Module 3. Vectors and the Geometry of Space Theorem 3.

3 Suppose that 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, and 𝐷 are points

in a plane. Denote the coordinates of 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶and 𝐷 by
Vectors in the Plane (𝑥𝐴 , 𝑦𝐴 ), (𝑥𝐵 , 𝑦𝐵 ), (𝑥𝐶 , 𝑦𝐶 ), (𝑥𝐷 , 𝑦𝐷 ), respectively.
Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be two points in the plane. We denote
the length of the line segment joining 𝐴 and 𝐵 by i. lf the coordinates above satisfy the
|𝐴𝐵|. equations
𝑥𝐵 − 𝑥𝐴 = 𝑥𝐷 − 𝑥𝐶
Definition 3.1 The directed line segment from 𝐴 to and
𝐵 is defined as the line segment 𝐴𝐵 which is ordered 𝑦𝐵 − 𝑦𝐴 = 𝑦𝐷 − 𝑦𝐶 ,
so that 𝐴 precedes 𝐵. We use the symbol 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ as ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ≈ 𝐶𝐷
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ .
then 𝐴𝐵
denote such a directed segment. We call 𝐴 its base
and 𝐵 its head. ii. Conversely, if 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ≈ 𝐶𝐷
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , then the
coordinates of the four points satisfy the
𝐵 equation above.

Directed line Another name for a directed line segment is a vector.

𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
segment 𝐴𝐵 Since directed line segments with the same direction
and magnitude are equivalent, it is convenient to
denote any two such equivalent line segments as the
same vector.
Definition 3.2 The magnitude of a directed
segments 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is its length |𝐴𝐵|. Two directed line Since a vector is a directed line segment, its length
segments ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐶𝐷 are said to have the same is just the length of the line segment. Two vectors are
magnitude and direction if and only if either one of orthogonal (or perpendicular) if the lines on which
the following two conditions holds: they lie are perpendicular.
a) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐶𝐷 are both on the same line 𝐿, their
magnitudes are equal and the heads 𝐵 and A unit vector is a vector of length one. The zero
𝐷 are pointing in the same direction. vector, denoted by 𝟎 is a line segment of zero length:
b) The points 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 and 𝐷 are vertices of a that is, a point. We make the convention that the
parallelogram. zero vector is orthogonal to every vector.

Vectors may be added to yield other vectors.

Suppose 𝒖 and 𝒗 are vectors. To add 𝒖 and 𝒗, first
choose a base 𝐴 for 𝒖 and consider it as a directed
𝐷 line segment ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵. Next choose 𝐵 as the base for 𝒗
and consider it as a directed line segment ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐵𝐶 . Then
𝐶 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ . The sum 𝒘 of 𝒖
draw the directed line segment 𝐴𝐶
𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ . We
and 𝒗 is the vector, or directed line segment, 𝐴𝐶
𝐴 write
𝒖 + 𝒗 = 𝒘.

𝐵 𝐷 Vectors may be multiplied by numbers called scalar

to yield new vector. If 𝒗 is a vector and 𝑐 is a a
positive real number, then 𝑐 is a positive scalar, and
𝑐𝒗 is a vector having the same direction as v but with
magnitude 𝑐 times as long as 𝒗. If 𝑐 is a negative
number, then 𝑐𝒗 has the opposite direction to 𝒗 and
its magnitude |𝑐| times as long as that of 𝒗. If 𝑐 is
zero, we get the vector 𝟎.
𝐴 𝐶
Theorem 3.4 Suppose a vector 𝒘 has the same
direction and magnitude as a particular directed line
segment 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ . Denote the coordinates of 𝐴 and 𝐵 by
Whenever two directed line segments having the (𝑥𝐴 , 𝑦𝐴 ) and (𝑥𝐵 , 𝑦𝐵 ), respectively. Then 𝒘 may be
same magnitude and direction, we say that they are expressed in the form
equivalent and write 𝒘 = (𝑥𝐵 − 𝑥𝐴 )𝒊 + (𝑦𝐵 − 𝑦𝐴 )𝒋.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 ≈ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐶𝐷 .
Example 3.5 A vector 𝒗 is equivalent to ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵. Given
that 𝐴 has coordinates (3, -2) and 𝐵 has coordinates
(1, 1), express 𝒗 in terms of 𝒊 and 𝒋. Draw a figure.
Theorem 3.5 If 𝒗 = 𝑎𝒊 + 𝑏𝒋, then Example 3.15 Find the projection of 𝒗 = 3𝒊 − 2𝒋 on
|𝒗| = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2. 𝒘 = −2𝒊 − 4𝒋.
Therefore, 𝒗 = 𝟎 if and only if 𝑎 = 𝑏 = 0.

