STEEL BRIDGES

1. Introduction
As discussed in earlier chapters the main advantages of structural steel over other
construction materials are its strength and ductility. It has a higher strength to cost ratio in
tension and a slightly lower strength to cost ratio in compression when compared with
concrete. The stiffness to weight ratio of steel is much higher than that of concrete. Thus,
structural steel is an efficient and economic material in bridges. Structural steel has been
the natural solution for long span bridges since 1890, when the Firth of Forth cantilever
bridge, the world's major steel bridge at that time was completed. Steel is indeed suitable
for most span ranges, but particularly for longer spans. Howrah Bridge, also known as
Rabindra Setu, is to be looked at as an early classical steel bridge in India. This cantilever
bridge was built in 1943. It is 97 m high and 705 m long. This engineering marvel is still
serving the nation, deriding all the myths that people have about steel. [See Figure 1]

Figure 1 Howrah Bridge

The following are some of the advantages of steel bridges that have contributed to their
popularity in Europe and in many other developed countries.
Sign of Steel Institute of
 They could carry heavier loads over longer spans with minimum dead weight,
leading to smaller foundations.
 Steel has the advantage where speed of construction is vital, as many elements can
be prefabricated and erected at site.
 In urban environment with traffic congestion and limited working space, steel
bridges can be constructed with minimum disruption to the community.
 Greater efficiency than concrete structures is invariably achieved in resisting
seismic forces and blast loading.
 The life of steel bridges is longer than that of concrete bridges.
 Due to shallow construction depth, steel bridges offer slender appearance, which
make them aesthetically attractive. The reduced depth also contributes to the
reduced cost of embankments.
 All these frequently lead to low life cycle costs in steel bridges
In India there are many engineers who feel that corrosion is a problem in steel bridges, but
in reality it is not so. Corrosion in steel bridges can be effectively minimised by employing
newly developed paints and special types of steel. These techniques are followed in Europe
and other developed countries.

2 Steel used in Bridges

Steel used for bridges may be grouped into the following three categories:

(i) Carbon Steels: This is the cheapest steel available for structural users where
stiffness is more important than the strength. Indian steels have yield stress values up to
250 N/mm2 and can be easily welded. The steel conforming to IS: 2062 - 1969, the
American ASTM A36, the British grades 40 and Euro-norm25 grades 235 and 275 steels
belong to this category.

(ii) High Strength Steels: They derive their higher strength and other required
properties from the addition of alloying elements. The steel conforming to IS: 961 - 1975,
British grade 50, American ASTM A572 and Euro-norm155 grade 360 steels belong to this
category. Another variety of steel in this category is produced with enhanced resistance to
atmospheric corrosion. These are called 'weathering' steels in Europe; in America they
conform to ASTM A588 and have various trade names like ‘cor-ten’.

(iii) Heat-treated Carbon Steels: These are steels with the highest strength. They derive
their enhanced strength from some form of heat treatment after rolling namely
normalisation or quenching and tempering.

The physical properties of structural steel such as strength, ductility, brittle fracture,
weldability, weather resistance etc., are important factors for its use in bridge construction.
These properties depend on the alloying elements, the amount of carbon, cooling rate of
the steel and the mechanical deformation of the steel.

3 Classification of Steel Bridges

Steel bridges are classified according to

 the type of traffic carried

 the type of main structural system
 the position of the carriage way relative to the main structural system

These are briefly discussed in this section.

3.1 Classification based on type of traffic carried

Bridges are classified as

 Highway or road bridges

 Railway or rail bridges
 Road - cum - rail bridges

3.2 Classification based on the main structural system

Many different types of structural systems are used in bridges depending upon the span,
carriageway width and types of traffic. Classification, according to makeup of main load
carrying system, is as follows:

(i) Girder Bridges - Flexure or bending between vertical supports is the main structural
action in this type. Girder bridges may be either solid web girders or truss girders or box
girders. Plate girder bridges are adopted for simply supported spans less than 50 m and box
girders for continuous spans up to 250 m. Cross sections of a typical plate girder and box
girder bridges are shown in Figure 2(a) and Figure 2(b) respectively. Truss bridges [See
Figure 2(c)] are suitable for the span range of 30 m to 375 m. Cantilever bridges have been
built with success with main spans of 300 m to 550 m. In the next chapter girder bridges
are discussed in detail. They may be further, sub-divided into simple spans, continuous
spans and suspended-and-cantilevered spans, as illustrated in Figure 3.

Figure 2(a) Plate Girder Bridge Section

Figure 2(b) Box Girder Bridge Section

Figure 2(c) Some of the Trusses used in Steel Bridges

 Figure 3 Typical Girder Bridges

(ii) Rigid Frame Bridges - In this type, the longitudinal girders are made structurally
continuous with the vertical or inclined supporting member by means of moment carrying
joints [Figure 4]. Flexure with some axial force is the main forces in the members in this
type. Rigid frame bridges are suitable in the span range of 25 m to 200 m.

Figure 4 Typical Rigid Frame Bridge sign of Steel Indian Institute

of Technology Madras

(iii) Arch Bridges

Figure 5 Typical Arch Bridges

The loads are transferred to the foundations by arches acting as the main structural
element. Axial compression in arch rib is the main force, combined with some bending.
Arch bridges are competitive in span range of 200 m to 500 m. Examples of arch bridges
are shown in Figure 5.

(iv) Cable Stayed Bridges - Cables in the vertical or near vertical planes support the
main longitudinal girders. These cables are hung from one or more tall towers, and are
usually anchored at the bottom to the girders. Cable stayed bridges are economical when
the span is about 150 m to 700 m. Layout of cable stayed bridges are shown in Figure 6.

InFigure 6 Layout of cable stayed bridges

(v) Suspension Bridges - The bridge deck is suspended from cables stretched over the
gap to be bridged, anchored to the ground at two ends and passing over tall towers erected
at or near the two edges of the gap. Currently, the suspension bridge is best solution for
long span bridges. Figure 7 shows a typical suspension bridge. Fig. 7.8 shows normal span
range of different bridge types.

