ELE 361 (ELECTRICAL MACHINES I)

A Lecture Note prepared by

Mr. A. O. Otuoze
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
Faculty of Engineering and Technology,
University of Ilorin.

2012/2013 ACADEMIC SESSION

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Course Synopsis:

Energy Conversion Concepts, DC Machines: Generators, Motors, shunt and series

characteristics, Design, Construction, Applications. Transformer: Equivalent Circuits,
Design, Construction, Characteristics, open and short circuit tests, polarity tests, Regulation,
Auto, three-phase transformers, conections. 30h Pr: ELE202

Materials:
 Introduction to Electrical Engineering by Mulukultla S. Sarma
 Energy Conversion, Electric Motors and Generators by Ramshaw/van Heeswijk
 Electrical Machines, Drives, and Power Systems by Theodore Wildi
 Theory and Performance of Electrical Machines by J. B. Gupta
 Online Materials
 Other relevant Electrical Machine Texts

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LECTURE NOTE #1
TOPIC: ENERGY CONVERSION CONCEPT

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Human society was once powered only by biomass – biological material from living, or
recently living, organisms: our own muscles (powered by the food we ate); the muscles of
animals; or by the burning of wood. Over many millennia, humans found other ways to tap
into natural energy sources, from water and wind power, fossil biomass (like oil and gas),
geothermal heat from inside the Earth, the sun, and the nucleus of atoms. The transition
from brute force and wood-burning to the various industrial sources of energy – and the
accompanying adoption of energy-intensive lifestyles, have occurred remarkably quickly --
in the course of just a few generations, and this has caused changes in virtually every aspect
of human life, from economics to war to architecture.

Energy makes change; it does things for us. It is needed to move cars along the road and
boats over the water. It helps in baking a cake in the oven and keeps ice frozen in the
freezer. It plays our favourite songs on the radio and lights our homes. Energy makes our
bodies grow and allows our minds to think. Recall that Scientists define energy as the ability
to do work. Work is done when energy is transferred from one system to another, for
instance, when a force is applied to an object. We use energy all the time often without
realising it as it exists in many forms.

Energy conversion engineering (or heat-power engineering, as it was called prior to the
Second World War), has been one of the central themes in the development of the
engineering profession. It is concerned with the transformation of energy from sources such
as fossil and nuclear fuels and the sun into conveniently used forms such as electrical
energy, rotational and propulsive energy, and heating and cooling.

The concept of energy is one of the most important topics in science and engineering. This is
because every physical process that occurs in the Universe involves energy and energy
transfers or transformations. For example, we use energy concepts to liftoff airplanes and
propel rockets. We perhaps inadvertently experience a transfer of energy whenever we
watch television, listen to the radio, or blow-dry our hair. It is also important to note that
energy can be neither created nor destroyed, but only transferred from one source to
another. Notable points on energy are that

•Energy cannot be created nor destroyed, only changed.

•Energy always transfers from high to low.

•Energy transfers are never 100% efficient.

FORMS AND CLASSES OF ENERGY

Energy is found in different forms, such as light, heat, sound, motion, chemical etc. There
are many forms of energy, but they can all be put into two categories: potential and kinetic

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Classes of Energy

Energy may be either potential or kinetic. Potential energy (PE) is energy stored in a system
which is dependent on the relative position of the system and ready for use.
Mathematically, PE=mgh. While Kinetic energy represents the energy associated with
moving particles. Mathematically, KE=½ mv2.

Forms of Energy

Potential Energy:
Potential energy is stored energy and the energy of position, or gravitational energy. There
are several forms of potential energy, viz:
Chemical energy is energy stored in chemical bonds of atoms and molecules. It is the energy
that holds these particles together. Food, plants, batteries (which produce electricity by
combining chemicals), Biomass, petroleum, natural gas, and propane are examples of stored
chemical energy. It also include Stored mechanical energy i.e. energy stored in objects by
the application of a force. Compressed springs and stretched rubber bands are examples of
stored mechanical energy.

Nuclear energy is energy stored in the nucleus of an atom; it is the energy that holds the
nucleus together. It is the energy from radiation (atom decay), fission (splitting atom), or
fusion (fusing atoms) with release of huge amounts of energy. The energy can be released
when the nuclei are combined or split apart. Nuclear power plants split the nuclei of
uranium atoms in a process called fission. The sun combines the nuclei of hydrogen atoms
in a process called fusion. When subatomic particles called NEUTRONS come in contact with
uranium atoms, the atoms split releasing heat energy. This occurs all the time in nature, but
at a very slow rate. Nuclear reactors are able to greatly speed up this process by slowing
down the neutrons and increasing the likelihood that they will hit and split the uranium
atoms. When uranium atoms split, they also release more neutrons which can then go on
and split additional atoms ensuring a chain reaction of atom splitting. This is called
NUCLEAR FISSION.