Definition 3.16 The scalar product of two nonzero

Theorem 3.6 If 𝒗 = 𝑎𝒊 + 𝑏𝒋 and 𝒘 = 𝑐𝒊 + 𝑑𝒋, then vectors 𝒗 and 𝑤, written 𝒗 ⋅ 𝒘, is defined by the
𝒗 + 𝒘 = (𝑎 + 𝑐)𝒊 + (𝑏 + 𝑑)𝒋. formula
Further, if ℎ is any number, then 𝒗 ⋅ 𝒘 = |𝒗||𝒘| cos 𝜃,
ℎ𝒗 = (ℎ𝑎)𝒊 + (ℎ𝑏)𝒋. where 𝜃 is the angle between 𝒗 and 𝑤. If one of the
vectors is 𝟎, the scalar product is defined to be 𝟎.

Theorem 3.7 Let 𝒖, 𝒗, 𝒘 be vectors and let 𝑐, 𝑑 be

scalars. Then the following relations hold: Theorem 3.17 Let 𝒖, 𝒗, 𝒘 be any vectors. The
following holds:
𝒖 + (𝒗 + 𝒘) = (𝒖 + 𝒗) + 𝒘 i. 𝒗⋅𝒘 =𝒘⋅𝒗
} Associative laws ii. 𝒗 ⋅ 𝒗 = |𝒗|𝟐
𝑐(𝑑𝒗) = (𝑐𝑑)𝒗
iii. If 𝒗 and 𝒘 are orthogonal, then 𝒗 ⋅ 𝒘 = 0.
𝒖+𝒗= 𝒗+𝒖 Commutative Law iv. If 𝒗 and 𝒘 are parallel, then 𝒗 ⋅ 𝒘 = ±|𝒗||𝒘|,
and conversely,
(𝑐 + 𝑑) 𝒗 = 𝑐𝒗 + 𝑑𝒗 v. If 𝒗 = 𝑎𝒊 + 𝑏𝒋 and 𝒘 = 𝑐𝒊 + 𝑑𝒋, then 𝒗 ⋅ 𝒘 =
} Distributive laws 𝑎𝑐 + 𝑏𝑑.
𝑐(𝒖 + 𝒗) = 𝑐𝒖 + 𝑐𝒗
vi. 𝒖 ⋅ (𝒗 + 𝒘) = 𝒖 ⋅ 𝒗 + 𝒖 ⋅ 𝒘 (distributive law)
1⋅𝒖=𝒖
0⋅𝒖 =𝟎
(−1) ⋅ 𝒖 = −𝒖 Example 3.18 Given the vectors 𝒖 = 3𝒊 + 2𝒋 and
𝒗 = 2𝒊 + 𝑎𝒋. Determine the scalar 𝑎 so that 𝒖 and 𝒗
where −𝒖 denotes that vector such that 𝒖 + (−𝒖) = are orthogonal. Determine 𝑎 so that 𝒖 and 𝒗 are
𝟎. parallel. For what value of 𝑎 will 𝒖 and 𝒗 make an
𝜋
angle of ?
4

Example 3.8 Given the vectors 𝒖 = 2𝒊 − 3𝒋,

Example 3.19 Let ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑂𝐴 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑂𝐵 be vectors, and let 𝐶
𝒗 = −4𝒊 + 𝒋. Express the vector 2𝒖 − 𝟑𝒗 in terms 2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
be the point on the line 𝐴𝐵 which is of the way from
of 𝒊 and 𝒋. 3
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , 𝒗 = 𝑂𝐵
𝐴 to 𝐵. Let 𝒖 = 𝑂𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , and 𝒘 = 𝑂𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ . Express 𝒘
in terms of 𝒖 and 𝒗.
Definition 3.9 Let 𝒗 be any vector except 𝟎. The
unit vector 𝒖 in the direction of 𝒗 is defined by
1
𝒖 = ( ) 𝒗.
|𝒗|

Example 3.10 Given the vector 𝒗 = −2𝒊 + 3𝒋, find a

unit vector in the direction of 𝒗.

Example 3.11 Given the vector 𝒗 = 2𝒊 − 4𝒋. If the

base of 𝒗 is taken to be (3, −5), find the head of 𝒗.

The Scalar Product

Theorem 3.12 If 𝜃 is the angle between the vectors

𝒗 = 𝑎𝒊 + 𝑏𝒋 and 𝒘 = 𝑐𝒊 + 𝑑𝒋,
then
𝑎𝑐 + 𝑏𝑑
cos 𝜃 = .
|𝒗||𝒘|

Example 3.13 Given the vectors 𝒗 = 2𝒊 − 3𝒋 and

𝒘 = 𝒊 − 4𝒋, compute the cosine of the angle
between 𝒗 and 𝒘.