Figure 7 Suspension Bridge

3.3 Classification Based on the Position of Carriageway

The bridges may be of the "deck type", "through type" or "semi-through type". These are
described below with respect to truss bridges:

(i) Deck type Bridge - The carriageway rests on the top of the main load carrying
members. In the deck type plate girder bridge, the roadway or railway is placed on the top
flanges. In the deck type truss girder bridge, the roadway or railway is placed at the top
chord level as shown in Figure 8.
 Figure 8 Typical Deck, Through and Semi-through type Truss Bridges

(ii) Through Type Bridge - The carriageway rests at the bottom level of the main load
carrying members [Figure 8(b)]. In the through type plate girder bridge, the roadway or
railway is placed at the level of bottom flanges. In the through type truss girder bridge, the
roadway or railway is placed at the bottom chord level. The bracing of the top flange or
lateral support of the top chord under compression is also required.

(iii) Semi through Type Bridge - The deck lies in between the top and the bottom of the
main load carrying members. The bracing of the top flange or top chord under compression
is not done and part of the load carrying system project above the floor level as shown in
Figure 8(c). The lateral restraint in the system is obtained usually by the U-frame action of
the verticals and cross beam acting together.

Figure 9 Normal Span Ranges of Bridge System

4 Loads and Load Combinations

4.1 Loads on Bridges

The following are the various loads to be considered for the purpose of computing stresses,
wherever they are applicable.
 Dead load
 Live load
 Impact load
 Longitudinal force
 Thermal force
  Wind load
 Seismic load
 Racking force
 Forces due to curvature.
 Forces on parapets
 Frictional resistance of expansion bearings
 Erection forces

Dead load – The dead load is the weight of the structure and any permanent load fixed
thereon. The dead load is initially assumed and checked after design is completed.

Live load – Bridge design standards specify the design loads, which are meant to reflect
the worst loading that can be caused on the bridge by traffic, permitted and expected to
pass over it. In India, the Railway Board specifies the standard design loadings for railway
bridges in bridge rules. For the highway bridges, the Indian Road Congress has specified
standard design loadings in IRC section II. The following few pages brief about the
loadings to be considered.
For more details, the reader is referred to the particular standard.

Railway bridges: Railway bridges including combined rail and road bridges are to be
designed for railway standard loading given in bridge rules. The standards of loading are
given for:
 Broad gauge - Main line and branch line
 Metre gauge - Main line, branch line and Standard C
 Narrow gauge - H class, A class main line and B class branch line

The actual loads consist of axle load from engine and bogies. The actual standard loads
have been expressed in bridge rules as equivalent uniformly distributed loads (EUDL) in
tables to simplify the analysis. These equivalent UDL values depend upon the span length.
However, in case of rigid frame, cantilever and suspension bridges, it is necessary for the
designer to proceed from the basic wheel loads. In order to have a uniform gauge
throughout the country, it is advantageous to design railway bridges to Broad gauge main
line standard loading. The EUDLs for bending moment and shear force for broad gauge
main line loading can be obtained by the following formulae, which have been obtained
from regression analysis:

For bending moment:

EUDL in kN = 317.97 + 70.83l + 0.0188l2 ≥ 449.2 kN (1)

For shear force:

EUDL in kN = 435.58 + 75.15l + 0.0002l2 ≥ 449.2 kN (2)
Design of Steel Structures
Indian Institute of Technology Madras
Note that, l is the effective span for bending moment and the loaded length for the
maximum effect in the member under consideration for shear. 'l ' should be in metres. The
formulae given here are not applicable for spans less than or equal to 8 m with ballast
cushion. For the other standard design loading the reader can refer to Bridge rules.

Highway bridges: In India, highway bridges are designed in accordance with IRC bridge
code. IRC: 6 - 1966 – Section II gives the specifications for the various loads and stresses
to be considered in bridge design. There are three types of standard loadings for which the
bridges are designed namely, IRC class AA loading, IRC class A loading and IRC class B
loading.

Figure 10 IRC AA loading

IRC class AA loading consists of either a tracked vehicle of 70 tonnes or a wheeled vehicle
of 40 tonnes with dimensions as shown in Figure 10. The units in the figure are mm for
length and tonnes for load. Normally, bridges on national highways and state highways are
designed for these loadings. Bridges designed for class AA should be checked for IRC
class A loading also, since under certain conditions, larger stresses may be obtained under
class A loading. Sometimes class 70 R loading given in the Appendix - I of IRC: 6 - 1966 -
Section II can be used for IRC class AA loading. Class 70R loading is not discussed
further here. Class A loading consists of a wheel load train composed of a driving vehicle
and two trailers of specified axle spacings. This loading is normally adopted on all roads
on which permanent bridges are constructed. Class B loading is adopted for temporary
structures and for bridges in specified areas.
For class A and class B loadings, reader is referred to IRC: 6 - 1966 – Section II.

Foot Bridges and Footpath on Bridges – The live load due to pedestrian traffic should be
treated as uniformly distributed over the pathway. For the design of footbridges or
footpaths on railway bridges, the live load including dynamic effects should be taken as 5.0
kN/m2 of the footpath area. For the design of footpath on a road bridges or road-rail
bridges, the live load including dynamic effects may be taken as 4.25 kN/m2 except that,
where crowd loading is likely, this may be increased to 5.0 kN/m2.

The live load on footpath for the purpose of designing the main girders has to be taken as
follows according to bridge rules:
(i) For effective spans of 7.5 m or less - 4.25 kN/m2
(ii) The intensity of load is reduced linearly from 4.25 kN/m2 for a span of 7.5 m to 3.0
kN/m2 for a span of 30m
(iii) For effective spans over 30 m, the UDL may be calculated as given below:

P= 13.3 + .
kN⁄m (3)
Design of Steel Structures
Where, P = Live load in kN/m2
l = Effective span of the bridge in m.
W = Width of the foot path in m.

Where foot-paths are provided on a combined rail-road bridge, the load on foot-path for
purpose of designing the main girders should be taken as 2.0 kN/m2.

Impact load

Figure 11 Impact Percentage Curve for Highway Bridges for IRC class A and IRC class B loadings

The dynamic effect caused due to vertical oscillation and periodical shifting of the live
load from one wheel to another when the locomotive is moving is known as impact load.
The impact load is determined as a product of impact factor, I, and the live load. The
impact factors are specified by different authorities for different types of bridges. The
impact factors for different bridges for different types of moving loads are given in the
Table 1. Figure 11 shows impact percentage curve for highway bridges for class AA
loading. Note that, in the above table l is loaded length in m and B is spacing of main
girders in m.

