PYL 102

Thursday, Sept. 19, 2024

Drude and Sommerfeld model
Drude Model
• Positive charges immobile and ‘valence’ electrons
get detached and wander freely in metals.
• Neglect e-e interaction.
• Neglect electron-core interaction.
• Only way electron ‘sees’ core is by scattering.
 Basic assumption of Drude model
1. Between collisions electrons move in straight line - effect of
electron-electron interaction is ignored (reasonably valid) – effect
of electron-ion in ignored (completely invalid).
2. Mean free time between collisions is  (probability of collision per
unit time is 1/; probability of having a collision in infinitesimal time
interval dt is dt/
3. Relaxation time is independent of position and velocity of electron.

4. Electrons achieve thermal equilibrium by collisions with lattice –

they emerge after collision at a random direction with speed
appropriate to the temperature of the region where collision
happened – the hotter the region; the higher the speed of the
emerging electrons.
Note: electrons (unlike gas molecules) are charged and are moving in the background of other
charged entities; electron densities also large (~1028/cm3 ); still Drude applied kinetic theory (valid for
neutral dilute classical gas) to metals.
Application of Drude model: DC Electrical Conductivity of metal

If , what is the
Application of Drude model: DC Electrical Conductivity of metal
Vd = drift velocity or average velocity (not speed) of conduction electrons

If ,
Application of Drude model: DC Electrical Conductivity of metal
Vd = drift velocity or average velocity (not speed) of conduction electrons
If ,

Current Density: J = I/A

Determining velocity when applying electric field E to metal

Consider an electron, whose velocity

immediately after collision (say at t=0)
is v o . Let the electric field be E. Its
velocity at time t would be given as
eEt
v (t ) = v o −
m
provided electron does not suffer a
collision in between.
The average (drift) velocity of all the
electrons would be given by.
eE
vD = v = −
m
If n is the total number of electrons per
unit volume, then current density is
given as follows.
ne 
2
J = −nev D = E
m
Ohm’s Law
J = E
ne  2

m
1
=

 is called conductivity, while  is
called resistivity of the metals.
Microscopic Description of Ohm’s Law

Collisions between electrons and

atoms in a conductor determines
the conductivity

\tau = lambda/vbar
Microscopic Description of Ohm’s
Law
Example:
 = m / ( n e2) vd = x/

Calculate the average time between collisions  for

electrons in copper at 273 K.

Assuming that the average speed for free

electrons in copper is 1.6 x 106 m/s calculate
their mean free path.
 𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏
How reasonable is the formula 𝜎=
𝑚
Estimate mean free path in equilibrium: 𝑙 = 𝑣𝑑 × 𝜏

1 3
𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑘𝑇
2 2

Relaxation time ~ 10-14 s and v ~ 105 m/s makes mean free path ~ Angstroms (lattice constant)

The mean free path gives an expected number.

Problems with Drude model
• Conductivity depends on temperature, purity,
crystalline quality.
• Much larger mean free paths have been observed
experimentally (~ cm at low temperature).
• Observed small contribution to specific heat.
 Electronic heat capacity
The Drude model predicts the electronic heat capacity to be the classical
“equipartition of energy” Cel = 3/2 nkB This is independent of temperature.

Experimentally, the low-temperature heat capacity of metals follows the

relationship CV = T + AT3 . The second term is obviously the phonon
(Debye) component, leading us to suspect that Cel = γT. Even at room
temperature, the electronic component of the heat capacity of metals is
much smaller than the Drude prediction. This is a severe failing of the
model.
Sommerfeld Model
1. Treats electrons using Fermi Dirac statistics.
2. Recognizes that their energies are discrete – treats them like a particle in a
box of constant energy.
3. Uses Pauli principle to distribute them in the available energy states.
 Improvement to the Drude Model

• Sommerfeld recognized we needed to utilize Pauli’s

exclusion principle Electrons cannot all be in the
lowest energy state, since this would violate the
Pauli Principle.
 Sommerfeld still assumes the
free electron approximation

U(r)

U(r)

Neglect periodic potential & scattering

Reasonable for “simple metals” (Alkali Li,Na,K,Cs,Rb)

 Ground state of ideal electron gas
• These conduction electrons can be considered as moving independently in a
square well and the edges of well corresponds to the edges of the sample.
(ignores periodic potential from atoms)
• Electron confined in a cube of sides L, potential inside the cube is constant
(take it to be zero) – potential at boundaries. Assume non-interacting
electrons Ψ(𝑟1, 𝑟2,… 𝑟𝑁 )= Ψ 𝑟1 Ψ 𝑟2 … … . . Ψ(𝑟𝑁 )

 2 d 2 
U
− 2
+ U ( x) = 
 2m dx 
 is the total energy of the system. The square of the wave
function ( *) is equal to the probability of finding the
0 L particle at a particular region of space.

Cube V=L3 Electrons in crystals are moving through atomic potentials.