Theorem 3.14 The quantity |𝒗| cos 𝜃 is called the

projection of 𝒗 on 𝒘. We write Proj𝒘 𝒗 for this
quantity. If 𝒗 = 𝑎𝒊 + 𝑏𝒋 and 𝒘 = 𝑐𝒊 + 𝑑𝒋, then
𝑎𝑐+𝑏𝑑
Proj𝒘 𝒗 = |𝒗| cos 𝜃 = .
|𝒘|
The Number Space ℝ𝟑 Direction Cosines and Numbers

Definition 3.22 If 𝛼, 𝛽 , 𝛾 are direction angles of a

directed line 𝐿⃗, then cos 𝛼, cos 𝛽, cos 𝛾 are called the
direction cosines of 𝐿.

To each point 𝑃 in three-dimensional space, we can

assign a point in ℝ𝟑 in the following way. Through 𝑃
construct three planes, each parallel to one of the Theorem 3.23 Let cos 𝛼, cos 𝛽, and cos 𝛾 be the
coordinate planes as shown in the figure. We label direction cosines of 𝐿. Then
the intersections of the planes through 𝑃 with the cos 2 𝛼 + cos 2 𝛽 + cos 2 𝛾 = 1.
coordinate axes 𝑄, 𝑅, and 𝑆, as shown. Then, if 𝑄 is
𝑥0 units from the origin 𝑂, 𝑅 is 𝑦0 units from 𝑂, and 𝑆
is 𝑧0 units from 𝑂, we assign to P the number triple Definition 3.24 Suppose that a line 𝐿 has direction
(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ) and say that the point P has rectangular cosines 𝜆, 𝜇, 𝜈. Then set of numbers 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 is called a
coordinates (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ). To each point in space there set of direction numbers for 𝐿 if 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 and 𝜆, 𝜇, 𝜈 are
corresponds exactly one ordered number triple and, proportional.
conversely, to each ordered number triple there is
associated exactly one point in three-dimensional
space. Theorem 3.25 If 𝑃1 (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) and 𝑃2 (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 ) are
points on a line 𝐿, and 𝑑 is the distance form 𝑃1 to 𝑃2 ,
then
Theorem 3.20 The distance 𝑑 between the points 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 𝑧2 − 𝑧1
(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) and (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 ) is 𝜆= , 𝜇= , 𝜈=
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
𝑑 = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2 + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )2 . is a set of direction cosines of 𝐿.

The Midpoint Formula

𝑥 +𝑥 𝑦 +𝑦 𝑧 +𝑧
̅ = 1 2, 𝒚
𝒙 ̅ = 1 2 , 𝒛̅ = 1 2
2 2 2

Example 3.21
1. Find the coordinates of the point 𝑄 which
divides the line segment from 𝑃1 (1,4, −2) to
𝑃2 (−3,6,7) in the proportion 3 to 1.
2. One endpoint of a segment 𝑃1 𝑃2 has
coordinates 𝑃1 (−1,2,5). The midpoint 𝑃 is
known to lie in the 𝑥𝑧 plane, while the other
endpoint is known to lie on the intersection of
the planes 𝑥 = 5 and 𝑧 = 8. Find the
coordinates of 𝑃 and 𝑃2 .

Corollary 3.26 If 𝑃1 (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) and 𝑃2 (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 ) are

two distinct points on a line 𝐿, then
𝑥2 − 𝑥1 , 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 , 𝑧2 − 𝑧1
constitute a set of direction numbers for 𝐿.

Example 3.27
1. Find direction numbers and direction cosines
for the line 𝐿, passing through the points
𝑃1 (1,5, 2) and 𝑃2 (3,7, −4).
 2. Do the three points 𝑃1 (3, −1, 4), 𝑃2 (1,6, 8), If 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼, 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽, 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛾 are the direction cosines of a line
and 𝑃3 (9, −22, −8) lie on the same straight 𝐿 passing through the point (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ), the equations
line? of the line are
Solution: A set of direction numbers for the 𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑡 cos 𝛼
line.𝐿1 through 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 is −2,7, 4. A set of 𝑦 = 𝑦0 + 𝑡 cos 𝛽
direction numbers for the line 𝐿2 through 𝑃2 𝑧 = 𝑧0 + 𝑡 cos 𝛾.
and 𝑃3 is 8, −28, −16, Since the second set is
proportional to the first (with 𝑘 = −4), we Example 3.35 Find the parametric equations of the
conclude that 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 have the same line 𝐿 through the point 𝐴(3, −2,5) with direction
direction cosines. Therefore, the two Iines numbers 4,0, −2.
are certainly parallel. However, they have the
point 𝑃2 in common and so must coincide.
The answer is yes. If none of the direction numbers is zero, the
parameter 𝑡 eliminated from the system of
equations. We may write
𝑥 − 𝑥0 𝑦 − 𝑦0 𝑧 − 𝑧0
Corollary 3.28 A line 𝐿1 is parallel to a line 𝐿2 if and = =
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
only if a set of direction numbers is proportional to a for the equations of a line.
set of direction numbers 𝐿2 .