Longitudinal forces – Longitudinal forces are set up between vehicles and bridge deck
when the former accelerate or brake. The magnitude of the force F, is given by
δ
F= (4)
δ

Where, W – weight of the vehicle

g – acceleration due to gravity
δV – change in velocity in time dt

This loading is taken to act at a level 1.20 m above the road surface. No increase in vertical
force for dynamic effect should be made along with longitudinal forces. The possibility of
more than one vehicle braking at the same time on a multi-lane bridge should also be
considered.
 Table 1: Impact factors for different bridges
BRIDGE LOADING IMPACT FACTOR (I)
Railway Bridges Broad Gauge and (a) Single track 20
≤ 1.0
according to Bridge Meter Gauge 14 +
Rules (b) Main girder of double track 20
0.72 × ≤ 0.72
with two girders 14 +
(c) Intermediate main girder of 20
0.60 × ≤ 0.60
multiple track spans 14 +
(d) Outside main girders of Specified in (a) or (b)
multiple track spans whichever applies
(e) Cross girders carrying two or 20
0.72 × ≤ 0.72
more tracks 14 +
Broad Gauge Rails with ordinary fish plate 7.32
joints and supported directly + 5.49
Meter Gauge on sleepers or transverse 5.49
steel troughing + 4.27
Narrow Gauge 9.5
91.5 +
(i) Spans less than 9m
(a) Tracked Vehicle 0.25 for spans up to 5m
and linearly reducing to
0.10 to spans of 9m

(b) Wheeled Vehicle 0.25

(i) Spans less than 9m
Highway Bridges (a) Tracked Vehicle 0.1
according to IRC (b) Wheeled Vehicle 0.25 for spans up to 23m
regulations and in accordance with
the curve indicated in
Figure 11 for spans in
excess of 23m

IRC Class A Spans between 3m and 45m 9

loading and IRC 13.5 +
Class B Loading In accordance with the
curve indicated in Figure
11 for all spans
Foot Bridges No separate impact
allowance is made

Thermal forces – The free expansion or contraction of a structure due to changes in

temperature may be restrained by its form of construction. Where any portion of the
structure is not free to expand or contract under the variation of temperature, allowance
should be made for the stresses resulting from this condition. The coefficient of thermal
expansion or contraction for steel is 11.7 x10-6/0C
Design of Steel Structures Prof. and
Wind load – Wind load on a bridge may act
 Horizontally, transverse to the direction of span
 Horizontally, along the direction of span
 Vertically upwards, causing uplift
 Wind load on vehicles

Wind load effect is not generally significant in short-span bridges; for medium spans, the
design of sub-structure is affected by wind loading; the super structure design is affected
by wind only in long spans. For the purpose of the design, wind loadings are adopted from
the maps and tables given in IS: 875 (Part III). A wind load of 2.40 kN/m2 is adopted for
the unloaded span of the railway, highway and footbridges. In case of structures with
opening the effect of drag around edges of members has to be considered.
Racking force – This is a lateral force produced due to the lateral movement of rolling
stocks in railway bridges. Lateral bracing of the loaded deck of railway spans shall be
designed to resist, in addition to the wind and centrifugal loads, a lateral load due to
racking force of 6.0 kN/m treated as moving load. This lateral load need not be taken into
account when calculating stresses in chords or flanges of main girders.

Forces on parapets - Railings or parapets shall have a minimum height above the adjacent
roadway or footway surface of 1.0 m less one half the horizontal widths of the top rail or
top of the parapet. They shall be designed to resist a lateral horizontal force and a vertical
force each of 1.50 kN/m applied simultaneously at the top of the railing or parapet.

Seismic load – If a bridge is situated in an earthquake prone region, the earthquake or

seismic forces are given due consideration in structural design. Earthquakes cause vertical
and horizontal forces in the structure that will be proportional to the weight of the
structure. Both horizontal and vertical components have to be taken into account for design
of bridge structures. IS: 1893 – 1984 may be referred to for the actual design loads.

Forces due to curvature - When a track or traffic lane on a bridge is curved allowance for
centrifugal action of the moving load should be made in designing the members of the
bridge. All the tracks and lanes on the structure being considered are assumed as occupied
by the moving load. This force is given by the following formula:
= (5)
12.7
Where, C - Centrifugal force in kN/m
W - Equivalent distributed live load in kN/m
V - Maximum speed in km/hour
R - Radius of curvature in m

Erection forces – There are different techniques that are used for construction of railway
bridges, such as launching, pushing, cantilever method, lift and place. In composite
construction the composite action is mobilised only after concrete hardens and prior to that
steel section has to carry dead and construction live loads. Depending upon the technique
adopted the stresses in the members of the bridge structure would vary. Such erection
stresses should be accounted for in design. This may be critical, especially in the case of
erection technologies used in large span bridges.

4.2 Load Combinations

Stresses for design should be calculated for the most sever combinations of loads and
forces. Four load combinations are generally considered important for checking for
adequacy of the bridge. These are given in Table 7.2 and are also specified in IS 1915 -
1961.

Table 2: Load combinations

S.No. Load Combination Loads
Dead load, live load, impact load and
1 Stresses due to normal loads centrifugal force
Normal load as in (1) + wind load, other
2 2 Stresses due to normal loads + lateral
occasional loads loads, longitudinal forces and temperature
stresses
3 Stresses due to loads during erection -
 Stresses due to normal loads + Loads as in (2) + with seismic load instead
4 occasional loads + Extra-ordinary of wind
loads like seismic excluding wind load

5 Analysis of Girder Bridges

As discussed above, bridge decks are required to support both static and moving loads.
Each element of a bridge must be designed for the most severe conditions that can possibly
be developed in that member. Live loads should be placed in such a way that they will
produce the most severe conditions. The critical positions of live loads will not be the same
for every member. A useful method for determining the most severe condition of loading is
by using “influence lines”.

An influence line represents some internal force such as shear force, bending moment etc.
at a particular section or in a given member of girder, as a unit load moves over the span.
The ordinate of influence line represents the value of that function when the unit load is at
that particular point on the structure. Influence lines provide a systematic procedure for
determining how the force (or a moment or shear) in a given part of a structure varies as
the applied load moves about on the structure. Influence lines of responses of statically
determinate structures consist only of straight lines whereas this is not true of
indeterminate structures. It may be noted that a shear or bending moment diagram shows
the variation of shear or moment across an entire structure for loads fixed in one position.
On the other hand an influence line for shear or moment shows the variation of that
response at one particular section in the structure caused by the movement of a unit load
from one end of the structure to the other. In the following section, influence lines only for
statically determinate structures are discussed.

