Wireless Concepts and Configuration

Learning Objectives:
After reading this INFORMATION SHEET, YOU MUST be able to:
1. Describe the components and operations of basic wireless LAN.
2. Describe the components and operations of basic wireless LAN security.
3. Configure and verify basic wireless LAN access.

Introduction
Typical business networks make extensive use of wired networks. Physical
connections are made between computer systems, phone systems, and other
peripheral devices to switches located in the wiring closets.
Managing a wired infrastructure can be challenging. Consider what
happens when a worker decides they prefer their computer system in a different
location in their office, or when a manager wants to bring a notebook to a meeting
room and connect to the network there. In a wired network, you need to move
the network connection cable to a new location in the worker's office and make
sure there is a network connection available in the meeting room. To avoid these
physical changes, wireless networks are becoming more and more common.
This covers how wireless local area networks (WLANs) offer businesses a
flexible networking environment. You will learn the different wireless standards
available today and the features that each standard offers. You will learn which
hardware components are typically necessary in a wireless infrastructure, how
WLANs operate, and how to secure them. Finally, you will learn how to configure
a wireless access point and a wireless client.

Types of Signals in Data Communication

• Electrical signals - Transmission is achieved by representing data as
electrical pulses on copper wire.
• Optical signals - Transmission is achieved by converting the electrical
signals into light pulses.
• Wireless signals - Transmission is achieved by using infrared, microwave,
or radio waves through free space.

Electrical Signals on Copper Wire

• A cable that is improperly terminated may not be able to transfer all of the
energy from the wire to the next circuit.
 • A wire positioned too close to sources of electrical noise or radio noise may
act as an antenna, introducing stray signals that compete with the
information going down the wire.

Optical Signals
There are two ways to move a signal using light as the medium of transmission:
1. Optical fiber - Optical signals propagate down glass threads called fiber-
optics.
2. Optical free-space - Optical free-space communications sometimes
takes the place of microwave or other point-to-point transmission
systems.

Wireless Signals
• Wireless is a term used to describe communications in which
electromagnetic waves carry signals.
• The wireless spectra have three distinct means of transmission:
• Light wave - Infrared are light waves that are lower in frequency than
the unaided human eye can see. This is rarely used over long
distances, as it is not particularly reliable and the two devices must
be in line of sight of each other.
• Radio and microwave - A very effective and practical system of
wireless communication is based on using radio waves or
microwaves for signal transmission. (Microwaves are also used in
radar.)
• Acoustic (Ultrasonic) - Some monitoring devices like intrusion
alarms employ acoustic sound waves at frequencies above the range
of human hearing. Sonar is another example.

Signal Distortion and Degradation

• The signals that reach the other end of the wire must resemble as much
as possible the ones that entered the wire.
• One of the biggest obstacles for a signal is the effort it takes to pass
through the wire itself. This is called resistance. Resistance tends to
decrease the strength of a signal.
• Another cause of distortion and degradation is noise. Noise is caused by
electrical signals, radio or microwave waves, or from signals on adjacent
wires.
Attenuation
• Attenuation is a general term that refers to any reduction in the strength
of a signal.
• Sometimes called loss, attenuation is a natural consequence of signal
transmission over long distances.
• Attenuation can affect a network since it limits the length of network
cabling over which a message can be sent.

Noise
• Noise is unwanted electrical, electromagnetic, or radio frequency energy
that can degrade and distort the quality of signals and communications of
all types.

Crosstalk
• Crosstalk occurs when signals from one wire leak into adjacent wires.
Crosstalk occurs frequently at the point where the connector attaches to
the wire. This is known as near-end crosstalk (NEXT). If too much wire is
untwisted, the signals radiate into other pairs.