Example 3.36
Theorem 3.29 If 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 have direction cosines 1. Find the point of intersection of the line 𝐿 =
𝜆1 , 𝜇1 , 𝜈1 and 𝜆2 , 𝜇2 , 𝜈2 , respectively, and if 𝜃 is the {(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧): 𝑥 = 3 − 𝑡, 𝑦 = 2 + 3𝑡, 𝑧 = −1 + 2𝑡}
angle between 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 , then with the plane 𝑆 = {(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧): 𝑧 = 5}.
cos 𝜃 = 𝜆1 𝜆2 + 𝜇1 𝜇2 + 𝜈1 𝜈2 . 2. Find the equations of the line through the
point 𝑃(2, −1, 3) and parallel to the line
through the points 𝑄(1,4, −6) and
Corollary 3.30 Two lines 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 with direction 𝑅(−2, −1,5).
numbers 𝑎1 , 𝑏1 , 𝑐1 and 𝑎2 , 𝑏2 , 𝑐2 , respectively, are
perpendicular if and only if
𝑎1 𝑎2 + 𝑏1 𝑏2 + 𝑐1 𝑐2 = 0. Theorem 3.37 Let 𝑃0 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ) be a given point and
suppose that a given line 𝐿 goes through the point
Example 3.31 Find the cosine of the angle between 𝑃1 (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) and has direction numbers 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶. The
the line 𝐿1 , passing through the points 𝑃1 (1,4,2) and equation of the plane passing through 𝑃0 and
𝑃2 (3, − 1,3), and the line 𝐿2 , passing through the perpendicular to 𝐿 is
points 𝑄1 (3, 1, 2) and 𝑄2 (2, 1, 3). 𝐴(𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) + 𝐵(𝑦 − 𝑦0 ) + 𝐶(𝑧 − 𝑧0 ) = 0.

Example 3.38 Find the equation of the plane

Equations of Lines and Planes in ℝ𝟑 through the point 𝑃0 (5,2, −3) which is perpendicular
to the line through the points 𝑃1 (5,4,3) and
Theorem 3.32 The two-point form of the parametric 𝑃2 (−6,1,7).
equations of a line is
𝑥 = 𝑥0 + (𝑥1 − 𝑥0 )𝑡,
𝑦 = 𝑦0 + (𝑦1 − 𝑦0 )𝑡, Definition 3.39 A set of attitude numbers of a plane
𝑧 = 𝑧0 + (𝑧1 − 𝑧0 )𝑡. is any set of direction numbers of a line
perpendicular to the plane.

Example 3.33 Find the parametric equations of the Example 3.40 What are sets of attitude numbers for
line through the points 𝐴(3,2, − 1) and 𝐵(4,4,6). planes parallel to the coordinate planes?
Solution: A plane parallel to the 𝑦𝑧 plane has an
The two-point form for the equations of a line also equation of the form 𝑥 − 𝑐 = 0, where 𝑐 is a
may be written symmetrically. The equations constant. A set of attitude numbers for this plane is
𝑥 − 𝑥0 𝑦 − 𝑦0 𝑧 − 𝑧0 1, 0, 0. A plane parallel to the 𝑥𝑧 plane has attitude
= =
𝑥1 − 𝑥0 𝑦1 − 𝑦0 𝑧1 − 𝑧0 numbers 0, 1,0, and any plane parallel to the 𝑥𝑦
are called the symmetric form for the equations of a plane has attitude numbers 0,0, 1.
line.

Theorem 3.41 Two planes are parallel if and only if

Theorem 3.34 The parametric equations of a line 𝐿 their attitude numbers are proportional.
through the point 𝑃0 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ) with direction
numbers 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 are given by
𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑎𝑡 Theorem 3. 42 If 𝐴, 𝐵, and 𝐶 are not all zero, the
𝑦 = 𝑦0 + 𝑏𝑡 graph of an equation of the form
𝑧 = 𝑧0 + 𝑐𝑡 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑧 + 𝐷 = 0
is a plane.
 Theorem 3.48 The distance 𝑑 from the point
Example 3.43 Find an equation of the plane passing 𝑃1 (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) to the plane 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑧 = 0 is given
through the points (2,1,3), (1,3,2), and (−1,2,4). by
|𝐴𝑥1 + 𝐵𝑦1 + 𝐶𝑧1 |
𝑑= .
√𝐴2 + 𝐵2 + 𝐶 2
Angles and Distance from a Point to a Plane Example 3.49 Find the distance from the point
(2, −1,5) to the plane 3𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 2𝑧 − 7 = 0
Definition 3.44 Let Φ1 and Φ2 be two planes and let
𝐿1 and 𝐿2 be two perpendicular to Φ1 and Φ2 ,
respectively. Then the angle between Φ1 and Φ2 is,
by definition, the angle between 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 . Vectors in Three Dimensions
Furthermore, we make the convention that we
always select the acute angle between these lines Theorem 3.50 Suppose that 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, and 𝐷 are
as the angle between Φ1 and Φ2 . points in space. Denote the coordinates of 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶,
and 𝐷 by (𝑥𝐴 , 𝑦𝐴 , 𝑧𝐴), (𝑥𝐵 , 𝑦𝐵 , 𝑧𝐵 ) and so forth.
i. If the coordinates satisfy the equations
𝑥𝐵 − 𝑥𝐴 = 𝑥𝐷 − 𝑥𝐶 ,
𝑦𝐵 − 𝑦𝐴 = 𝑦𝐷 − 𝑦𝐶
and
𝑧𝐵 − 𝑧𝐴 = 𝑧𝐷 − 𝑧𝐶 ,
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ≈ 𝐶𝐷
then 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