5.1 Influence lines for beams and plate girders

Figure 12 Influence lines for shear and bending moment

Figure 12(a) shows the influence line for shear at a section in a simply supported beam. It
is assumed that positive shear occurs when the sum of the transverse forces to the left of a
section is in the upward direction or when the sum of the forces to the right of the section
is downward.
A unit force is placed at various locations and the shear force at sections 1-1 is obtained for
each position of the unit load. These values give the ordinates of influence line with which
the influence line diagram for shear force at sections 1-1 can be constructed. Note that the
slope of the influence line for shear on the left of the section is equal to the slope of the
influence line on the right of the section. This information is useful in drawing shear force
influence line in all cases.
Design of
Influence line for bending moment at the same section 1-1 of the simple beam is shown in
Figure 12(b). For a section, when the sum of the moments of all the forces to the left is
clockwise or when the sum to the right is counter clockwise, the moment is taken as
positive. The values of bending moment at sections 1-1 are obtained for various positions
of unit load and influence line is plotted. The detailed calculation of ordinates of influence
lines is illustrated for members of the truss girder in the following section.

5.2 Influence lines for truss girders

Influence lines for support reactions and member forces for truss may be constructed in the
same manner as those for beams. They are useful to determine the maximum force that
may act on the truss members. The truss shown in Figure 13 is considered for illustrating
the construction of influence lines for trusses.

The member forces in U3U4, U3L4 and L3L4 are determined by passing a section X-X
and considering the equilibrium of the free body diagram of one of the truss segments.

Design of Steel Structures

Figure 13 A Typical Truss

Consider a section 1-1 and assume unit-rolling load is at a distance x from L0. Then, from
equilibrium considerations reactions at L8 and L0 are determined. The reactions are:

Reaction at L8 =
Reaction at L0 = 1 −
Consider the left-hand side of the section and take moments about L4 by assuming
appropriate directions for the forces in the members.
When unit load is in between L0 and L4:
=0

×ℎ− ×4 =0
4
= = 0.5
ℎ ℎ
When unit load is in between L4 and L8:
Then, there will not be rolling unit load in the left-hand side section.
4
= 1−
ℎ

Note that the influence diagram gives force in the member U3U4 directly, due to the unit
load.
Design of Steel
5.2.2 Influence line diagram for member U3L4 (Inclined member) [Figure 14(b)]

Figure 14 Typical shapes of influence lines

Again consider the left-hand side of the section 1-1, and use the equilibrium equation for
vertical forces i.e.

ΣV = 0 where, V represents the vertical force.

Design
When unit load is in between L0 and L3:

+ =0
=
Where, = tan
When unit load is in between L4 and L8:
=− 1−
When unit load is in between L3 and L4:

Since the variation of force in member U3L4 is linear as the unit load moves from L3 to L4
joining the ordinates of influence line at L3 and L4 by a straight line gives the influence line
diagram in that zone. Note that, U3L4 represents the force in that member.

5.2.3 Influence line diagram for U3L3 (Vertical member) [Figure 14(c)]

Consider the left-hand side of the section 2-2 shown in Figure 13 for illustrating the
construction of influence line for vertical member.

When unit load is in between L0 and L3:

By considering the equilibrium equation on the section left hand side of axis 2-2.
− =0

When unit load is in between L4 and L8:

=− 1−
When unit load is in between L3 and L4:

Joining the ordinates of influence line at L3 and L4 by a straight line gives the influence
line diagram between L3 and L4. U3L3 represents the force in that member.

Similarly influence line diagrams can be drawn for all other members. Typical shapes of
influence line diagrams for the members discussed are shown in Figure 14. The design
force in the member is obtained in the following manner. In this chapter, compressive
forces are considered negative and tensile forces are positive.

Case (1): If the loading is Railway loading (UDL)

 Influence line diagram for force is drawn for that member
 The algebraic sum of areas of influence line under loaded length multiplied by
magnitude of uniformly distributed load gives the design force.

Case (2): If the loading is Highway loading (Concentrated loading)

 Influence line diagram for force is drawn for that member
 The algebraic sum of the respective ordinates of influence line at the concentrated
load location multiplied by concentrated loads gives design load of that member
 The series of concentrated loads are arranged in such a way that the maximum
value of the desired member force is obtained.

6 Plate Girder Bridges

Plate girders became popular in the late 1800's, when they were used in construction of
railroad bridges. The plates were joined together using angles and rivets to obtain plate
girders of desired size. By 1950's welded plate girders replaced riveted and bolted plate
girders in developed world due to their better quality, aesthetics and economy. Figure 15
shows the cross sections of two common types of plate girder bridges. The use of plate
girders rather than rolled beam sections for the two main girders gives the designer
freedom to select the most economical girder for the structure.
If large embankment fills are required in the approaches to the bridge, in order to comply
with the minimum head-room clearance required, the half through bridge is more
appropriate [Figure 15 (a)]. This arrangement is commonly used in railway bridges where
the maximum permissible approach gradient for the track is low. In this case the restraint
to lateral buckling of compression flange is achieved by a moment resisting U-frame
consisting of floor beam and vertical stiffness, which are connected together with a
moment resisting joint. If the construction depth is not critical, then a deck-type bridge, as
shown in Figure 15 (b) is a better solution, in which case the bracings provide restraint to
compression flange against lateral buckling.

6.1 Main Plate Girders

The design criterion for main girders as used in buildings, was discussed in chapters on
Plate Girders. In the following sections some additional aspects that are to be considered in
the design of plate girders in bridges, are discussed.
Design of Steel
Generally, the main girders require web stiffening (either transverse or both transverse and
longitudinal) to increase efficiency. The functions of these web stiffeners are described in
the chapters on plate girders. Sometimes variations of bending moments in main girders
may require variations in flange thickness to obtain economical design. This may be
accomplished either by welding additional cover plates or by using thicker flange plate in
the region of larger moment. In very long continuous spans (span> 50 m) variable depth
plate girders may be more economical.

