication. The major
internet providers use fiber-optic cables for high-speed internet service.

DB89 connectors are used for older peripherals like keyboards, mice, and joysticks.
An IT professional may still encounter a DB89 connector for external tools a
computer uses and should recognize the cable to connect to the appropriate port.

Molex connectors provide power to drives or devices inside the computer. Molex
connectors are used for connecting a hard drive, disc drive (CD-ROM, DVD, Blu-ray),
or a video card.

BIOS (Basic Information Operating Software)

UEFI (Unified extensible firmware interface)

In-Plane Switching (IPS)

How it works: In IPS displays, the liquid crystals are aligned horizontally to the
screen. Electricity is passed between the ends of the crystals to control their
behavior.

Uses: IPS technology is used in touch screen displays and high-end monitors. They
are often used for design, photography, video/film editing, animation, movies, and
other media. They can also be used for games that rely on color accuracy and wide
viewing angles, as opposed to speed.

Positives: IPS displays provide vibrant colors, high quality graphics, and wide
viewing areas. Additionally, they offer excellent color reproduction, accuracy, and
contrast.

Negatives: IPS displays are expensive. They have low refresh rates and slow
response times. However, response times have been improving as the IPS technology
evolves. IPS displays can be affected by “IPS Glow”, where the backlight is visible
from side viewing angles.

Twisted Nematic (TN)

Twisted Nematic (TN) is the earliest LCD technology that is still in use today. The
term nematic, which means “threadlike,” is used to describe the appearance of the
molecules inside the liquid.

How it works: In TN displays, the liquid crystals are twisted. When voltage is
applied, the crystals will untwist to change the angle of the light they transmit.

Uses: TN displays are appropriate for basic business use (e.g., email, document,
and spreadsheet applications). They are also used for games that need rapid display
response times.

Positives: TN displays are low cost, easy to produce, have excellent refresh rates,
response times, and resolutions. They are versatile and can be manufactured for any
size and/or shape.

Negatives: TN displays have narrow viewing angles, low image quality, color
distortion, and poor color accuracy and contrast.

VA-Vertical Alignment
How it works: In VA displays, the liquid crystal molecules are vertically aligned.
They tilt when electricity passes through them.

Uses: VA displays are intended for general purpose. Provides mid-range performance
for graphic work, movies, and TV.

Positives: VA displays offergreat contrast, deep black shades, and fast response
times. They are mid-range quality for refresh rates, image quality, viewing angle,
and color reproduction.

Negatives: On VA displays, motion blur and ghosting occurs with fast-motion

visuals.

Organic Light Emitting Diodes (OLED)

OLEDs are diodes that emit light using organic (carbon-based) materials when
electricity is passed through the diodes. Displays that are able to convert
electricity into light are called emissive or active displays.

How it works: The basic structure of an OLED display consists of an emissive layer
placed between a cathode (which injects electrons) and an anode (which removes
electrons). Electricity enters through the cathode layer, passes into the emissive
layer and conductive layer to create light, then out through the anode layer.

Uses: OLED display technology can be used in foldable smartphones, rollable TVs,
as backlighting in LCD TVs, for gaming, and inside VR headsets.

Positives: OLED displays deliver excellent picture quality, wide viewing angles,
infinite contrast, fast response rate, and brilliant colors with true blacks. They
are energy efficient, simpler to make, and much thinner than LCDs. OLED panels can
be built to be flexible and even rollable.

Negatives: OLED displays are sensitive to light and moisture. Blue LEDs degrade
faster than other LED colors causing color distortion over time. They are also
prone to image retention and burn-in.

Active Matrix Organic Light Emitting Diode (AMOLED)

Active Matrix Organic Light Emitting Diode (AMOLED) and Super AMOLED are recent
technologies used in smartphone displays.