EMI and RFI

• Any device or system that generates an electromagnetic field has the
potential to disrupt the operation of electronic components, devices, and
systems in its vicinity. This phenomenon is electromagnetic interference
or EMI.
• Any device or system that operates over radio frequencies has the potential
to disrupt the operation of electronic components, devices, and systems.
This phenomenon is Radio Frequency interference or RFI.
Wireless Technologies
In addition to the wired network, various technologies exist that allow the
transmission of information between hosts without cables. These are known as
wireless technologies.
Wireless technologies use electromagnetic waves to carry information
between devices. An electromagnetic wave is the same medium that carries radio
signals through the air.
The electromagnetic spectrum includes such things as radio and television
broadcast bands, visible light, x-rays and gamma-rays. Each of these has a
specific range of wavelengths and associated energies as shown in the diagram.
 Some types of electromagnetic waves are not suitable for carrying data.
Other parts of the spectrum are regulated by governments and licensed to
various organizations for specific applications. Certain areas of the spectrum
have been set aside to allow public use without the restriction of having to apply
for special permits. The most common wavelengths used for public wireless
communications include the Infrared and part of the Radio Frequency (RF) band.

Infrared
Infrared (IR) is relatively low energy and cannot penetrate through walls or
other obstacles. However, It is commonly used to connect and move data between
devices such as Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs) and PCs. A specialized
communication port known as an Infrared Direct Access (IrDA) port uses IR to
exchange information between devices. IR only allows a one-to-one type of
connection.
IR is also used for remote control devices, wireless mice, and wireless
keyboards. It is generally used for short-range, line-of-sight, communications.
However, it is possible to reflect the IR signal off objects to extend the range. For
greater ranges, higher frequencies of electromagnetic waves are required.

Radio Frequency (RF)

RF waves can penetrate through walls and other obstacles, allowing a
much greater range than IR.
Certain areas of the RF bands have been set aside for use by unlicensed
devices such as wireless LANs, cordless phones and computer peripherals. This
includes the 900 MHz, 2.4 GHz and the 5 GHz frequency ranges. These ranges
are known as the Industrial Scientific and Medical (ISM) bands and can be used
with very few restrictions.

Bluetooth
Bluetooth is a technology that makes use of the 2.4 GHz band. It is limited
to low-speed, short-range communications, but has the advantage of
communicating with many devices at the same time. This one-to-many
communications has made Bluetooth technology the preferred method over IR
for connecting computer peripherals such as mice, keyboards and printers.
Other technologies that make use of the 2.4 GHz and 5GHz bands are the
modern wireless LAN technologies that conform to the various IEEE 802.11
standards. They are unlike Bluetooth technology in that they transmit at a much
higher power level, which gives them a greater range.

Benefits of Wireless Technology

 Wireless technology offers many advantages compared to traditional wired
networks.
One of the main advantages is the ability to provide anytime, anywhere
connectivity. The widespread implementation of wireless in public locations,
known as hotspots, allows people to easily connect to the Internet to download
information and exchange emails and files.
Wireless technology is fairly easy and inexpensive to install. The cost of
home and business wireless devices continues to decrease. Yet, despite the
decrease in cost, the data rate and capabilities of these devices have increased,
allowing faster, more reliable wireless connections.
Wireless technology enables networks to be easily expanded, without the
limitations of cabled connections. New and visiting users can join the network
quickly and easily.

Limitations of Wireless Technology

• Use of the unlicensed regions of the RF spectrum. Since these regions are
unregulated, many different devices make use of them. As a result, these
regions are congested and signals from different devices often interfere
with each other
• Concern with wireless is security.
Types of Wireless Networks
• Wireless Personal Area networks (WPAN)
o The smallest wireless network used to connect various peripheral
devices such as mice, keyboards and PDAs to a computer. All of
these devices are dedicated to a single host with usually use IR or
Bluetooth technology.
• Wireless Local Area networks (WLAN)
o Is the smallest wireless network used to connect various peripheral
devices such as mice, keyboards and PDAs to a computer. All of
these devices are dedicated to a single host with usually use IR or
Bluetooth technology.
• Wireless Wide Area networks (WWAN).
o This provides coverage over extremely large areas. A good example
of a WWAN is the cell phone network. These networks use
technologies such as Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) or
Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM) and are often
regulated by government agencies.