Gravitational energy is the energy of position or place. A rock resting at the top of a hill
contains gravitational potential energy. Hydropower, such as water in a reservoir behind a
dam, is an example of gravitational potential energy.

Kinetic Energy

Kinetic energy is energy in motion (simply described as motional energy); it is the motion of
waves, electrons, atoms, molecules, substances, and objects. The forms in which Kinetic
Energy exists are:

Radiant energy is energy carried by electromagnetic radiation and travels in transverse

waves. Radiant energy includes visible light, x-rays, gamma rays, and radio waves. Examples
of radiant energy in your daily life are solar energy, light, radio waves, microwaves, heat,
electricity etc.

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Note that the sun and light bulbs are known to constitute the most energy source to the
earth.

Thermal energy, or heat, is the internal energy in substances; it is the vibration and
movement of the atoms and molecules within substances. The more thermal energy in a
substance, the faster the atoms and molecules vibrate and move. Geothermal energy is an
example of thermal energy.

Heat energy; the end product of many transformations.

Sound energy is the movement of energy through substances in longitudinal

(compression/rarefaction) waves. Sound is produced when a force causes an object or
substance to vibrate; the energy is transferred through the substance in a longitudinal wave.

Motion energy is the movement of objects and substances from one place to another.
Objects and substances move when a force is applied according to Newton’s Laws of
Motion. Wind is an example of motion energy.

Electrical energy is the movement of electrons or in short, what we generally think of as

“energy” in Electrical Engineering. Everything is made of tiny particles called atoms. Atoms
are made of even smaller particles called electrons, protons, and neutrons. Applying a force
can make some of the electrons move. Electrons moving through a wire is called circuit
electricity. Lightning is another example of electrical energy. Electricity provides us with
light, heat, refrigeration, communication, elevators, and even education as well as
entertainment equipment and gadgets among others.

Electricity is different from the other energy sources because it is a secondary source of
energy. We must use another energy source to produce electricity. In the world at large,
coal is the number one energy source used for generating electricity. Electricity is
sometimes called an energy carrier because it is an efficient and safe way to move energy
from one place to another, and it can be used for so many tasks. As man continues in its
quest to utilising increased energy, invention and improvement on existing technology
increase, the demand for consumption of energy and hence the demands for electricity
grow. Consequently, electrical energy is found to be the most versatile and widely-used
form of energy, which is accessible to more than five billion people around the world.

Magnetism and Electricity are related. Magnets can create electricity and electricity can
produce magnetic fields. Every time a magnetic field changes, an electric field is created.
Every time an electric field changes, a magnetic field is created. Magnetism and electricity
are always linked together; you can’t have one without the other. This phenomenon is
called electromagnetism. Power plants use huge turbine generators to make the electricity
that we use in our homes and businesses. Power plants use many fuels to spin turbines.
They can burn coal, oil, or natural gas to make steam to spin turbines. Or they can split
uranium atoms using the energy released there-from to heat water into steam. They can
also use the power of rushing water from a dam or the energy in the wind to spin the
turbine. The turbine is attached to a shaft in the generator. Inside the generator are

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magnets and coils of copper wire. The magnets and coils can be designed in two ways—the
turbine can spin the magnets inside the coils or can spin coils inside the magnets. Either
way, the electrons are pushed from one copper atom to another by the moving magnetic
field.

Generating Electrical Energy

Most power plants, whether they are nuclear, hydroelectric, fossil-fuelled or wind, do
essentially the same job, transforming kinetic energy, the energy of motion, into a flow of
electrons, or electricity. At a power plant, a GENERATOR is used to make electricity. Inside a
generator, a magnet called a ROTOR spins inside coils of copper wire called a STATOR. This
pulls the electrons away from their atoms, and a flow of electrons is created in the copper
wires. Those electrons can then be sent along power lines to wherever electricity is needed.