Initial design of main plate girder is generally based on experience or thumb rules such as
those given below. Such rules also give a good estimate of dead load of the bridge
structure to be designed. For highway and railway bridges, indicative range of values for
various overall dimension of the main girders are given below:

Overall depth, D: l/18 ≤ D ≤ l/12 (Highway bridges)

l/10 ≤ D ≤ l/7 (Railway bridges)
Flange width, 2b: D/4 ≤ 2b ≤ D/3
Flange thickness, T: b/12 ≤ T ≤ b/5
Web thickness, t: t ≈ D/125

Figure 15 Common types of Plate Girder Bridge

Here, l is the length between points of zero moment. The detailed design process to
maximize girder efficiency satisfying strength, stability, stiffness, fatigue or dynamic
criteria, as relevant, can be then carried out. Recent developments in optimum design
methods allow direct design of girder bridges, considering minimization of weight/cost.

6.1.1 Detailed Design of main Plate Girders in Bridges

The load effects (such as bending moment and shear force) are to be found using
individual and un-factored load cases. Based on these, the summation of load effects due to
different load combinations for various load factors are obtained. Since bridges are
subjected to cyclic loading and hence are vulnerable to fatigue, redistribution of forces due
to plastic mechanism formation is not permitted under BS 5400: Part - 3. The design is
made based on Limit State of collapse for the material used considering the following:

 Shape limitation based on local buckling

 Lateral torsional bucklingign
 Web buckling
 Interaction of bending and shear
 Fatigue effect

Shape limitation Based on Local Buckling

Depending on the type of cross section (compact or non-compact) the variation of stress
over the depth at failure varies. A compact section can develop full plastic moment i.e.
rectangular stress block as shown in Figure 16 (a). Before the development of this full
plastic moment, local buckling of individual component plates should not occur. Thus the
compact section should possess minimum thickness of elements on the compression zone
such that they do not buckle locally before the entire compression zone yields in
compression. The minimum thickness of elements for a typical compact section is shown
in Figure 17, where fy is to be substituted in SI units (MPa).

Figure 16 Design Stresses

 Figure 17 Shape limitations for Plate Girder

The section that does not fulfill the minimum thickness criterion of compact section is
defined as non-compact section. A non-compact section may buckle locally before full
section plastic capacity is reached. Therefore the design of such section is based on
triangular stress block wherein yielding at the extreme fibre, as shown in Figure 16(b),
limit the design moment. The moment capacity of the compact and non-compact cross
sections can be evaluated by the following formulae:

Mu = Zp fy/γm for compact sections (6a)

Mu = Z fy/γm for non−compact sections (6b)
Design of Steel Structures
Where, fy - yield stress
Zp - plastic modulus
Z - elastic modulus
γm - partial safety factor for material strength (1.15)

Even in the compact section, the use of plastic modulus does not imply that plastic analysis
accounting for moment redistribution is applicable. BS 5400: Part - 3 precludes plastic
analysis and does not allow any moment redistribution to be considered. This is to avoid
repeated plastification under cyclic loading and the consequent low cycle fatigue failure.
When non-compact sections are used the redistribution will not occur and hence plastic
analysis is not applicable.

Lateral Torsional Buckling

A typical bridge girder with a portion of the span, over which the compression flange is
laterally unrestrained, is shown in Figure 18(a). Such a girder is susceptible to lateral
torsional buckling. Figure 18(b) shows a laterally buckled view of a portion of the span.
The displacements at mid span, where the beam is laterally restrained, will be only vertical,
as shown in Figure 18(c). A part of the beam between restraints can translate downwards
and sideways and rotate about shear centre [Figure 18(d)]. Failure may then be governed
by lateral torsional buckling. This type of failure depends on the unrestrained length of
compression flange, the geometry of cross section, moment gradient etc. The procedure in
detail for calculating the value of the limiting compressive stress is given in chapters on
laterally unrestrained beams.
Web Buckling

The web of plate girders resist the shear in the three modes, namely (i) pure shear, (ii)
tension field action and (iii) that due to formation of collapse mechanism. These are
discussed in detail in the chapters on plate girders. They are presented briefly below:

The elastic critical shear strength of a plate girder is given by

 2E  t 
2

qc  k   (7)
12 1   2   d 
where,
2
d  a
k  5.34  4   when  1.0
a d
d  a
k  4  5.34   when  1.0
a d

Where t, d and a are the web thickness, depth and distance between vertical stiffeners,
respectively.
Design of Steel Structures Prof. S.

Figure 18 Distortion caused by lateral torsional buckling

The elastic local buckling of the web in shear does not lead to collapse Limit State, since
the web experiences stable post-buckling behavior. In mode (ii), a tension field develops in
the panel after shear buckling. In mode (iii) the maximum shear capacity is reached, when
pure shear stress in mode (i) and the membrane stress, pt in mode (ii) cause yielding of the
panel and plastic hinges in the flanges. This is discussed in detail in the chapters on plate
girders.
Design of Steel Structures
The membrane tensile stress pt in terms of the assumed angle θ [= tan-1(d/a)] of the tension
field with respect to neutral axis (NA) and the first mode shear stress q, is given by,

Thus the resistance to shear in the three-modes put together is given by,
1

pt  
2 2
q 
 3   2.25Sin 2  3  c
qc
   1.5 Sin 2 (8)
qy  q  qy
  y  
2
1  a  pt
if m fw    Sin 2
4 3  y
d q
 
1

pt 
2
qu  qc pt 2 
  5.264Sin  m fw    Cot    Sin  (9)
qy  qy  q y  qy 
  

2
1  a  pt
if m fw    Sin 2
4 3  d  qy
qu  d  p q 
  4 3m fw    t Sin 2  c 
q y   a  2q y q y 

Where, mfw is the non-dimensional representation of plastic moment resistance of the

flange, given by
Mp
m fw  2
d tf yw
When tension field action is used, careful consideration must be given to the anchorage of
the tension field forces created in the end panels by appropriate design of end stiffeners.
Design of Steel Structures Prof. S.R.
Shear-Moment Interaction

Figure 19 Shear-Moment Capacity Interaction Diagram

Bending and shear capacities of girders without longitudinal stiffeners can be calculated
independently and then an interaction relationship as given in Figure 19 is employed. In
Figure 19, MD and MR are the bending capacities of the whole section with and without
considering contribution of the web, respectively. VD and VR are the shear capacities with
tension field theory, considering flanges and ignoring the flanges, respectively. However,
for girders with longitudinal stiffeners, combined effects of bending and shear is
considered by comparing the stresses in the different web panels using the relevant critical
buckling strengths of the panel.