Comparing a WLAN to a LAN

 Wireless LANs share a similar origin with Ethernet LANs. The IEEE has
adopted the 802 LAN/MAN portfolio of computer network architecture
standards. The two dominant 802 working groups are 802.3 Ethernet and
802.11 wireless LAN. However, there are important differences between the two.

• WLANs use radio frequencies (RF) instead of cables at the physical layer
and MAC sub-layer of the data link layer. In comparison to cable.
RF characteristics:
✓ RF does not have boundaries, such as the limits of a wire in a
sheath. The lack of such a boundary allows data frames traveling
over the RF media to be available to anyone that can receive the RF
signal.
✓ RF is unprotected from outside signals, whereas cable is in an
insulating sheath. Radios operating independently in the same
geographic area but using the same or a similar RF can interfere
with each other.
✓ RF transmission is subject to the same challenges inherent in any
wave-based technology, such as consumer radio. For example, as
you get further away from the source, you may hear stations playing
over each other or hear static in the transmission. Eventually you
may lose the signal all together. Wired LANs have cables that are of
an appropriate length to maintain signal strength.
✓ RF bands are regulated differently in various countries. The use of
WLANs is subject to additional regulations and sets of standards
that are not applied to wired LANs.

• WLANs connect clients to the network through a wireless access point (AP)
instead of an Ethernet switch.
• WLANs connect mobile devices that are often battery powered, as opposed
to plugged-in LAN devices. Wireless network interface cards (NICs) tend to
reduce the battery life of a mobile device.
• WLANs support hosts that contend for access on the RF media (frequency
bands). 802.11 prescribes collision-avoidance instead of collision-
detection for media access to proactively avoid collisions within the media.
• WLANs use a different frame format than wired Ethernet LANs. WLANs
require additional information in the Layer 2 header of the frame.
• WLANs raise more privacy issues because radio frequencies can reach
outside the facility.
 The wireless adapter in the client communicates with the wireless router
or access point using RF signals. Once connected to the network, wireless clients
can access network resources just as if they were wired to the network.

Wireless LAN Standards

A number of standards have been developed to ensure that wireless
devices can communicate. They specify the RF spectrum used, data rates, how
the information is transmitted, and more. The main organization responsible for
the creation of wireless technical standards is the IEEE.
The IEEE 802.11 standard governs the WLAN environment. There are four
amendments to the IEEE 802.11 standard that describe different characteristics
for wireless communications. The currently available amendments are 802.11a,
802.11b, 802.11g and 802.11n. (802.11n is not ratified at the time of this
writing.) Collectively these technologies are referred to as Wi-Fi, Wireless Fidelity.

802.11a
There are some important disadvantages to using the 5 GHz band. The
first is that higher frequency radio waves are more easily absorbed by obstacles
such as walls, making 802.11a susceptible to poor performance due to
obstructions. The second is that this higher frequency band has slightly poorer
range than either 802.11b or g. Also, some countries, including Russia, do not
permit the use of the 5 GHz band, which may continue to curtail its deployment.

• Uses 5 GHz RF spectrum

• Not compatible with 2.4 GHz spectrum, i.e. 802.11b/g/n devices
• Range is approximately 33% that of the 802.11 b/g
• Relatively expensive to implement compared to other technologies.
• Increasingly difficult to find 802.11a compliant equipment

802.11b
There are advantages to using the 2.4 GHz band. Devices in the 2.4 GHz
band will have better range than those in the 5GHz band. Also, transmissions in
this band are not as easily obstructed as 802.11a.
There is one important disadvantage to using the 2.4 GHz band. Many
consumer devices also use the 2.4 GHz band and cause 802.11b and g devices
to be prone to interference.

• First of the 2.4 GHz technologies

 • Maximum data-rate of 11 Mbps
• Range of approximately 46 m (150 ft) indoors/96 m (300 ft.) outdoors
802.11g
• 2.4GHz technologies
• Maximum data-rate increase to 54 Mbps
• Same range as the 802.11b
• Backwards compatible with 802.11b

802.11n
802.11n uses multiple radios and antennae at endpoints, each
broadcasting on the same frequency to establish multiple streams. The multiple
input/multiple output (MIMO) technology splits a high data-rate stream into
multiple lower rate streams and broadcasts them simultaneously over the
available radios and antennae. This allows for a theoretical maximum data rate
of 248 Mb/s using two streams.

