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Introduction
 In ergonomics, the design of workstations is a critical task.
There is general agreement that in any work setting, a well-
designed workstation furthers not only the health and well-
being of the workers, but also productivity and the quality of
the products.

 Conversely, the poorly designed workstation is likely to cause

or contribute to the development of health complaints or
chronic occupational diseases, as well as to problems with
keeping product quality and productivity at a prescribed
level.

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 The work place should be designed in such a way that
employees will be able to perform their jobs effectively. To
achieve this crucial goal, the workplace designer should keep
two design factors in mind.

1. The first factor is that there is a large variability in size of

people in the work-force population.

2. The second factor is to understand the user population;

that is, culture, education, training, skills, attitude, physical
and mental capability, etc.

 Therefore, designers should be cautious that the worst design

mistake they can make is, probably, to design to their own
personal specifications (the syndrome of “if I can use it, it
must be designed well”).

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Workplace design considers age, sex, body size, strength, disabilities and others.

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 Such a mistake can be avoided by using the relevant
anthropometric data in design of the workplace for the work-
force population. The design of workstations should be based
upon:
 Anthropometric data,
 Behavioral patterns of employees, and
 Specific requirements of the work being done.

For example:
 The height at which work takes place is important in designing
workstations. Work should be located to suit the height of the
operator, whether sitting or standing.

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1. If the work is located too
high, the neck and shoulders
may suffer due to the
shoulders frequently being
raised.

2. If the work is located too low,

a back pain can result from
required leaning & bowing
back.

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 Workplace Layout Areas

The three workplace layout are:

• The first one is actual working 3
area1 which is most convenient
area for working.
2 2
• The second workplace layout is 1
normal working area2 that is
within the easy reach of the
operator.
• The third suggested area is
KEY
maximum working area3 which
1= Actual working area
is accessible with full arm
stretch. 2 = Normal working area
3 = Maximum working area

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 Ergonomics Seating
 The two main objectives of ergonomic
seating in the workplace are to
o Increase individual efficiency and
o Reduce fatigue.

 When sitting, the main part of body

weight is transferred to the seat pan,
some weight are also transferred to the
floor, back rest, and armrests.

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 The lumbar needs to be supported
to decrease disc pressure.

 Providing a seat back that inclines

backwards and has a lumbar
support is critical to prevent
excessive low back pressures.

 Another key to reducing lumbar

disc pressure is the use of armrests.

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 General principles
for workstation design
 The general principle for designing individual workstation is to
provide an efficient and safe location in which the work can be
performed.
 To establish this general principle, the design engineer must
answer the following six key questions:
1. What must the work see while on the job?
2. What must the worker hear?
3. What tasks must the worker perform?
4. What is the consequence of objectives?
5. What clearances are required?
6. What storage is required?
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In general, the work place design must satisfy the
following important criteria:
 Be economical;
 Enhance the workers’ efficiency;
 Allow good working postures;
 Minimize fatigue;
 Minimize health-and safety-risks, such as stresses on the
musculoskeletal system.

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The application of ergonomic principles in the workplace can
result in the following:
 Increased productivity;
 Improved health and safety of workers;
 Lower workers’ compensation claims;
 Compliance with government regulations (e.g. OSHA
standards)
 Job satisfaction; Increased work quality;
 Lower worker turnover;
 Lower lost time at work;
 Improved morale of workers;

Inadequate design of workplace will inhibit the ability of

worker to perform his tasks and may result in injuries, strain
or fatigue.
The goal of workplace design is to provide efficient, safe, and
comfort for the worker.

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 Ergonomics Tools and Techniques
Work-tools are extensions of human hands. They enhance the
capability of the users in performing their tasks so efficiently
that the tasks would otherwise be difficult, if not impossible.

However, the ill-effects of an improperly designed work-tool

can be devastating. Poorly designed tools are one of the
common factors contributing to the development of :

o Cumulative Trauma Disorders (CTDS).

o Impair/Damage the Productivity of workers.

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Improper use of a work-tool, regardless of its design, can also
lead to CTD problems. Tools can also cause bodily injuries in
single-exposure incidents.

Ergonomically well-designed and properly used tools can

reduce or prevent such problems.

Therefore, the principles of ergonomics and biomechanics should

be considered in the selection, evaluation, and use of work-tools.
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 Grip Strength and Endurance
 Grip strength and endurance are two terms related to the design and
use of hand tools which have been defined by Bazar (1978).

Grip strength:
 Is the maximum momentary squeeze force exerted on a hand
dynamometer.

Endurance:
 Is the length of time a person can exert a specified force.

 Consideration of grip strength and endurance is very important:

 In the design and use of hand-tools requiring gripping force, and

 In manual materials handling (MMH).

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 Grip strength and endurance can be measured using a hand
dynamometer. A hand dynamometer is a device which measures
the force an individual exerts through the hand grip.

Fig: Hand dynamometer

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 When we design a hand-tools the following factors which
can affect both grip strength and endurance should be
considered:
1- Size of grip span and diameter:

 The tool handle should fit the hand of the user. A handle of a too
large or too small grip diameter cannot be held comfortably and
reduces the grip strength.

