UNIT - III

Negative feedback:
It is a fundamental principle used to stabilize and control the amplifier’s behaviour. It
reduces the gain of the amplifier. Negative feedback takes a sample of the output
signal and applies it to the input to get several desirable properties.

Properties of negative feedback:

• Reduce effect of noise
• Extend bandwidth of amplifier
• Reduce non-linear distortion
• Control input and output impedance
Characteristics of negative feedback:
• Higher input impedance
• Lower output impedance
• Reduced noise
• Reduced distortion
• Provides Gain stability
Advantages:
• Gain Sensitivity
• Noise Sensitivity
• Bandwidth extension
• High Stabilized gain
Types of negative feedback circuits:
There are two main types of negative feedback circuits. They are
• Negative Voltage feedback
• Negative Current Feedback
 Negative Voltage feedback:
In this method the voltage feedback to the input of amplifier is peoportional to
output voltage. This is further classified into two types.
✓ Voltage-series feedback
✓ Voltage-shunt feedback
Voltage-series feedback:
In the voltage series feedback circuit, a fraction of the output voltage is applied in
series with the input voltage through the feedback circuit. This is also known as shunt-
driven series-fed feedback i.e., a parallel-series circuit.

As the feedback circuit is connected in shunt with output, the output impedance is
decreased and due to series connection with input, the input impedance is increased.
Voltage-shunt feedback:
In the voltage shunt feedback circuit, a fraction of the output voltage is applied in
parallel with the input voltage through the feedback circuit. This is also known as
shunt-driven shunt-fed feedback i.e., a parallel -parallel circuit.

As the feedback circuit is connected in shunt with the output and the input as well,
both the output impedance and the input impedance are decreased.
Negative Current feedback:
In this method, the voltage feedback to the input of amplifier is proportional to the
output current. This is further classified into two types.
 ✓ Current-series feedback
✓ Current-shunt feedback
Current-Series feedback:
In the current series feedback circuit, a fraction of the output voltage is applied in
series with the input voltage through the feedback circuit. This is also known as series-
driven series-fed feedback
i.e., Series-series circuit.

As the feedback circuit is connected in series with the output and the input as well,
both the output impedance and the input impedance are increased.
Current-Shunt feedback:
In the current shunt feedback circuit, a fraction of the output voltage is applied in
series with the input voltage through the feedback circuit. This is also known as series-
driven shunt-fed feedback
i.e., series – parallel circuit.

As the feedback circuit is connected in series with the output, the output impedance is
increased and due to the parallel connection with input the input impedance is
decreased.
Effect of Loading in Feedback networks:
Loading :
Loading refers to the effect of connecting the output of an op-amps to a load. When
you connect to a load to the output of an op-amp, it draws current from op-amp’s
output. This current flows through the op-amp’s output stage and can affect op-amp’s
performance.
Loading can be several consequences including,
Voltage Drop: When a load draws current from the op-amps output it can cause a
voltage drop
Reduced Gain: The presence of a load can affect the open-loop gain of the op-amp

Loading effect:
The loading effect of an amplifier refers to the impact of connecting an external load
to the amplifier. When a load is connected it can affect the amplifier performance.
Effect of loading:
Loading in the feedback network of an op-amp can significantly impact the
performance of the amplifier circuit. The feedback network typically consisting of
resistors or capacitors, sets the gain, bandwidth, stability of op-amp circuit.

When a load is connected to the output of op-amp it affects the behavior of feedback
network in several ways:
Change in Gain: The loading effect alters the effective impedance seen by the
feedback network. As a result, the gain of the amplifier circuit may deviate from
desired value, leading to inaccuracies in signal amplification.
Shift in Frequency Response: Loading can shift the frequency response of the
amplifier circuit. Depending on the characteristics of the load and feedback network,
this shift can affect the bandwidth and stability of amplifier.
Impedance Mismatch: If the impedance of the load is not well matched with the
impedance of the feedback network, it can create impedance mismatches that degrade
the overall performance of the amplifier circuit.
Increased Noise: Loading can introduce additional noise into feedback network,
especially if the load has a high impedance.

Operational Amplifiers:
• Op-Amps are drawn as a triangle in a circuit schematic .
• There are two inputs Inverting and Non-Inverting and it has one output
Infinite Voltage Gain: (Why is voltage gain infinite inop-amp?)
A voltage difference at the two inputs is magnified infinitely. This is due to infinite
resistance of the input.
Ideal Op-Amp:
The ideal op-amp has infinite voltage gain and infinite bandwidth. Also it has an
infinite impedance(open) so that it does not load the driving source.

Input impedance: No current flows into inputs. It is the measure of opposition to

current(impedance) . The input impedance of the op-amp is infinite.

Zero output impedance: This means that regardless of the amount of current drawn
by an external load, the output voltage of the op amp remains unaffected. That is, no
loading occurs.
Operational amplifier performance parameters:
✓ Input capacitance: The Input capacitance, Ci is the equivalent capacitance that
is measured at either the inverting or non-inverting terminal with the other
terminal connected to ground.

