PUNCTUATION

I COMMAS /, /
The comma separates the structural elements of sentences into manageable segments.

MAIN USES OF THE COMMA:

1. To separate independent clause when they are joined by any of these seven coordinating conjunctions:
and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet.
Yesterday was her brother’s birthday, so she took him out to dinner.
The student explained her question, yet the instructor still didn’t seem to understand.
2. After introductory material that comes before the main clause:
a. Introductory clauses are dependent clauses that provide background information or “set the stage” for the
main part of the sentence.
Clue: They start with adverbs like after. although, as, because, if, since, though, until, when, while etc.
When the snow stops falling, we’ll shovel the driveway.
Note: However, don’t put comma after the main clause when a dependent clause follows it (except for cases
of extreme contrast).
The car scratched at the door, while I was eating. (incorrect)
She was still quite upset, although she had won the Oscar. (correct: extreme contrast)
b. Introductory phrases also set the stage for the main action of the sentence, but they are not complete
clauses. Phrases don’t have both a subject and a verb that are separate from the subject and verb in the
main clause of the sentence.
Having finished the test, he left the room.
To get a seat, you’d better come early.
The sun radiating intense heat, we sought shelter in the cafe.
c. Introductory words like however, nevertheless, also, therefore, still, furthermore, in addition, meanwhile create
continuity from one sentence to the next.
Most of the evidence seemed convincing. Still, the credibility of some witnesses was in question.
However, she may not be satisfied with the results.
Note: Don’t use comma if:
the introductory material is brief, e.g. a brief prepositional phrase (less than five words): After lunch...
the opening segment is the subject
Climbing in the Dolomites [x] is exciting.
To start a new business without doing market research in advance [x] would be foolish.
3. Use a pair of commas in the middle of a sentence to set off clauses, phrases and words that are not
essential to the meaning of the sentence (they don’t interrupt the flow of thought and when you remove
them, the sentence still make sense).Use one comma before to indicate the beginning of the pause and one
at the end to indicate the end of the pause.
Clause: That Tuesday, which happens to be my birthday, is the only day when I am available to meet.
Phrase: This restaurant has an exciting atmosphere. The food, on the other hand, is rather bland.
My niece, wearing a yellow jumper, is playing in the living room.
Word: I appreciate your hard work. In this case, however, you seem to have over-exerted yourself.
It is up to you, Jane, to finish.

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Do not use commas to set off essential elements of the sentence, such as clauses beginning with that
(relative clauses). That clauses after nouns and verbs expressing mental action are always essential.
After nouns: The book that I borrowed from you is excellent.
After verbs expressing mental action: He is dreaming that he can fly.

Note: Defining and non-defining relative clauses

Compare the two following sentences (a and b):
a. Pop-stars who earn fortunes should pay higher taxes.
(Defining relative clause – i.e. only those pop-stars who earn fortunes should pay higher taxes)
b. Pop-stars, who earn fortunes, should pay higher taxes.
(Non-defining relative clause– i.e. all pop-stars earn fortunes and therefore should pay higher taxes)
The first sentence refers only to some pop-stars, while the second sentence refers to all pop-stars.
The same principle operates with the words when and where.
a. The day when JFK was assassinated I was crossing the Atlantic.
b. On November 22, when JFK was assassinated, I was crossing the Atlantic.
c. The town where I was stationed was pretty arid.
d. Quetta, where I was stationed, was pretty arid.

4. Use commas to separate three or more words, phrases or clauses written in a series.
The candidate promised to lower taxes, protect the environment, reduce crime and end poverty.

5. Use commas near the end of a sentence to separate contrasted elements or to indicate a distinct pause or
shift.
He was merely ignorant, not stupid.
You’re one of the senator’s close friends, aren’t you?