Fatigue effect

Under cyclic load, experienced by bridges, flaws in tension zone lead to progressively
increasing crack and finally failure, even though stresses are well within the static strength
of the material. It may be low cycle fatigue, due to stress ranges beyond yielding or high
cycle fatigue, at stresses below the elastic limit. IS: 1024 gives the guide line for evaluating
fatigue strength of welded details, that may be used to evaluate the fatigue strength.

Stress concentration may lead to premature cracking near bracing stiffener and shear
connector welds. Proper detailing of connections is needed to favorably increase design
life of plate girders.

6.2 Lateral Bracing for Plate Girders

Figure 20 Modes of instability of Plate Girders

Plate girders have a very low torsional stiffness and a very high ratio of major axis to
minor axis moment of inertia. Thus, when they bend about major axis, they are very prone
to lateral-torsional instability as shown in Figure 20(a). Adequate resistance to such
instability has to be provided during construction. In the completed structure, the
compression flange is usually stabilized by the deck. If the unrestrained flange is in
compression, distorsional buckling, Figure 20(b), is a possible mode of failure and such
cases have to be adequately braced. Thus, lateral bracings are a system of cross frames and
bracings located in the horizontal plane at the compression flange of the girder, in order to
increase lateral stability.

Loads that act transverse on the plate girders also cause the lateral bending and the major
contribution is from wind loads. Since plate girders can be very deep, increase in girder
depth creates a larger surface area over which wind loads can act. This, in addition to
causing lateral bending, contributes to instability of compression flange of the girder.
Hence, design of lateral bracing should take account of this effect also.

Triangulated bracing as shown in Figure 15(b) is provided for deck type of plate girder
bridges to increase lateral stability of compression flange. But, it cannot be adopted for the
half-through or through girder bridges because it interferes with functions of the bridge. In
these cases, the deck is designed as a horizontal beam providing restraint against
translation at its level and the flange far away from the deck is stabilized by U-frame action
as shown in Figure 15(a). The degree of lateral restraint provided to the compression
flange by U-frame action depends upon the transverse member, the two webs of the main
girder (including any associated vertical stiffener) and their connections. In this case, the
effective length of a compression flange is usually calculated similar to the theory of
beams on elastic foundations, the elastic supports being the U-frames.

Plate Girder Bridges Design

of Steel Structures Prof

7 Truss Bridges

Figure 21 some of the trusses that are used in steel bridges

Truss Girders, lattice girders or open web girders are efficient and economical structural
systems, since the members experience essentially axial forces and hence the material is
fully utilized. Members of the truss girder bridges can be classified as chord members and
web members. Generally, the chord members resist overall bending moment in the form of
direct tension and compression and web members carry the shear force in the form of
direct tension or compression. Due to their efficiency, truss bridges are built over wide
range of spans. Truss bridges compete against plate girders for shorter spans, against box
girders for medium spans and cable-stayed bridges for long spans. Some of the most
commonly used trusses suitable for both road and rail bridges are illustrated in Figure 21.
Design of Steel Structures Prof
For short and medium spans it is economical to use parallel chord trusses such as Warren
truss, Pratt truss, Howe truss, etc. to minimize fabrication and erection costs. Especially for
shorter spans the warren truss is more economical as it requires less material than either the
Pratt or Howe trusses. However, for longer spans, a greater depth is required at the centre
and variable depth trusses are adopted for economy. In case of truss bridges that are
continuous over many supports, the depth of the truss is usually larger at the supports and
smaller at mid span.

As far as configuration of trusses is concerned, an even number of bays should be chosen

in Pratt and modified Warren trusses to avoid a central bay with crossed diagonals. The
diagonals should be at an angle between 50o and 60o to the horizontal. Secondary stresses
can be avoided by ensuring that the centroidal axes of all intersecting members meet at a
single point, in both vertical and horizontal planes. However, this is not always possible,
for example when cross girders are deeper than the bottom chord then bracing members
can be attached to only one flange of the chords.
7.1 General design principles

7.1.1 Optimum depth of truss girder

The optimum value for span to depth ratio depends on the magnitude of the live load that
has to be carried. The span to depth ratio of a truss girder bridge producing the greatest
economy of material is that which makes the weight of chord members nearly equal to the
weight of web members of truss. It will be in the region of 10, being greater for road traffic
than for rail traffic. IS:1915-1961, also prescribes same value for highway and railway
bridges. As per bridge rules published by Railway board, the depth should not be greater
than three times width between centers of main girders. The spacing between main
truss depends upon the railway or road way clearances required.

7.1.2 Design of compression chord members

Generally, the effective length for the buckling of compression chord member in the plane
of truss is not same as that for buckling out-of-plane of the truss i.e. the member is weak in
one plane compared to the other. The ideal compression chord will be one that has a
section with radii of gyration such that the slenderness value is same in both planes. In
other words, the member is just likely to buckle in plane or out of plane. These members
should be kept as short as possible and consideration is given to additional bracing, if
economical.

The effective length factors for truss members in compression may be determined by
stability analysis. In the absence of detailed analysis one can follow the recommendations
given in respective codes. The depth of the member needs to be chosen so that the plate
dimensions are reasonable. If they are too thick, the radius of gyration will be smaller than
it would be if the same area of steel is used to form a larger member using thinner plates.
The plates should be as thin as possible without losing too much area when the effective
section is derived and without becoming vulnerable to local buckling.

Common cross sections used for chord members are shown in Figure 22. Trusses with
spans up to 100 m often have open section compression chords. In such cases it is desirable
to arrange for the vertical posts and struts to enter inside the top chord member, thereby
providing a natural diaphragm and also achieving direct connection between member thus
minimizing or avoiding the need for gussets. However, packing may be needed in this
case. For trusses with spans greater than about 100 m, the chords will be usually the box
shaped such that the ideal disposition of material to be made from both economic and
maintenance view points. For shorter spans, rolled sections or rolled hollow sections may
be used. For detailed design of compression chord members the reader is referred to the
chapter on Design of axially compressed columns.

7.1.3 Design of tension chord members

Tension members should be as compact as possible, but depths have to be large enough to
provide adequate space for bolts at the gusset positions and easily attach cross beam. The
width out-of-plane of the truss should be the same as that of the verticals and diagonals so
that simple lapping gussets can be provided without the need for packing. It should be
possible to achieve a net section about 85% of the gross section by careful arrangement of
the bolts in the splices. This means that fracture at the net section will not govern for
common steel grades.
In this case also, box sections are preferable for ease of maintenance but open sections may
well prove cheaper. For detailed design reader is referred to the chapter on Design of
Tension members.