✓ Output capacitance: Output resistance, Ro is the equivalent resistance which is

measured between the output terminals of the op-amp and the ground.

✓ Input Offset Voltage: The input offset voltage is the voltage that must be
applied between the two input terminals of an op-amp to null the output.

✓ Input Offset Current: This is the difference between the bias current of the two
inputs.
Iio =| IB+-IB-|
✓ Input Bias Current: It is the average of the currents that flow into the
inverting and non-inverting input terminals of an op-amp.
IB = (IB++IB-)/2
✓ Common Mode Rejection Ratio(CMRR): It is defined as the ratio of
differential voltage gain Ad to the common -mode voltage gain ACM. i.e. CMRR
= Ad/ ACM. If a differential input voltage is applied, ideally the output should
not be affected by the standard mode voltage, i.e. the average absolute voltage
value between both inputs’ values

✓ Output Offset Voltage: This is the difference between its ideal DC output and
its actual DC output when the input is set to some fixed reference value

✓ Slew Rate: Slew rate is defined as the maximum rate of change of output
voltage per unit of time and is expressed in volts per microseconds. This is the
maximum rate of change of voltage as its output. It indicates how rapidly the
output of an op-amp can change in response to changes in input frequency. In
equation,
SR = dVo/dt | maximum V/µs
• Power Supply Rejection Ratio(PSRR): This indicates the ability to have the
output unaltered by variations of the power supply. The PSRR is the ratio
between the voltage change in the power supply to the voltage change produced
in the production.
 • Bandwidth: This expresses the frequency response in the form of Closed-Loop
Large/Small Signal 3dB Bandwidth or Gain Bandwidth Product in voltage
feedback op-amp, where the product of the closed-loop gain and the 3dB close-
loop bandwidth at that gain is a constant. Gain Bandwidth Product(GB) is the
bandwidth of op-amp when the voltage gain is 1.

Ideal op-amp Characteristics:

• Infinite input impedance
• Zero output resistance
• Infinite voltage gain
• Infinite bandwidth
• Infinite Slew Rate.

Summation Amplifier:
• It can be used to obtain a weighted sum of inputs v1…vn

Single Stage Op Amps:

A Single stage operational amplifier is a basic building block of analog
electronic circuits, typically consisting of a single amplification stage.
Components:
Transistor: The core active components responsible for amplification.
Resistors and Capacitors: These components are used to bias the transistors, set the
gain, control the frequency response.

Types of Single-Stage Op-Amps:

 1. Common Emitter/Source Amplifier: This configuration utilizes a single
transistor (bipolar or FET) in common emitter (for BJTs) or common source (for
FETs) configuration. It provides voltage amplification.
2. Differential Pair: Also known as differential amplifiers, these consist of two
transistors connected together differentially. They are widely used in op-amp
input stages for their ability to reject common-mode noise and signals.
3. Operational Transconductance Amplifier (OTA): OTAs are essentially
voltage-controlled current sources. They can be considered single-stage op-
amps in a broader sense, particularly when used in integrated circuits for
applications like filters and amplifiers.

• The differential pair + active current mirror scheme is in single stage op-amp.
• Several different solutions can be adopted to make a single-stage amplifier.
• If high gains are needed, we can use cascode structures.
• With single stage amplifiers it is difficult to obtain at the same time high gain
and voltage excursion, especially when other characteristics are also required,
such as speed or precision.

Characteristics:
✓ Gain: The amplification factor of the op-amp. In single stage op-amps,
gain is typically determined by ratio of resistors or transistors
 ✓ Bandwidth: The range of frequencies over which op-amp can effectively
amplify signals. Single stage op-amps usually have limited bandwidth.
✓ Input and Output Impedance: It determines how much the op-amp
affects the circuits.
Advantages:
✓ Simplicity
✓ Cost-effective
✓ Low power consumption

Limitations:
✓ Limited gain & bandwidth
✓ High distortion
Applications:
✓ Signal filtering
✓ Sensor interfaces
✓ Audio amplification

Two Stage Op Amps:

A two-stage operational amplifier (op-amp) consists of two amplification stages,

providing higher gain, better bandwidth, and improved performance compared to
single-stage op-amps. Let's explore its components, characteristics, applications,
advantages, and limitations in detail:
Components:
Input Stage: The first stage is responsible for taking the input signal and amplifying it
to a certain level. This stage often employs a differential pair configuration for good
common-mode rejection and high input impedance.
Intermediate Stage: The output of the first stage is fed into the intermediate stage,
which provides additional gain and filtering if necessary. This stage may include
additional transistor amplifiers or active components like cascode configurations.
Output stage: The final stage buffers the amplified signal to provide sufficient output
current and drive capability. It typically ensures low output impedance to interface
with external circuits.
Types:
Miller Compensated Op-Amp: This type uses a compensation capacitor between the
two stages to stabilize the amplifier and enhance its bandwidth.
Folded Cascode Op-Amp: It employs a folded cascode configuration in the
intermediate stage to improve gain, bandwidth, and stability.
Telescopic Cascode Op-Amp: This design uses cascaded cascode amplifiers to
achieve high gain and bandwidth.