6. Use commas to set off phrases at the end of the sentence that refer back to the beginning or middle of the
sentence. Such phrases are free modifiers that can be placed anywhere in the sentence without causing
confusion. (If the placement of the modifier causes confusion, then it is not “free” and must remain
“bound” to the word it modifies.)
1. Nancy waved at the docking ship, laughing joyously (correct)
2a. Lisa waved at Nancy, laughing joyously. (incorrect: Who is laughing, Lisa or Nancy?)
2b. Laughing joyously, Lisa waved at Nancy. (correct)
2c. Lisa waved at Nancy, who was laughing joyously. (correct)

7. Use commas to set off all geographical names, items in dates (except the month and day), addresses
(except the street number and name), and titles in names.
Who lives at 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue, Washington, DC?
July 22, 1959, was an important day in my life.
Note: When you use just the month and the year, no comma is necessary after the month or year: “The
average temperature for July 1998 are the highest on record for that month.”

8. Use a comma to shift between the main discourse and a quotation.

John said without emotion, “I’ll see you tomorrow.”
“I was able,” she answered, “to complete the assignment.”

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9. Use commas wherever necessary to prevent possible confusion or misreading
To George, Harrison had been a sort of idol.

II FULL STOP /./

A full stop is used to end a sentence. The next sentence begins with a capital letter.

III SEMICOLONS /;/

1. Between two sentences that are closely connected in meaning.
Computer use is increasing; computer crime is, too.
2. Before conjunctive adverbs such as however, therefore, nevertheless, and some transitional phrases
such as a result, that is, in fact.
I have never been to Europe; in fact I have never been outside my country.
3. Between items in a series if the items themselves contain commas.
Members of the band include Harold Ronstein, clarinettist; Tony Aluppo, tuba player; and Lee
Jefferson, trumpeter.

Note: Normally, a full-stop can be used instead of a semicolon.

IV COLONS /:/
1. To introduce a list
The daily newspaper contains four sections: news, sports, entertainment and ads.
Note: Do not use a colon to introduce a list after the verb to be unless you add the following or as
follows
To me, the most important things in life are health, happiness and good friends.
To me, the most important things in life are the following: health, happiness and good friends.
2. In a business letter greeting: Dear Ms. Winstead:
3. Between the hour and minutes in time notation: 5:30 p.m.
4. Between chapter and verse in biblical references: Genesis 1:18.

IV DASH (-)
1. To emphasize a point or to set off an explanatory note; but don’t overuse dashes, or they will lose
their impact.
To some of you, my proposals may seem radical – even revolutionary.
2. For an appositive phrase that already includes commas.
The boys – Jim, John and Jeff – left the party early.
Note: Generally, it is better to avoid using a dash in academic writing.

V HYPHEN (-)
1. To separate, in some cases, the prefix from the second part of the word, e.g. co-opt.
2. To join some compound words, e.g. self-control, twenty-one (always check in a dictionary if a hyphen is needed)

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VII APOSTROPHE (’)
1. To indicate genitive singular or plural, e.g. the student’s, the students’
2. In contractions, e.g I’ve = I have

VIII QUESTION MARK /?/

It is used after a direct question, e.g. What time is it?
It is NOT used after an indirect question, e.g. Please tell me what time it is.

IX QUOTATION MARKS/ INVERTED COMMAS: single (‘ ’) or double (“ ”)

The enclose the actual words of direct speech, e.g. He said, “Why did you do that?”

X EXCLAMATION MARK/!/
It is used after real exclamations and sometimes after short commands.

XI BRACKETS (PARENTHESES) ( )
1. To add some clarification, additional information.
2. For cross-references and some periods of time, in more formal writing
e.g. William Smith (1910-1969) lived first in Manchester (see p. 70) and then …

CAPITAL LETTERS
1. At the beginning of a sentence.
2. For names of people, places, rivers, etc.
3. For titles of people and names of things and places when referring to particular examples.
e.g. a city, but the City of Manchester Miss Smith Professor Williams
4. For nations and adjectives of nationality, e.g. the Netherlands, a Dutchman, Dutch
5. For names of days, months, festivals and historical eras,
e.g. Monday, January, Christmas, the Middle Ages
6. For titles of books, plays, works of art, etc
7. For many abbreviations, e.g. R.S.V.P, Ph.D