Design of Steel
Figure 22 Typical cross-section for truss members

7.1.4 Design of vertical and diagonal members

Diagonal and vertical members are often rolled sections, particularly for the lightly loaded
members, but packing may be required for making up the rolling margins. This fact can
make welded members more economical, particularly on the longer trusses where the
packing operation might add significantly to the erection cost.

Aesthetically, it is desirable to keep all diagonals at the same angle, even if the chords are
not parallel. This arrangement prevents the truss looking over complex when viewed from
an angle. In practice, however, this is usually overruled by the economies of the deck
structure where a constant panel length is to be preferred. Typical cross sections used for
members of the truss bridges are shown in Figure 22.
Design of Steel Structures
7.2 Lateral bracing for truss bridges

Lateral bracing in truss bridges is provided for transmitting the longitudinal live loads and
lateral loads to the bearings and also to prevent the compression chords from buckling.
This is done by providing stringer bracing, braking girders and chord lateral bracing. In
case of highway truss bridges, concrete deck, if provided, also acts as lateral bracing
support system.
 Figure 23 Lateral bracing systems

The nodes of the lateral system coincide with the nodes of the main trusses. Due to
interaction between them the lateral system may cause as much as 6% of the total axial
load in the chords. This should be taken into account.
Design of
Figure 23 shows the two lateral systems in its original form and its distorted form after
axial compressive loads are applied in the chords due to gravity loads. The rectangular
panels deform as indicated by the dotted lines, causing compressive stresses in the
diagonals and tensile stresses in the transverse members. The transverse bracing members
are indispensable for the good performance of St. Andrew’s cross bracing system.

In diamond type of lateral bracing system the nodes of the lateral system occur midway
between the nodes of the main trusses [Figure 23(c)]. They also significantly reduce the
interaction with main trusses. With this arrangement, “scissors-action” occurs when the
chords are stressed, and the chords deflect slightly laterally at the nodes of the lateral
system. Hence, diamond system is more efficient than the St. Andrew’s cross bracing
system.

It is assumed that wind loading on diagonals and verticals of the trusses is equally shared
between top and bottom lateral bracing systems. The end portals (either diagonals or
verticals) will carry the load applied to the top chord down to the bottom chord. In cases,
where only one lateral system exists (as in Semi-through trusses), then the single bracing
system must carry the entire wind load.
Design of Steel Structures
Truss bridges

Suspended central span

Design
of Steel Structure

Continuous span
Sloping chord

Bailey Bridge
Design of Steel

Structures

Connection gusset
8.1 Examples:

Design a through type single lane truss bridge for broad gauge main line loading. The
effective span length of the bridge is 50 m. Consider γm = 1.15.

(1) Truss arrangement [See Figure E1]:

Effective Span of truss girder = 50 m.
Assume 10 panels @ 5 m interval.

Height and truss girder:

1 1
For economical considerations, height = to of span
8 10
Assume, height = 6m. (1/8.33 of span) Hence, O.K.
Design of Steel Structures
(2) Influence line diagrams:

(i) ILD for L0U1 (Diagonal member):

Figure E2 Free body diagram

(a) If, unit load is in between L1 and L10 (i.e. 5 ≤ x ≤ 50)

V  0
 x  1  x 
L0U1Sin  1     L0U1  1  
 50  Sin  50 

(b) If, unit load is in between L0 and L1 (i.e0 ≤ x ≤ 5)

1 9x
L0U1  
Sin 50

Then, we can get ILD as shown in Figure E3.

Figure E3. ILD for L0U1

Design of Steel
(ii) ILD for L1U1 (Vertical member): [See free body diagram Figure E4]

(a) If, unit load is in between L0 and L1 (i.e. 5 ≤ x ≤ 50)

Σ ML0 = 0.
 5L1U1 = x

L1U1 = x / 5

(b) If, unit load is in between L2 and L10

Figure E4

L1U1 = 0

Figure E5 ILD for L1U1

(iii) ILD for U4U5 and L4L5: (Top and Bottom chord members respectively)

Figure E6 Free body diagram

(a) If, the unit load is in between L0 and L4 (i.e. 0 ≤ x ≤ 20)

=0
6 + (25 − ) ∗ 1 = 25 ∗ [1 − ( ⁄50)]
1
= 25 1 − − (25 − )
6 50
=0
6 = (20 − ) ∗ 1 = 20 ∗ [1 − ( ⁄50)]
1
= 20 1 − − (20 − )
6 50
 (b) If, unit load is in between L5 and L10 (i.e 25 ≤ x ≤ 50)
1
= 25 1 −
6 50
Then,
1
= 20 1 −
6 50

ILDs for U4U5 and L4L5 are shown in Figure E7 and Figure E8 respectively.

Figure E7 ILD for U4U5

Figure E8 ILD for L4L5

Design of Steel Structures

(3) Loads:

(i) Dead load - Dead loads acting on truss girder are as follows:

Weight of rails = 2 x 0.6 = 1.2 kN/m.

* Weight of sleepers = 0.25 x 0.25 x 7.5 / 0.4 = 2.34 kN/m.
Weight of fastenings (assumed) = 0.25 kN/m.
Weight of stringers (assumed) = 3.0 kN/m
Weight of cross girders (assumed) = 5.0 kN/m.
** Self-weight of truss by Fuller’s Formula = 13.0 kN/m
Total dead load per track = 24.8 kN/m
Therefore, Total dead load per girder = 24.8 / 2 = 12.4 kN/m
*[Assume 250 mm 250 mm 2m wooden sleepers @ 400 mm apart and weight of 7.5
kN/m3]
15l  550 15*50  550
**[Fuller's Formula =   13.0kN / m
100 100

(ii) Live load

(a) Areas of Influence line diagrams for truss members discussed:

Area of influence line for L0 U1 = × 50 × 1.17 = −29.3 (Compression)
Area of influence line for L1U1 = × 10 × 1.0 = +5.0 (Tensile)
Area of influence line for U4 U5 = × 50 × 2.08 = −52 (Compression)
Area of influence line for L4L5 = × 50 × 2 = +50.0 (Tensile)

(b) Live loads and impact loads from IRS Bridge Rules - 1982:

Live loads and impact factors for each loaded length are found from IRS Bridge Rules -
1982. For maximum forces in chord members, the whole of the span should be loaded and
Live load is determined corresponding to maximum B.M. For other diagonal and vertical
members, part of the span as indicated by influence line diagrams, should be loaded and
the live load is determined corresponding to S.F. The impact factor is found corresponding
to loaded length.