ii. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ≈ 𝐶𝐷
Conversely, if 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , the coordinates
satisfy the equations above.

Theorem 3.51 Suppose a vector 𝒘 has at the same

direction and magnitude as a particular directed line
Theorem 3.45 The angle 𝜃 between the planes segment ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐴𝐵. Denote the coordinates of 𝐴 and 𝐵 by
𝐴1 𝑥 + 𝐵1 𝑦 + 𝐶1 𝑧 + 𝐷1 = 0 and 𝐴2 𝑥 + 𝐵2 𝑦 + 𝐶2 𝑧 + (𝑥𝐴 , 𝑦𝐴 , 𝑧𝐴 ) and (𝑥𝐵 , 𝑦𝐵 , 𝑧𝐵 ), respectively. Then 𝒘
𝐷2 = 0 is given by may be expressed in the form
|𝐴1 𝐴2 + 𝐵1 𝐵2 + 𝐶1 𝐶2 | 𝒘 = (𝑥𝐵 − 𝑥𝐴 )𝒊 + (𝑦𝐵 − 𝑦𝐴 )𝒋 + (𝑧𝐵 − 𝑧𝐴 )𝒌.
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = .
√𝐴1 + 𝐵12 + 𝐶12 √𝐴22 + 𝐵22 + 𝐶22
2

Example 3.52 A vector 𝒗 is equivalent to 𝐴𝐵⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ . If 𝐴