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Exercise 1
Put commas, if necessary.
1. Oil which is lighter than water rises to the surface.
2. Nice is a word with many meanings and some of them are contradictory.
3. Some people refuse to go to the zoo because of pity for creatures that must live in small cages.
4. Taxicabs that are dirty are illegal in some cities.
5. On Friday my day off I went to get a haircut.
6. After surviving this ordeal the trapper felt relieved.
7. Mark Twain’s early novel I believe stand the test of time.
8. December 7 1941 will never be forgotten.
9. Because of their opposition to institutions that force creatures to live in captivity some people refuse to
go to the zoo.
10. Men who are bald are frequently the ones who are the most authoritative on the subject of baldness.
11. Vests which were once popular have been out of vogue for several year.
12. Having decided to eat only natural food he had to give up all of his favourite junk food snacks.
13. As a celestial goddess she regulated the course of the heavenly bodies and controlled the alternating
seasons.
14. I hope that someday he will learn how to be polite.
15. The contractor testified that the house was completed and that the work had been done properly.
16. There was no question that John’s painting a huge colourful and ugly mural was the worst entry in the
art exhibit.
17. Running around the house the dog was abruptly stopped by the fence.
18. Mr and Mrs Kwon my parents’ best friends sat in front of us at the football game.
19. If the opposition should win our candidate would never have any political future.
20. Gracefully lightly daintily the ballerina moved across the stage.
21. To give Jane a good look at the university Mr Benson drove up for the Day on Campus.
22. However he tried to use the bottle opener it wouldn’t work.
23. Of course the movie that I had rushed to see didn’t start on time.
24. To succeed in politics is not necessarily desirable.
25. Her second-hand car was in excellent condition when she bought it.
26. Usually I have time to eat breakfast.
27. From outside the twelve-mile fishing limits off the coast of Maine a strange phenomenon has been
reported.
28. As the boat tuned out a dozen dolphins began to follow it.
29. Nevertheless I don’t want to meet him.
30. Before you decide what courses to take you should consider the amount of work you are willing to do.

Exercise 2
Put in semicolons, colons, dashes, quotation marks, italics (use an underline), and parentheses where ever
they are needed in the following sentences.

1. The men in question Harold Keene, Jim Peterson and Gerald Green deserve awards
2. Several countries participated in the airlift Italy, Belgium, France and Luxembourg.
3. Only one course was open to us surrender said the ex-major and we did.
4. Judge Carswell later to be nominated for the Supreme Court had ruled against civil rights.
5. In the last week’s New Yorker one of my favourite magazines I enjoyed reading Leland’s article How
Not to Go Camping.
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[Link] Jim said I’ll be home by ten.
7. There was only one thing to do study till dawn.
8. Montaigne wrote the following A wise man never loses anything, if he has himself.
9. The following are the primary colours red, blue and yellow.
10. Arriving on the 8 10 plane were Liz Brooks my old roommate her husband and Tim her son.
11. When the teacher commented that her spelling was poor Lynn replied All the members of my family
are poor spellers. Why not me?
12. He used the phrase you know so often that I finally said No, I don’t know.
13. The automobile dealer handled three makes of cars Volkswagens, Porsches and Mercedes Benz.
14. Whoever is elected secretary of the club Ashley, or Chandra, or Aisha must be prepared to do a great
deal of work said Jumita the previous secretary.
15. Darwin’s On the Origin of Species 1859 caused a great controversy when it appeared.

Exercise 3
Punctuate the passage below, using the guidelines you are given.

Passage 1. Add the following punctuation:

26 capital letters
12 full stops
10 commas
6 sets of inverted commas
4 question marks
4 hyphens linking five words to form an expression
1 colon
2 words in italics

at the top of the hill will pulled to the side and turned off the engine. there you are he said through the
windscreen emmy saw layers of interlocking snow covered hills receding one after another …
well will said he smiled at emmy but made no move she tried to think of something to say hunting
nervously about in her mind and managed
Breughel … It’s like the hunters in the snow with all the houses and people taken away
Will made no comment finally he said tell me about your parents you like them don’t you
yes I do really she heard herself answer
what are they like very old family and keeping up the stockwell traditions
oh no you’ve got quite the wrong ides the stockwells aren’t anything really really nouveau riche

From Alison Lurie, Love and Friendship