How it works: AMOLED displays are a type of OLED panel that uses active matrix
technology. Active-matrix displays have active capacitors arranged in a matrix with
thin film transistors (TFTs). This technology enables the control of each
individual pixel for rapid state changes, including changing brightness and color.
AMOLEDs have touchscreen functions integrated into the screen.

Uses: AMOLED and Super AMOLED panels are used in high-end mobile devices, flat
screen monitors, curved screens, and touchscreens.

Positives: AMOLED displays offer a high picture quality and fast response time.
Color and brightness are consistent across the screen. Fast-moving images and
motion are displayed clearly without blurring or ghosting. Super AMOLED panels can
display a wider range of colors with enhanced contrast, which makes them easy to
view in a wider variety of lighting conditions.

Negatives: AMOLED displays have the same problems as OLED displays (listed above)
plus AMOLED panels can be difficult and expensive to manufacture.

Inorganic mini-LEDs (mLEDs)

Inorganic mini-LEDs (mLEDs) are a next-generation, emissive display technology.

How it works: Mini-LED displays work the same way that OLED displays work, but the
individual LED size is much smaller at approximately 50-60 micrometers.

Uses: Mini-LED displays are used for LCD backlighting in smartphones, public
information displays, signage, electronics, vehicle displays, and more. Mini-LEDs
are also the tech behind “Liquid Retina XDR” screens.

Positives: Mini-LED displays offer ultra high luminance, superior HDR fineness,
long lifetimes, thin panels, and are readable in sunlight. They are also less
expensive than micro-LED displays.

Negatives: Mini-LED displays, when used as LCD backlighting, are limited by the
properties of LCD technology. Mini-LED displays for mobile devices are more
expensive than OLED displays.

Inorganic micro-LEDs (μLEDs)

Micro-LEDs (μLEDs) are also emissive, next-generation displays.

How it works: Micro-LED displays work the same way that OLED displays work, but the
individual LED size is extremely small at 15 micrometers.

Uses: Micro-LED displays can be used in smartphones, AR/VR headsets, wearables,

public information displays, wall-sized TVs, vehicle displays, and more.

Positives: Micro-LED displaysoffer superior performances across virtually all

common display features, such as brightness, reaction speeds, power consumption,
durability, color gamut, stability, viewing angles, HDR, contrast, refresh rates,
transparency, seamless connectivity, and more. Micro-LED displays are readable in
sunlight and have sensor integration capability.

Negatives: Micro-LED displaysare expensive to manufacture and are not yet ready for
mass production.

Address bus: Connects the CPU to the MCC and sends over the location of the data,
but not the data itself

ATA: The most common interface that hard drives use to connect to our system

ATX (Advanced Technology eXtended): The most common form factor for motherboards

Backward compatible: It means older hardware works with newer hardware

Bios (Basic Input Output Services): The BIOS is software that helps initialize the
hardware in our computer and gets our operating system up and running

BYOD (Bring Your Own Device): Refers to the practice of allowing people to use
their own personal devices for work

Cache: The assigned stored location for recently or frequently accessed data; on a
mobile app it is where anything that was changed or created with that app is stored
Charge cycle: One full charge and discharge of a battery

Chipset: It decides how components talk to each other on our machine

Clock cycle: When you send a voltage to the clock wire

Clock speed: The maximum number of clock cycles that it can handle in a set in a
certain time period

Clock wire: When you send or receive data, it sends a voltage to that clock wire to
let the CPU know it can start doing calculations

CPU: Central processing unit

CPU sockets: A CPU socket is a series of pins that connect a CPU’s processor to the
PC’s motherboard

Data sizes: Metrics that refer to data sizes including bit, byte, kilobyte,
kibibyte, and megabyte

DDR SDRAM (Double Data Rate SDRAM): A type of RAM that is faster, takes up less
power, and has a larger capacity than earlier SDRAM versions

Desktop: The main screen where we can navigate our files, folders, and applications

DIMM: Dual Inline Memory Module

Display port: Port which also outputs audio and video

DRAM: Dynamic Random Access Memory

Drivers: The drivers contain the instructions our CPU needs to understand external
devices like keyboards, webcams, printers