• Newest standard in development

• GHz technologies
• Extends the range and data throughput
• Backwards compatible with existing 802.11g and 802.11b equipment
Fig. IEEE WLAN Standards

Wireless Infrastructure Components

• Antennas
 Antennas are classified according to the way they radiate the signal.
Directional antennas concentrate the signal strength into one direction.
Omni-directional antennas are designed to emit equally in all directions.
o Used on APs and Wireless bridges
o Increases the output signal strength from a wireless device
o Receives wireless signals from other devices such as STAs
o Increase in signal strength from an antenna is known as the gain
o Higher gains usually translate into increased transmission
distances
o Directional antennas are normally used in bridging applications
o Omni-directional antennas are found on APs.
• Wireless NICs
o Like an Ethernet NIC, the wireless NIC, using the modulation
technique it is configured to use, encodes a data stream onto an RF
signal. Wireless NICs are most often associated with mobile devices,
such as laptop computers and smartphones.
• Wireless Access Points
o An access point connects wireless clients (or stations) to the wired
LAN. Client devices do not typically communicate directly with each
other; they communicate with the AP. In essence, an access point
converts the TCP/IP data packets from their 802.11 frame
encapsulation format in the air to the 802.3 Ethernet frame format
on the wired Ethernet network.
o An access point is a Layer 2 device that functions like an 802.3
Ethernet hub.
• Wireless Routers
o Wireless routers perform the role of access point, Ethernet switch,
and router.
o The router function provides a gateway for connecting to other
network infrastructures.
Configurable Parameters for Wireless Endpoints
SSID
When building a wireless network, it is important that the wireless
components connect to the appropriate WLAN. This is done using a Service Set
Identifier (SSID).
The SSID is a case-sensitive, alpha-numeric string that is up to 32-
characters. It is sent in the header of all frames transmitted over the WLAN. The
SSID is used to tell wireless devices which WLAN they belong to and with which
other devices they can communicate.
Regardless of the type of WLAN installation, all wireless devices in a WLAN
must be configured with the same SSID in order to communicate.

Two basic forms of WLAN installations

1. Ad-hoc
2. Infrastructure Mode
Ad-hoc
The simplest form of a wireless network is created by connecting two or
more wireless clients together in a peer-to-peer network. A wireless network
established in this manner is known as an ad-hoc network and does not include
an AP. All clients within an ad-hoc network are equal. The area covered by this
network is known as an Independent Basic Service Set (IBSS). A simple ad-hoc
network can be used to exchange files and information between devices without
the expense and complexity of purchasing and configuring an AP.
Infrastructure Mode
Although an ad-hoc arrangement may be good for small networks, larger
networks require a single device that controls communications in the wireless
cell. If present, an AP will take over this role and control who can talk and when.
This is known as infrastructure mode and is the mode of wireless communication
most often used in the home and business environment. In this form of WLAN,
individual STAs can not communicate directly with each other. To communicate,
each device must obtain permission from the AP. The AP controls all
communications and ensures that all STAs have equal access to the medium.
The area covered by a single AP is known as a Basic Service Set (BSS) or cell.
Basic Service Set (BSS)
The smallest building block of a WLAN. The area of coverage of a single AP
is limited. To expand the coverage area, it is possible to connect multiple BSSs
through a Distribution System (DS). This forms an Extended Service Set (ESS).
An ESS uses multiple APs. Each AP is in a separate BSS.
In order to allow movement between the cells without the loss of signal,
BSSs must overlap by approximately 10%. This allows the client to connect to
the second AP before disconnecting from the first AP.
Most home and small business environments consist of a single BSS.
However, as the required coverage area and number hosts needing to connect
increases it becomes necessary to create an ESS.