and 𝐵 have coordinates (3, −2,4) and (2, 1,5),
Corollary 3.46 Two planes with attitudes numbers
𝐴1 , 𝐵1 , 𝐶1 and 𝐴2 , 𝐵2 , 𝐶2 are perpendicular if and only respectively, express 𝒗 in terms of 𝒊, 𝒋, and 𝒌.
if
𝐴1 𝐴2 + 𝐵1 𝐵2 + 𝐶1 𝐶2 = 0.
Theorem 3.53 If 𝒗 = 𝑎𝒊 + 𝑏𝒋 + 𝑐𝒌, then
|𝒗| = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 .
Example 3.47
1. Find 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 where 𝜃 is the angle between the
planes 3𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 𝑧 = 4 and 𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 3𝑧 − Theorem 3.54 If 𝒗 = 𝑎1 𝒊 + 𝑏1 𝒋 + 𝑐1 𝒌 and 𝒘 = 𝑎2 𝒊 +
2 = 0. 𝑏2 𝒋 + 𝑐2 𝒌, then
2. The two planes 𝒗 + 𝒘 = (𝑎1 + 𝑎2 )𝒊 + (𝑏1 + 𝑏2 )𝒋 + (𝑐1 + 𝑐2 )𝒌.
2𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 4𝑧 − 6 = 0
and If ℎ is any scalar, then
3𝑥 − 𝑦 + 2𝑧 + 4 = 0 ℎ𝒗 = ℎ𝑎1 𝒊 + ℎ𝑏1 𝒋 + ℎ𝑐1 𝒌.
intersect in a line. Find a set of parametric
equations of the line of intersection.
3. Determine whether or not the planes Theorem 3.55 Let 𝒖, 𝒗, 𝒘 be vectors and let 𝑐, 𝑑 be
Φ1 : 3𝑥 − 𝑦 + 𝑧 − 2 = 0; scalars. Then the following relations hold:
Φ2 : 𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 𝑧 + 1 = 0; 𝒖 + (𝒗 + 𝒘) = (𝒖 + 𝒗) + 𝒘
} Associative laws
Φ3 : 2𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 𝑧 − 4 = 0 𝑐(𝑑𝒗) = (𝑐𝑑)𝒗
intersect. If so, find the point of intersection. (𝑐 + 𝑑)𝒗 = 𝑐𝒗 + 𝑑𝒗
} Distributive laws
4. Find the point of intersection of the plane 𝑐(𝒖 + 𝒗) = 𝑐𝒖 + 𝑐𝒗
3𝑥 − 𝑦 + 2𝑧 − 3 = 0 𝒖 + 𝒗 = 𝒗 + 𝒖 Commutative law
and the line 1⋅𝒖=𝒖
𝑥+1 𝑦+1 𝑧−1 0⋅𝒖 =𝟎
= = .
3 2 −2 −1 ⋅ 𝒖 = −𝒖
 𝒗⋅𝒘 𝒗⋅𝒘
Definition 3.56 Let 𝒗 be any vector except 𝟎. The Proj𝒘 𝒗 = |𝒗| cos 𝜃 = |𝒗| |𝒗||𝒘| = .
|𝒘|
unit vector 𝒖 in the direction of 𝒗 is defined by
1
𝒖 = 𝒗.
|𝒗|
Example 3.65 Find the projection of 𝒗 = −𝒊 + 2𝒋 +
3𝒌 on 𝒘 = 2𝒊 − 𝒋 − 4𝒌.
Example 3.57
1. Given the vectors 𝒖 = 3𝒊 − 2𝒋 + 4𝒌 and 𝒗 =
6𝒊 − 4𝒋 − 2𝒌, express the vector 3𝒖 − 2𝒗 in
terms of 𝒊, 𝒋 and 𝒌. The Vector or Cross Product
2. Given the vector 𝒗 = 2𝒊 − 3𝒋 + 𝒌, find a
unit vector in the direction of 𝒗. Definition 3.66 Given the vectors 𝒖 and 𝒗, the
3. Find the head 𝐵of the vector 𝒗 = 2𝒊 + 4𝒋 − vector or cross product 𝒖 × 𝒗 is defined as follows:
3𝒌 if the base 𝐴 has rectangular coordinates i. If either 𝒖 or 𝒗 is 𝟎, then
(2,1, −5). 𝒖 × 𝒗 = 𝟎;
ii. If 𝒖 is proportional to 𝒗, then
𝒖 × 𝒗 = 𝟎;
iii. Otherwise,
The Scalar (Inner or Dot) Product 𝒖×𝒗=𝒘,
where 𝒘 has the three properties:
Theorem 3. 58 If 𝜃 is the angle between the a) It is orthogonal to both 𝒖 or 𝒗;
vectors 𝒗 = 𝑎1 𝒊 + 𝑏1 𝒋 + 𝑐1 𝒌 and 𝒘 = 𝑎2 𝒊 + 𝑏2 𝒋 + b) It has magnitude |𝒘| = |𝒖||𝒗| sin 𝜃, where 𝜃
𝑐2 𝒌, then is the angle between 𝒖 and 𝒗, and
𝑎 𝑎 +𝑏1 𝑏2 +𝑐1 𝑐2
cos 𝜃 = 1 2 |𝒗||𝒘| . c) It is directed so that {𝒖, 𝒗, 𝒘} is a right-
handed triple.
Example 3.59 Given the vectors 𝒗 = 2𝒊 + 𝒋 − 3𝒌 Remark: We shall always assume that any
and 𝒘 = − 𝒊 + 4𝒋 − 2𝒌, find the cosine of the coordinate triple {𝒊, 𝒋, 𝒌} is right-handed.
angle between 𝒗 and 𝒘.
Theorem 3.67 Suppose that 𝒖 and 𝒗 are any vectors
that {𝒊, 𝒋, 𝒌} is a right-handed triple, and that 𝑡 is any
Definition 3.60 Given the vectors 𝒖 and 𝒗, the number. Then
scalar (inner or dot) product 𝒖 ⋅ 𝒗 is defined by the i. 𝒗 × 𝒖 = −(𝒖 × 𝒗)
formula ii. (𝑡𝒖) × 𝒗 = 𝑡(𝒖 × 𝒗) = 𝒖 × (𝑡𝒗)
𝒖 ⋅ 𝒗 = |𝒖||𝒗| cos 𝜃, iii. 𝒊 × 𝒋 = −𝒋 × 𝒊 = 𝒌
where 𝜃 is the angle between the vectors. If either 𝒋 × 𝒌 = −𝒌 × 𝒋 = 𝒊
𝒖 or 𝒗 is 𝟎, we define 𝒖 ⋅ 𝒗 = 𝟎. 𝒌 × 𝒊 = −𝒊 × 𝒌 = 𝒋
iv. 𝒊×𝒊 =𝒋×𝒋 =𝒌×𝒌
Theorem 3.61 The scalar product satisfies the laws
i. 𝒖⋅𝒗 = 𝒗⋅𝒖 Theorem 3.68 If 𝒖, 𝒗, 𝒘 are any vectors, then
ii. 𝒖 ⋅ 𝒖 = |𝒖|2 i. 𝒖 × (𝒗 + 𝒘) = 𝒖 × 𝒗 + 𝒖 × 𝒘
iii. If 𝒖 = 𝑎1 𝒊 + 𝑏1 𝒋 + 𝑐1 𝒌 and 𝒗 = 𝑎2 𝒊 + ii. (𝒗 + 𝒘) × 𝒖 = 𝒗 × 𝒖 + 𝒘 × 𝒖
𝑏2 𝒋 + 𝑐2 𝒌, then
𝒖 ⋅ 𝒗 = 𝑎1 𝑎2 + 𝑏1 𝑏2 + 𝑐1 𝑐2 .
Theorem 3.69 If 𝒖 = 𝑎1 𝒊 + 𝑎2 𝒋 + 𝑎3 𝒌 and 𝒗 = 𝑏1 𝒊 +
𝑏2 𝒋 + 𝑏3 𝒌, then
Corollary 3.62 𝒖 × 𝒗 = (𝑎2 𝑏𝟑 − 𝑎3 𝑏2 )𝒊 + (𝑎3 𝑏1 − 𝑎1 𝑏3 )𝒋 + (𝑎1 𝑏2
i. If 𝑐 and 𝑑 are any scalars and if 𝒖, 𝒗, 𝒘 − 𝑎2 𝑏1 )𝒌
are any vectors, then
𝒖 ⋅ (𝑐𝒗 + 𝑑𝒘) = 𝑐(𝒖 ⋅ 𝒗) + 𝑑(𝒖 ⋅ 𝒘).
ii. We have Example 3.70 Find 𝒖 × 𝒗 if 𝒖 = 2𝒊 − 3𝒋 + 𝒌, 𝒗 =
𝒊⋅𝒊 =𝒋⋅𝒋 = 𝒌⋅𝒌 = 1 𝒊 + 𝒋 − 2𝒌.
𝒊 ⋅ 𝒋 = 𝒊 ⋅ 𝒌 = 𝒋 ⋅ 𝒌 = 0.