SOURCES OF ENERGY

We use many different energy sources to do work for us. They are classified into two
groups—renewable and non-renewable. Coal, petroleum, natural gas, propane, and
uranium are non-renewable energy sources. They are used to make electricity, heat our
homes, move our cars, and manufacture all kinds of products. Fossil-fired generating
stations produce larger percentage of the total electrical energy, nuclear powered stations
contribute minute percentage with some level of contribution from hydro sources and a
negligible percentage from renewable energy sources in the case of developing worlds like
Nigeria where most of our energy comes from non-renewable energy sources and even yet
to explore the nuclear mode of power generation. However, they contribute to the
production of greenhouse gases and particulates. These energy sources are called non-
renewable because their supplies are limited. Petroleum, for example, was formed millions
of years ago from the remains of ancient sea plants and animals. They are estimated to dry
up with time though in a very slow rate but it will eventually dry up.

With the growing concerns over greenhouse gas emissions, renewable sources are now
gradually being explored with the vision of attaining a system with a greatly reduced
greenhouse gases. Renewable energy sources include biomass, geothermal energy,
hydropower, solar energy, and wind energy. They are called renewable because they are
replenished in a short time. Day after day, the sun shines, the wind blows, and the rivers
flow. We use renewable energy sources mainly to make electricity.

CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

To scientists, conservation of energy is not saving energy. The law of conservation of energy
says that energy is neither created nor destroyed. When we use energy, it doesn’t
disappear. We change it from one form of energy into another. A car engine burns gasoline,
converting the chemical energy in gasoline into motion energy. Solar cells change radiant
energy into electrical energy. Energy changes form, but the total amount of energy in the
universe stays the same i.e. the total amount of energy in the universe is conserved. There is
a certain total amount of energy in the universe, and this total never changes. New energy
cannot be created out of nothing, and existing energy cannot disappear; the energy that

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exists can only be changed from one form into another. Hence, When an energy
transformation occurs, no energy is lost.

The modern law of conservation of energy states that in an isolated system energy cannot
be gained or lost, but only transformed throughout the system, assuming there are no non
conservative forces present. If conservation of energy were indeed true, it is expected that
the initial energy of a system will equal the final energy of the system.

ENERGY TRANSFORMATION

No one really “makes” energy: It has to come from somewhere. And no one really “uses up”
energy: it has to go somewhere. The energy is transformed from one form to another.

Although Fig.1 below may lead you to think that energy can be changed from one form to
another perfectly, that is not true. Some energy always ends up as forms we don’t want, so
it seems to be “lost”, as in friction. This is known as “inefficiency”. While ‘Efficiency’ is the
amount of useful energy you get from a system. A perfect, energy efficient machine would
change all the energy put in it into useful work—a technological impossibility. Converting
one form of energy into another form always involves a loss of usable energy.

Most energy transformations are not very efficient. The human body is a good example.
Your body is like a machine, and the fuel for your machine is food. Food gives you the
energy to move, breathe, and think. Your body isn’t very efficient at converting food into
useful work. Your body’s overall efficiency is about 15 percent most of the time. The rest of
the energy is transformed into heat. You can really feel that heat when you exercise.

This conversion of energy called energy transformation involves the change of one form or
type of energy into another. For example, photosynthesis is a process involving energy
transformations in a plant. In photosynthesis, plants transform radiant energy into the
chemical energy stored in food molecules (food energy) such as glucose (a sugar) and
starch. In the process, some of the radiant energy is also transformed into thermal energy.
Animals, including humans, eat plants and transform the chemical energy in the plants into
chemical energy in their muscles. Muscles then transform this chemical energy into the
kinetic energy of moving limbs, which do work on objects in the environment.

Technological systems also transform energy from one form into another. For example, an
electric light bulb transforms electrical energy into radiant energy (light) and thermal
energy. The internal combustion engine transforms the chemical energy in fuels such as
gasoline and diesel into the kinetic energy of moving cars, motorcycles, trains, buses, and
boats. In all of these processes, a lot of thermal energy is also produced and emitted into
the environment. Most forms of energy can be transformed into other forms. A change
from one form of energy to another is called an energy transformation. Some energy
changes involve single transformations, while others involve multiple transformations.

Sometimes, one form of energy needs to be transformed into another to get work done.
You are already familiar with many such energy transformations.

In Single transformation for example, a toaster transforms electrical energy to thermal

energy to toast your bread, A cell phone transforms electrical energy to electromagnetic
energy that travels to other phones, the body transforms chemical energy in the food to

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mechanical energy needed to move the muscles. Chemical energy in food is also
transformed to the thermal energy the body uses to maintain its temperature.