DVI: DVI cables generally just output video

Electrostatic discharge: Electrostatic discharge is a sudden and momentary flow of

electric current between two electrically charged objects caused by contact, an
electrical short or dielectric breakdown

External Data Bus (EDB): It's a row of wires that interconnect the parts of our
computer

Factory reset: Resetting a device to the settings it came with from the factory

Form factor: A mathematical way to compensate for irregularities in the shape of an

object by using a ratio between its volume and height

Hard drive: It is a long term memory component that holds all of our data, which
can include music, pictures, applications

Hardware: External or internal devices and equipment that help you perform major
functions

HDD (Hard disk drive): Hard disk drives, or HDDs, use a spinning platter and a
mechanical arm to read and write information

HDMI: A type of cable that outputs both video and audio

Heatsink: It is used to dissipate heat from our CPU

Instruction set: A list of instructions that our CPU is able to run

ITX (Information Technology eXtended): A form factor for motherboards that is much
smaller than ATX boards

Land Grid Array (LGA): It is a type of CPU socket that stick out of the motherboard

Lightning adaptor: One of the standard power, data and display connector types used
in mobile devices

Mb/s: megabit per second, which is a unit of data transfer rate

Memory controller chip (MCC): A bridge between the CPU and the RAM

Micro display port: One of the standard power, data and display connector types
used in mobile devices

Micro HDMI: One of the standard power, data and display connector types used in
mobile devices

Micro USB: One of the standard power, data and display connector types used in
mobile devices

Mini HDMI: One of the standard power, data and display connector types used in
mobile devices

Mini USB: One of the standard power, data and display connector types used in
mobile devices

Motherboard: The body or circulatory system of the computer that connects all the
pieces together

Northbridge: interconnects stuff like RAM and video cards

NVMe (NVM Express): interface standard which allows greater throughput of data and
increased efficiency

Overclocking: it increases the rate of your CPU clock cycles in order to perform
more tasks

PCI Express: Peripheral Component Interconnect Express

Peripherals: the external devices which we connect to our computer that add
functionality, like: a mouse, a keyboard, and a monitor

Pin Grid Array (PGA): CPU socket where the pins are located on the processor itself

Ports: Connection points that we can connect devices to that extend the
functionality of our computer

POST (Power On Self Test): It figures out what hardware is on the computer

Power supply: Converts electricity from our wall outlet onto a format that our
computer can use

Programs: Basic instructions that tell the computer what to do

RAM: Random Access Memory

Registers: An accessible location for storing the data that our CPU works with

Reimaging: The process of reimaging involves wiping and reinstalling an operating

system using a disk image which is a copy of an operating system

Return merchandise authorization (RMA): The process of receiving returned

merchandise and authorizing a refund

ROM chip (Read Only Memory): A read-only memory chip where the BIOS is stored

RPM: Revolutions per minute

Safe operating temperature: The temperature range in which rechargeable batteries

must be kept in order to avoid demanage

SATA: The most popular serial ATA drive, which uses one cable for data transfers

SDRAM: It stands for Synchronous DRAM, this type of RAM is synchronized to our
systems' clock speed allowing quicker processing of data

SOC (System On a Chip): Packs the CPU, Ram, and sometimes even the storage onto a
single chip

Southbridge: It maintains our IO or input/output controllers, like hard drives and

USB devices that input and output data

SSD: Solid State Drive

Standoffs: Used to raise and attach your motherboard to the case

Thermal paste: A substance used to better connect our CPU and heat sink, so the
heat transfers from to the other better

Type-C connector: A type of USB connector meant to replace many peripheral

connections

UEFI: United Extensible Firmware Interface

USB (Universal Serial Bus): A connection standard for connecting peripherals to

devices such as computers

USB-C adapter: One of the standard power, data and display connector types used in
mobile devices