Example 3.63 Find the scalar product of the vectors

𝒖 = 3𝒊 + 2𝒋 − 4𝒌
and
𝒗 = −2𝒊 + 𝒋 + 5𝒌.

Definition 3.64 Let 𝒗 and 𝒘 be two vectors which

make an angle 𝜃. We denote by |𝒗|𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 the
projection of 𝒗 on 𝒘. We also call this quantity the
component of 𝒗 along 𝒘. As before, we denote this
quantity by
Theorem 3.71 The area of a parallelogram with This volume is zero if only if the four
adjacent sides 𝐴𝐵 and 𝐴𝐶 is given by points 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷 lie in a plane;
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ] × 𝒗[𝐴𝐶
|𝒗[𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ]|.
The area of Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 is then ii. if {𝒊, 𝒋, 𝒌} is a right-handed coordinate
𝟏
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ] × 𝒗[𝐴𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ]|. tiple and if
|𝒗[𝐴𝐵
𝟐 𝒖𝟏 = 𝑎1 𝒊 + 𝑏1 𝒋 + 𝑐1 𝒌,
𝒖2 = 𝑎2 𝒊 + 𝑏2 𝒋 + 𝑐2 𝒌
𝐶 𝒖3 = 𝑎3 𝒊 + 𝑏3 𝒋 + 𝑐3 𝒌,
then
𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1
(𝒖1 × 𝒖2 ) ⋅ 𝑢3 = |𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 |;
𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3
iii. (𝒖 )
𝟏 × 𝒖𝟐 ⋅ 𝒖𝟑 = 𝒖1 ⋅ (𝒖2 × 𝒖3 ).

𝜃
Theorem 3. 74 If 𝒖, 𝒗 and 𝒘 are any vectors, then
𝐴 𝐵 i. (𝒖 × 𝒗) × 𝒘 = (𝒖 ⋅ 𝒘)𝒗 − (𝒗 ⋅ 𝒘)𝒖.
ii. 𝒖 × (𝒗 × 𝒘) = (𝒖 ⋅ 𝒘)𝒗 − (𝒖 ⋅ 𝒗)𝒘.