The transformation could be multiple for example, the mechanical energy used to strike a
match is transformed first to thermal energy. The thermal energy causes the particles in the
match to release stored chemical energy, which is transformed to thermal energy and the
electromagnetic energy you see as light. In a car engine, another series of energy
conversions occurs. Electrical energy produces a spark, the thermal energy of the spark
releases chemical energy in the fuel, the fuel’s chemical energy in turn becomes thermal
energy, the thermal energy is then converted to mechanical energy used to move the car,
and to electrical energy to produce more sparks. Fig.1.1 below shows a typical example
energy transformation processes while Table 1.1 shows an example of energy conversion
process called ‘energy transformation matrix’.

Fig 1.1: An example of energy transformation processes

Table 1.1: Energy Transformation Matrix

Uses of Energy?

Energy users are basically grouped into four different categories: residential, commercial,
industrial, and transportation. These are called the sectors of the economy. Table 1.2 shows
some uses of energy from various energy sources.

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Table 1.2: Energy Sources and their Uses

Assignment (to be submitted on 5th November, 2012)

Draw a table as in Table 1.1 involving energy transformation between any pair of the forms
of energy given below. Answers must be different from the ones given

Mechanical, Gravitational, Electrical, Thermal, Sound Electromagnetic radiation, Nuclear and

Chemical energy

Brief Introduction to Electromechanical Energy Conversion

Of all the energy transformation processes, electromechanical energy conversion systems

interest us in this course. This is owned to the importance of electromechanical energy
converters among all energy-conversion devices. Energy available in many forms is often
converted to and from electrical form because electrical energy can be transmitted and
controlled simply, reliably, and efficiently.

It is a single transformation process involving the interchange of energy between an electric

system and a mechanical system while using magnetic field as a means of conversion.
Devices for measuring, converting and controlling signals from one form to another are
known as transducers, most of which have an output signal in the form of electric energy
e.g. a potentiometer which is used to convert a mechanical position to an electric voltage, a

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tachometer generator which converts a velocity into a voltage (dc or ac), and a pressure
transducer which indicates a pressure drop (or rise) in terms of a corresponding drop (or
rise) in electric potential. Thus a transducer translates the command signal appropriately
into an electrical form usable by the system, and forms an important part of control
systems. Electromechanical transducers form a link between electrical and mechanical
systems.

When the conversion is from electrical to mechanical energy, the device is displaying motor
action (motoring) while the conversion from mechanical to electrical energy form displays a
generator action (Generating) (Fig.1.2). A dynamo is a machine that converts either
mechanical energy into electrical energy or electrical energy into mechanical energy. When
a dynamo is driven mechanically by a prime-mover such as by a diesel engine, steam engine,
steam turbine or water turbine and supplies electrical energy, it is called a generator and
when the dynamo draws electrical energy from the supply mains and drives mechanical
devices such as line shafts and machine tools, it is called a motor.

Motoring and generating actions are basically a reversible processes i.e. the same machine
is capable of operating either as a generator or as a motor depending upon whether the
supplied power is mechanical or electrical. However, in practice, devices may be designed
and constructed to suit one particular mode of conversion or the other.

Fig 1.2: Generator and motor action

Extra Revision:

 Electromagnetic Induction
 Magnetic Circuit

Quiz

1. Energy that is stored within an object is called ________ energy.

2. The vibration and movements of the atoms and molecules within substances is called heat or
________ energy.
3. The energy stored in the centre of atoms is called _______ energy.
4. The scientific rule that states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed is called the
Law of ______.
5. The movement of energy through substances in longitudinal waves is ________.
6. The energy of position – such as a rock on a hill is _______ energy.
7. Electromagnetic energy travelling in transverse waves is _______ energy.
8. Energy stored in bonds of atoms and molecules is ________ energy.
9. The movements of atoms, molecules, waves and electrons is _______ energy.
10. The movement of electrons is ________ energy.
11. The amount of useful energy you get from a system is its ________.

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12. The energy in petroleum and coal is stored as _______ energy.
13. X-rays are an example of ________ energy.
14. Fission and fusion are examples of ________ energy.
15. A hydropower reservoir is example ________ energy.
16. Wind is an example of the energy of ________.
17. The conversion of electrical to mechanical energy shows _______ action.
18. The conversion of mechanical to electrical energy indicates _________action.
19. when a current-carrying conductor is placed in magnetic field region, it experiences
_______.
20. A point charge moved at velocity v in a perpendicular direction to magnetic field B
experiences a force given as ____________.

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