Wireless Channels
 Within a WLAN, the lack of well-defined boundaries makes it impossible
to detect if collisions occur during transmission. Therefore, it is necessary to use
an access method on a wireless network that ensures collisions do not occur.
Wireless technology uses an access method called Carrier Sense Multiple
Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA). CSMA/CA creates a reservation on
the channel for use by a specific conversation. While a reservation is in place, no
other device may transmit on the channel thus possible collisions are avoided.
How does this reservation process work? If a device requires use of a
specific communication channel in a BSS, it must ask permission from the AP.
This is known as a Request to Send (RTS). If the channel is available, the AP will
respond to the device with a Clear to Send (CTS) message indicating that the
device may transmit on the channel. A CTS is broadcast to all devices within the
BSS. Therefore, all devices in the BSS know that the requested channel is now
in use.
Once the conversation is complete, the device that requested the channel
sends another message to the AP known as an Acknowledgement (ACK). The ACK
indicates to the AP that the channel can be released. This message is also
broadcast to all devices on the WLAN. All devices within the BSS receive the ACK
and know that the channel is once again available.

Install and configure wireless NIC

To connect to a wireless network, your computer must have a wireless
network interface. A wireless network interface is used to communicate with
other wireless devices, such as computer, printer, or wireless access points.
Before purchasing a wireless adapter, you should make sure that it is
compatible with other wireless equipment that is already installed on the
network. Also, verify that the wireless adapter is the correct form factor to fit in
a desktop or laptop. A wireless USB adapter can be used with any desktop or
laptop computer that has an open USB port.
To install a wireless NIC on a desktop computer, you must remove the case
cover if it is an adapter card. Install the wireless NIC into an available PCI slot
or PCI express slot. Some wireless NICs have an antenna connected to the back
of the card. Some antennas are attached with a cable so that they can be moved
around or away from objects that may cause a poor connection. New wireless
NIC is using USB port.
Once the wireless adapter is installed, there are additional configuration
steps. These include configuring device drivers and entering network address
information. When this is complete, the computer should be able to detect and
connect to the wireless LAN.

Install and Configure Wireless Routers

 When installing a wireless network, you have to decide where you want to
put access points, and then configure them.
Steps on installing of an access point:
1. Use a floor plan to find the locations for access points that allow
maximum coverage. The best place for a wireless access point is at the
center of the area you are covering, with a line of sight between the
wireless devices and the access point.
2. Connect the access point to the existing network. On the back of the
router, there are ports. Connect a DSL or cable modem to the port
labeled "Internet". The switching logic of the device forwards all of the
packets through this port when there is communication to and from
the Internet and other connected computers. Connect one computer to
any of the remaining ports to access the configuration web pages.
3. When the router has established communication with the ISP (Internet
Service Provider), you must configure the router to communicate with
the devices on the network. Turn on the computer that is connected to
the router. Open a web browser. In the Address field, enter 192.168.1.1.
This is the default address for router configuration and management.
Note: Default address for router configuration and management varies
defends of the router brand name.
4. A security window prompts you for authentication to access the router
configuration screens. The user name field should be left empty. Enter
admin as the default password. When logged in, the first setup screen
opens.
5. Continue with the setup. There are tabs that have sub-tabs on the
setup screen. You must click Save Settings at the bottom of each screen
after making any changes

Configuring the Access Point

Once the choice of wireless standard, layout and channel assignment have
been made it is time to configure the AP.
Most integrated routers offer both wired and wireless connectivity and
serve as the AP in the wireless network. Basic configuration settings such as
passwords, IP addresses, and DHCP settings are the same whether the device is
being used to connect wired or wireless hosts. Basic configuration tasks, such
as changing the default password, should be conducted before the AP is
connected to a live network.
When using the wireless functionality of an integrated router, additional
configuration parameters are required, such as setting the wireless mode, SSID,
and wireless channels to be used.
Wireless Mode
Most home AP devices can support various modes, mainly 802.11B,
802.11G and 802.11N. Although these all use the 2.4 GHz range, each uses a
different technology to obtain its maximum throughput. The type of mode
enabled on the AP depends on the type of host connecting to it. If only one type
of host connects to the AP device, set the mode to support it. If multiple types of
hosts will connect, select Mixed mode. Each mode includes a certain amount of
overhead. By enabling mixed mode, network performance will decrease due to
the overhead incurred in supporting all modes.