Example 3.75
Example 3.72 1. Given 𝐴(3, −1,2), 𝐵(1,2, −2), 𝐶(2,1, −2) and
1. Find the area of Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 with 𝐴( −2,1,3),
𝐷(−1,3,2), find the volume of the
𝐵(1, −1, 1), 𝐶(3, −2,4).
parallelepiped having 𝐴𝐵, 𝐴𝐶 and 𝐴𝐷 as
2. Find the equation of the plane through the
edges.
points 𝐴(−1, 1,2), 𝐵(1, −2, 1), 𝐶(2,2, 4). 2. Find the equations of the line through the
3. Find the perpendicular distance between point 𝑃0 (3, −2,1) perpendicular to the line 𝐿
the skew lines
(and intersecting it) given by
𝑥+2 𝑦−1 𝑧+1
𝐿1 : = = 𝑥−2 𝑦+1 𝑧
2 3 −1 𝐿: {(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧): = = }.
and 2 −2 1
𝑥−1 𝑦+1 𝑧−2
𝐿2 : = = ’.
−1 2 4

The Sphere & Cylinder

Products of Three Vectors
Definition 3.76 A sphere is the graph of all points at
a given distance from a fixed point. The fixed point is
Theorem 3.73 Suppose that 𝒖𝟏 , 𝒖𝟐 , 𝒖𝟑 are vectors
called the center and the fixed distance is called the
and that the points 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷 are chosen so that
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ] = 𝒖𝟏 radius.
𝒗[𝐴𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ] = 𝒖𝟐
𝒗[𝐴𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ] = 𝒖𝟑 .
𝒗[𝐴𝐷 Theorem 3.77 An equation of a sphere of radius r
Then and center 𝐶(ℎ, 𝑘, 𝑙) is
i. the quantiry |(𝒖𝟏 × 𝒖𝟐 ) ⋅ 𝒖𝟑 | is the
volume of the parallelepiped with one (𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 + (𝑧 − 𝑙)2 = 𝑟 2
vertex at 𝐴 and adjacent vertices at 𝐵, 𝐶,
and 𝐷.
Theorem 3. 78 The equation of the form

𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹𝑧 + 𝐺 = 0

is an equation of a sphere if 𝐷 2 + 𝐸2 + 𝐹 2 > 4𝐺.

Example 3.79 Find the center and the radius of the

sphere with equation

𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 + 4𝑥 − 6𝑦 + 9𝑧 − 6 = 0.

Example 3.80 Find the equation of the sphere which

passes through (2,1,3), (3,2,1), (1, −2, −3), (−1,1,2).
Definition 3.81 A cylindrical surface is a surface The transformation from rectangular to cylindrical
which consists of collection of parallel lines. Each of coordinates is given by the equations
the parallel lines is called a generator of the cylinder 𝑟2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
or cylindrical surface. 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑦/𝑥
𝑧=𝑧

Theorem 3. 82 An equation of the form Example 3. 85 Find cylindrical coordinates of the

𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0 points whose rectangular coordinates are
is a cylindrical surface with generators all parallel to 𝑃(3, 3, 5), 𝑄(2,0, − 1), 𝑅(0, 4, 4), 𝑆(0, 0,5), 𝑇(2,2√3, 1)
the z-axis. The surface intersects the xy plane in the
curve
𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0, 𝑧=0
A similar result holds with axes interchanged. Spherical Coordinates
A point 𝑃 with rectangular coordinates (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) has
Example 3.83 Describe and sketch the graph of the spherical coordinates (𝜌, 𝜃, 𝜙) where 𝜌 is the
equation 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 9. distance of the point 𝑃 from the origin, 𝜃 is the same
Solution: The graph is a right circular cylinder with quantity as in cylindrical coordinates, and 𝜙 is the
generators parallel to the z axis. angle that the directed line ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑃 makes with the
positive 𝑧 direction.
Example 3. 84 Describe and sketch the graph of the
equation 𝑦 2 = 4𝑧.
Solution: The graph is a cylindrical surface with
generators parallel to the 𝑥-axis. The intersection
with the 𝑦𝑧 plane is a parabola. The graph is called
a parabolic cylinder.

Cylindrical Coordinates
A point 𝑃 in space with rectangular coordinates
(x, y, z) may also be located by replacing the 𝑥 and
𝑦 values with the corresponding polar coordinates
𝑟, 𝜃, and by allowing the 𝑧 value to remain
unchanged. In other words, to each ordered number
triple of the form (𝑟, 𝜃, 𝑧), there is associated a point
in space. The transformation from spherical to rectangular
coordinates is given by the equations
𝑥 = 𝜌 sin 𝜙 cos 𝜃
𝑦 = 𝜌 sin 𝜙 sin 𝜃
𝑧 = 𝜌 cos 𝜙

The transformation from rectangular to cylindrical

coordinates is given by the equations
𝜌2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2
tan 𝜃 = 𝑦/𝑥
𝑧
cos 𝜙 =
√𝑥 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2
2

Example 3.86
1. Find an equation in spherical coordinates of
the sphere
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 = 0.
Sketch the graph.
The transformation from cylindrical to rectangular 2. Find an equation in rectangular coordinates
coordinates is given by the equations for 𝜌 = 2 sec 𝜙, and describe the graph of
𝑥 = 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 the equations.
𝑦 = 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
𝑧=𝑧