For maximum force in members L4L5 and U4U5:

Load length = 50 m
Live load for B.M. = 3895.2 kN
Impact factor = 0.15 +8/ (6+l) = 0.15+8/ (6+50) = 0.293

3895.2*(1  0.293
(LL+ IL) per m per girder =  50.36kN / m
2*50
For maximum force in members L0 U1 and L1 U1:

L0 U1
Load length = 50 m
Live load for B.M. = 4184.6 kN
8 8
Impact factor = 0.15   0.15   0.293
6l 6  50
4184.6* 1  0.293
(LL+ IL) per m per girder =  54.1kN / m
2*50
L1 U1:
Load length = 10 m
Live load for S.F. = 1227.8 kN
Impact factor = 0.293
1227.8* 1  0.65
(LL+ IL) per m per girder =  101.3kN / m
2*10
(c) Longitudinal Loads from IRS Bridge Rules - 1982
Assume, there exist rail expansion joints in the bridge and prevent the transfer of
longitudinal loads to approaches. It may be noted that for broad gauge bridges up to a
loaded length of 44 m, the tractive effort is more than the braking force and for loaded
lengths more than 44 m the braking force is more than the tractive effort.

Assume truss under consideration is simply supported by a hinge at L0 and a roller at L10.
The longitudinal force in a member can be tensile or compressive depending on the
direction of movement of train.

Panel L4L5:
Loaded length = 30 m
Tractive effort = 637.4 kN
Force per chord = 637.4/2 = ±318.7 kN

Unfactored loads:

Member Area of Load in kN/m Forces in members (kN)

ILD DL LL+IL DL LL+IL Long.L
L0U1 -29.3 12.4 54.1 -363.3 -1585.1
L1U1 +5.0 12.4 101.3 +62 +506.5
U4U5 -52.0 12.4 50.36 644.8 -2618.7
L4L5 +50.0 12.4 50.36 +620 +2518  318.7
Use following Partial safety factors for the loads:
γDL = 1.35; γLL = 1.50; γLongL = 1.50

Factored loads:

Member Factored Forces in members (kN) Total load (kN)

DL LL+IL Long.L
L0U1 -490.4 -2377.6 -2868.0
L1U1 +83.7 +759.8 +843.4
U4U5 -870.5 -3928 -4798.5
L4 L5 +837 +3777  478 +5092 -478

Note: Negative sign represents compression and positive sign represents

tension.

(4) Design for truss members:

(i) Design of diagonal member (L0U1): Note that in this illustration of this Member, the
portal effect and fatigue are not considered.

Length of the chord, L0U1 = l = 7810 mm

Assume, effective length, le = 0.7*l = 5467mm
Try a built up member with two ISHB350 spaced @ 300 mm

Design of Steel
2
A = 18442 mm
rx = 146.5 mm
ry = 158.8 mm
λx = 5467/146.5 = 37.3
Then, σc = 221.8 N/mm2
[See chapter on axially compressed columns using curve c]
Axial capacity = (221.8/1.15)*18442/1000 = 3556.5 kN > 2868 kN
Hence, section is safe against axial compression

(ii) Design of vertical member (L1U1):

Maximum tensile force = 843.4 kN
Try ISMB 350 @ 0.524 kN/m shown.
A = 6671 mm2
Axial tension capacity of the selected section = 6671* 250/1.15
= 1450 kN > 843.4 kN
Hence, section is safe in tension.
[Note: Welded connection assumed]

(iii) Design of top chord member (U4U5):

Member length, l = 5000 mm
Assume, effective length = 0.85l = 4250 mm
Try the section shown.
A = 25786 mm2
rx = 165.4 mm
ry = 210 mm
λx = 4250/165.4 = 25.7
Then, σc = 239 N/mm2

[See chapter on axially compressed columns using column curve c]

Axial capacity = (239/1.15)*25786/1000 = 5359 kN > 4798.5 kN
Hence, section is safe against axial compression

(iv) Bottom chord design (L4L5):

Maximum compressive force = 478 kN
Maximum tensile force = 5092 kN
Try the box section shown.

A = 25386 mm2
rx = 144 mm
ry = 210 mm
Design of Steel
Axial tension capacity of the selected section = 25386* 250/1.15 = 5518 kN > 5092 kN
Hence, section is safe in tension.

Maximum unrestrained length = l = 5000 mm

λx = 5000/144 = 34.7
Then, σc = 225 N/mm2
Axial capacity = (225/1.15)* 25386/1000 = 4967 kN > 478 kN
Hence, section is safe against axial compression also.

The example is only an illustration. The following have to be taken into consideration:
 Design of lacings/batten
 Design of connections and effect of bolt holes on member strength
 Secondary bending effects
 Design for fatigue
9 Summary

After brief introduction, the steel used in bridges and its properties were discussed. The
broad classification of bridges was mentioned and various loads to be considered in
designing railway and highway bridges in India were discussed. Finally analysis of girder
bridges was discussed using influence line diagrams.

This chapter deals with the design of steel bridges using Limit States approach. Various
types of plate girder and truss girder bridges were covered. Basic considerations that are to
be taken into account while designing the plate girder bridges are emphasised. Practical
considerations in the design of truss members and lateral bracing systems are discussed
briefly.

10 References

1. Owens. G.W., Knowles. P.R., Dowling. P.J. (1994): Steel Designers' Manual, Fifth
edition, Blackwell Scientific Publications.

2. Chatterjee. S. (1991): The Design of Modern Steel Bridges, First edition, BSP
Professional books.

3. Demetrios. E.T. (1994): Design, Rehabilitation and Maintenance of Modern

Highway Bridges, McGraw-Hill Publishers.

4. Victor. D.J. (1973): Essentials of Bridge Engineering, Oxford and IBH Publishers.

5. IRC: 6 - 2000– Section II, Indian Standard for loads and stresses on Highway
Bridges.

6. Bridge rules - 1982, Specifications for Indian Railway loading.

7. ESDEP, Group 15B, Volume 25: Structural systems - Steel Bridges, SCI, UK.

8. IS: 1915 - 1961: The Indian Standard Code of Practice for Design of Steel Bridges

9. BS: 5400 - Part 3: 1982: British Standard Code of Practice for Design of Steel
Bridges