Sommerfield/Drude models ignore those; use flat average.
 U

 1 ik •r
0 L Eigenstates  (r ) = e
V
Possible Boundary conditions
 2k 2
1. Ψ(0)=0 and Ψ(L)=0 with eigenvalues  =
2. Ψ(x,y,z)= Ψ(x+L,y,z) 2m
Dispersion relation for e’s

n nx n y n z
where k= in 3D: kx = , ky = , kz =
L L L L
Where nx, ny and nz are integers
  
=1= e =e
ik x L ik y L ik z L
e
 For large N the filled states form a sphere in k-space – its radius is kF (this is called the Fermi wave-
4
vector) and volume 3 𝜋𝑘𝐹3 . This is the Fermi sphere. At T = 0

4 1 V  2m  2 3 22
𝑁 = 2 × 𝜋𝑘𝐹3 × N= 2  2 
EF
3 2𝜋 3 2   3
𝐿 2
 2N
2 3
EF =  3
2m  V 

ℏ2 𝑘 2
Total energy of the electronic system is E= 2× σ𝑘<𝑘𝐹
2𝑚

For large N; the values of k are arbitrarily close to each other – can treat as continuum:

𝑉 ℏ2 𝑘 2 𝑑𝑘 1 ℏ2 𝑘𝐹 5
E= 2 3‫׬‬ =
8𝜋 2𝑚 10 𝜋2 𝑚
𝐸 3
Average energy per particle is = 𝜀 In contrast to a classical gas, the degenerate quantum
𝑁 5 𝐹 mechanical electron gas has appreciable ground-state energy.
Fermi Energy for Sodium

Density=0.971 g/cc
Atomic Weight=22.99
N 6.02  10  0.971
23
=  10 6

V 22.99
= 2.543  10 28

Substituting we get
EF=3.16 eV
 Fermi-Dirac Distribution Function
Becomes a step function at T= 0.
f ( , T ) =
1
Low E: f ~ 1.
e  ( −  ) + 1 High E: f ~ 0.

 = chemical potential gives the probability of

occupation of a state of energy E
(T=0)=F Fermi energy

Right at the Fermi level: f = 1/2.

Turning to the finite T figure, f only varies significantly within kBT of µ. This has two implications.
1. As kBT EF, this implies that µ ≈ EF.
2. Only electrons with energies within kBT of µ, i.e. EF, will be able to contribute to thermal processes, transport etc..
Electrons further below µ will be unable to acquire sufficient thermal energy to be excited into empty states; states
more than ∼ kBT above µ will be empty
DOS for 3-D crystal
The periodicity in atomic arrangement in a crystal give rise to a corresponding
periodicity in the internal electric potential due to ion cores. Incorporating this
periodic potential into the Schrödinger equation results in the allowed plane wave
functions that are modulated by the lattice periodicity.

(r ) = uk (r )eikr
Where uk(r) has the property uk(r) = uk(r+T), where T is lattice translations vector. Let
us consider one dimensional case, with periodic boundary condition.

 ( x) =  ( x + L)
eikx = eik ( x + L )  1 = eikL Difference between
2n 2 consecutive k values is fixed.
k = ; k =
L L

For a 3D crystal, k space volume occupied by each wave vector state will be 83/L3.

Now we will find out number of allowed states between sphere of radius k and k+dk
 4k 2 dkL3 k 2 dkL3
g (k )3 D dk = 2  =
8 3
2
2 is introduced for spin up and spin down conditions for a given k value.

−1 / 2
2mE  2mE  m
k=  dk =  2  dE
2    2
−1 / 2 3/ 2
2mE  2mE  m 1  2m 
N ( E ) 3 D dE = 2 2  2  dE =   E 1/ 2 dE
     2 2 2   2 
The electronic density of states at E ≈ EF As only the electrons within ∼ kBT of EF are able to take part in
thermal processes, only the density of electron states at the Fermi energy, g(EF), will be particularly important
in many calculations. ℏ2 2/3
In the free-electron approximation, the Fermi energy is given by 𝐸𝐹 = 2
3𝜋 𝑛
2𝑚
g(EF) ≡ dn/dEF ln(EF) = 2/3 ln(n) + constant

g(EF) = 3/2 (n/EF)

Density of Occupied States

n is conserved
Shaded areas are equal

 0.01% @ room temp

 Electronic Heat Capacity
Width of shaded region ~ kT
Room temp T ~ 300K, TF ~ 104 K
→ Small width
→ Few electrons thermally excited

How many electrons are excited thermally?

Shaded area  triangle. Area = (base)(height)/2
Number of excited electrons:  (g(F)/2)(kT)/2  g(F)(kT)/4
Excitation energy  kT (thermal)
2
Total thermal energy in electrons U(T): 𝑈 𝑇 𝛼 𝑘𝑇

𝑑𝑈
Electronic heat capacity 𝐶𝑒𝑙 =
𝑑𝑇

C~T
 -

1. Cel is proportional to T, as are experimental data

2. Cel is a factor ∼ kT/EF smaller than the classical (Drude) value, as are experimental data.