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2- Type of grasp/grip: Power grip strength is about four times
greater than the maximum pinch strength. Pinch grip requires
significantly higher muscle force than power grip.

3- Age: Maximal muscle strength is reached at the age of about 20

for men, and a few years earlier for women (Rodahl, 1989). Grip
strength may reach its maximum value in the middle to late 20s
and then declines as age advances.
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4- Gender: The grip strength of men is greater than that of women
(Falke1 et al., 1985). On average the grip strength for women
(24.5-35.0 kg for US females) is about 60% of men's (41.9-
59.8 kg for US males; Fraser, 1983).

5-Handedness: The grip strength and endurance of the dominant

hand are higher than those of the non-dominant hand. The
average percentage difference between dominant and non-
dominant hands for men is in the range of 3.2-11.5%.

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6-Vibration: Grip strength requirements for grasping and
controlling vibrating tools are higher than those required by
non-vibrating tools.

7- Wrist posture: Grip strength is reduced with the deviation of

the wrist from its neutral posture.

8- Gloves: Gloves increase grip strength requirements. They

also increase the size of the hand. For example, woolen or
leather gloves add 5 mm to hand thickness and 8 mm to hand
breadth at the thumb (Fraser, 1983).

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 TYPES OF WORK TOOLS
Work-tools may be divided into two categories:
1- Hand tools: are non-powered and include axes, hammers,
wrenches, screwdrivers, hand saws, pliers, etc.

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2- Power tools:
 There are several different types of power tools, based on the
power source they use. They include electric, pneumatic, liquid
fuel, hydraulic, and power-actuated tools.

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• A slightly bent handle better fits the natural contour of the hand and
minimizes the need for a tight grip to maintain the tool. Based on this
principle in the early 1970s, John Bennett introduced a handle for push
brooms with a 19o bend at its stem (Emanuel et al., 1980). He selected
this angle as the basis for his new design to keep the user's wrist
straight. Bennett has patented the 19 ± 5° angles on virtually all tool
handles and named them Bio-curve tools.

• When a Bio-Curve tool is gripped, the third (middle) finger is locked

into the center of the curve while the other fingers naturally fall into
the curve of the handle.

A 19° angle formed by the lifeline A bent handle allows the wrist to
under the ball of the hand be maintained straight.
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 Ergonomics principles for hand-tool design
and evaluation
The ergonomic guidelines for tool design, evaluation, and selection are:

 Avoid rigid, form-fitting handles with grooves for each

finger.
o Such handles do not improve the grip strength and function
unless they are sized to a particular user’s hand. These types of
handles, as one-size fits- all, are usually designed to fit the
average hand size (i.e the 50% percentile).

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 Avoid hand tools which require awkward movements, or cannot
be , operated effectively with neutral wrist posture and low force
(Fig. a). Tool handles should be designed so that the user can
maintain the hands in line with the forearms as much as possible
(Fig. b).

a) Awkward b) Good
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 Avoid tool handless with sharp corners, edges, or pinch points.
Tool handles should be either round or oval. All pinch points
should be eliminated or effectively guarded.

 The tool-handle surface should be compressible, non-conductive,

and smooth. However, handles should have enough coefficient of
friction to minimize hand-gripping forces required for tool
control.

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 Comparison of (a) an inappropriate tool handle that requires an
awkward wrist posture and creates high forces in the
unprotected palm of the hand and (b) an improved tool handle
that allows the wrist to be in a more neutral posture and
distributes forces over a larger, more muscular area of the hand.

a) short-handled screwdriver b) long-handled screwdriver

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 Provide vibration dampening for vibrating hand tools.

 Use long-handled screwdriver, because short handles dig into the

palm of the hand, which may cause nerve and blood vessel damage
and/or irritation of the tendons.

 Provide workers with tools and machine controls which can be

operated most effectively, with neutral body part postures and low
forces.

 Use power grips for power, and use precision grips for precision.

 Substitute power tools for hand tools that require high force levels.

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 Good and Bad Zones
 There are 4 different zones that a user might encounter while sitting
or standing:
– Zone 0 (Green Zone) Preferred zone for most movements.
Puts minimal stress on muscles and joints.

– Zone 1 (Yellow Zone) Preferred zone for most movements.

Puts minimal stress on muscles and joints.

– Zone 2 (Red Zone) More extreme position for limbs, puts

greater strain on muscles and joints.

– Zone 3 (Beyond Red Zone) Most extreme positions for limbs,

should be avoided if possible, especially with heavy lifting or
repetitive tasks.
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Zones 0 and 1 include smaller join movements, while Zones
2 and 3 represent more extreme positions.

 Zone 0 and Zone 1 are preferred for most movements to

occur.

 Zones 2 and 3 should be avoided when possible,

especially for repetitive and heavy tasks. Motion in these
ranges puts more strain on muscles and tendons and could
lead to the development of musculoskeletal disorders.

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