• Two stage configurations in this sense are better, since they decouple the gain and
voltage swings requirements.
 • It allows maximum voltage swing.

• The output voltage swing in this case is VDD - | 2VDS_SAT |

• In this case we kept differential behavior of first stage and is the current mirror
T7-T8.

Characteristics:
Higher Gain: Two-stage op-amps generally provide higher gain compared to single-
stage op-amps due to the cascaded amplification stages.
Improved Bandwidth: With proper design and compensation, two-stage op-amps can
achieve better bandwidth compared to single-stage designs, allowing them to amplify
higher-frequency signals.
Enhanced Security: Two-stage op-amps often incorporate compensation techniques
to ensure stability over a wide range of operating conditions.
Advantages:

✓ Higher performance
✓ Flexibility
✓ Improved noise performance
Disadvantages:
✓ Complexity
✓ Cost
✓ High power consumption

Applications:
✓ Analog Filtering
✓ Audio amplification

Input Range Limitations:

The input range limitations in operational amplifiers (op-amps) primarily refer to the
range of voltages that can be safely applied to the input terminals without causing
distortion, saturation, or damage to the device.
Common input range limitations:
Supply Voltage: The input voltage range is typically limited by the op-amp's supply
voltage. Op-amps can usually handle input voltages within a few volts of the supply
rails, but exceeding these limits can lead to distortion or even damage to the device.
Common Mode Range(CMR): This refers to the range of voltages that can be
applied to both input terminals simultaneously while maintaining proper operation.
The CMR is specified by the op-amp manufacturer and is typically limited by the
internal circuitry of the op-amp.
Input Offset Voltage: Op-amps have a small inherent voltage difference between their
input terminals, known as input offset voltage.
Input Bias Current: Op-amps have a small bias current that flows into or out of the
input terminals. When dealing with high-impedance circuits, this bias current can
create voltage drops across input resistors, limiting the usable input range.
Gain Boosting:
• The gain-boosting technique improves accuracy of cascoded CMOS circuits
without any speed penalty.
• Gain boosting in operational amplifiers (op-amps) refers to techniques used to
increase the voltage gain beyond the intrinsic gain provided by the op-amp
itself.

• This is achieved by increasing the effect of the cascode transistor by means of

an additional gain-stage, thus increasing the output impedance of subcircuit.

Slew Rate:
• Slew Rate is defined as the maximum rate of change of voltage per unit time.
• It is usually expressed in units of V/ μs
• It is a vector representing the maximum rate of signal.

Calculation:
The slew rate of an op-amp can be calculated using the formula:
Slew Rate=Δ𝑉outΔ𝑡Slew Rate=ΔtΔVout
where Δ𝑉outΔVout is the maximum change in output voltage and Δ𝑡Δt is the
corresponding change in time.
Power Supply Rejection:
• Power Supply Rejection is the ability of an amplifier to maintain its output
voltage as its DC power-supply voltage is varied.
• PSRR quantifies how well an op-amp can maintain a constant output voltage
when the power supply voltage changes.
• It indicates the degree to which changes in the power supply voltage are
"rejected" or not translated to the op-amp's output.

• The ratio can be expressed as follows: PSRR = (change in VIN)/(change in VOUT)

Noise in Op-Amps:
Noise can be defined as an unwanted signal that interferes with the desired signal
causing an error.

Types of noise:
1) Thermal Noise(Johnson Noise):
• Arising from the random motion of charge carriers (electrons) in resistive
elements within the op-amp, thermal noise is a fundamental type of noise that
exists in all electronic components.
• It is directly proportional to the square root of the resistance and the
temperature, following the equation

Where k is Boltzmann’s constant, T is temperature, R is resistance, B is bandwidth.

2) Shot Noise:
 • Shot noise is generated by the random arrival of individual charge carriers
(electrons or holes) at a semiconductor junction.
• Occurs due to the discrete nature of electric current, particularly in
semiconductor devices such as transistors within the op-amp.
• It does occur in conductors but at a level so low it can be ignored. Shot noise is
related to the amount of charge flowing (current) and is not temperature
dependent.

3) Flicker Noise:
• flicker noise is characterized by its spectral density, which decreases as
frequency increases
• It is also known as Pink noise.
• It is called 1/f noise because its power density falls off with the inverse of
frequency.
For example, for pink noise we would see the same energy in the 10 to 100Hz
band as we would see in the 100 to 1000Hz band, but for white noise but we
would see 10 times the energy in the latter band since it is 10 times wider.
 Figure 1
Figure 1. At some frequency the amplitudes of these two noise components will cross
over. The point where the 1/f noise has the same value as the white noise which is
known as the corner frequency and is designated fc.

Figure 2
Figure 2, the noise model of an op amp looks like a noiseless op amp with a
noise voltage source en in series with input and noise current sources in driving
current out of the input terminals.