SSID
The SSID is used to identify the WLAN. All devices that wish to participate
in the WLAN must use the same SSID. To allow easy detection of the WLAN by
clients, the SSID is broadcast. It is possible to disable the broadcast feature of
the SSID. If the SSID is not broadcast; wireless clients will need to have this
value manually configured.

Wireless Channel
The choice of channel for an AP must be made relative to the other wireless
networks around it. Adjacent BSSs must use non-overlapping channels in order
to optimize throughput. Most APs now offer a choice to manually configure the
channel or allow the AP to automatically locate the least congested channel or
locate the one that offers maximum throughput.

Configuring Wireless Client

A wireless host, or STA, is defined as any device that contains a wireless
NIC and wireless client software. This client software allows the hardware to
participate in the WLAN. Devices that are STAs include: PDAs, laptops, desktop
PCs, printers, projectors and Wi-Fi phones.
In order for a STA to connect to the WLAN, the client configuration must
match that of the AP. This includes the SSID, security settings, and channel
information if the channel was manually set on the AP. These settings are
specified in the client software that manages the client connection.
The wireless client software used can be software integrated into the device
operating system, or can be a stand-alone, downloadable, wireless utility
software specifically designed to interact with the wireless NIC.

Security Consideration on a WLAN

1. Limiting Access to a WLAN
 One way to limit access to your wireless network is to control
exactly which devices can gain access to your network. This can be
accomplished through filtering of the MAC address.
2. MAC Address Filtering
MAC address filtering uses the MAC address to identify which
devices are allowed to connect to the wireless network. When a wireless
client attempts to connect, or associate, with an AP it will send MAC
address information. If MAC filtering is enabled, the wireless router or
AP will look up its MAC address a preconfigured list. Only devices
whose MAC addresses have been prerecorded in the router's database
will be allowed to connect.
If the MAC address is not located in the database, the device will
not be allowed to connect to or communicate across the wireless
network.
3. Authentication
Authentication is the process of permitting entry to a network
based on a set of credentials. It is used to verify that the device
attempting to connect to the network is trusted.
Types of wireless authentication methods:
1. Authentication methods
2. Open authentication
3. PSK and EAP.
4. Encryption on a WLAN
Authentication and MAC filtering may stop an attacker from
connecting to a wireless network but it will not prevent them from being
able to intercept transmitted data. Since there are no distinct
boundaries on a wireless network, and all traffic is transmitted through
the air, it is easy for an attacker to intercept, or sniff the wireless
frames. Encryption is the process of transforming data so that even if
it is intercepted it is unusable.
a. Wired Equivalency Protocol (WEP)
An advanced security feature that encrypts network traffic as
it travels through the air. WEP uses pre-configured keys to encrypt
and decrypt data.
A WEP key is entered as a string of numbers and letters and
is generally 64 bits or 128 bits long. In some cases, WEP supports
256 bit keys as well. To simplify creating and entering these keys,
many devices include a Passphrase option. The passphrase is an
easy way to remember the word or phrase used to automatically
generate a key.
 In order for WEP to function, the AP, as well as every wireless
device allowed to access the network must have the same WEP key
entered. Without this key, devices will not be able to understand the
wireless transmissions.
b. Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA)
WPA also uses encryption keys from 64 bits up to 256 bits.
However, WPA, unlike WEP, generates new, dynamic keys each time
a client establishes a connection with the AP. For this reason, WPA
is considered more secure than WEP because it is significantly more
difficult to crack.
5. Traffic Filtering
Blocks undesirable traffic from entering or leaving the wireless
network. Filtering is done by the AP as traffic passes through it. It can
be used to remove traffic from, or destined to, a specific MAC or IP
address.

Securing the AP
Once the best technology and placement of the AP is determined, install
the WLAN device and configure the AP with security measure. Security measures
should be planned and configured before connecting the AP to the network or
ISP.

Basic security measures include:

• Change default values for the SSID, usernames and passwords.
• Disable broadcast SSID
• Configure MAC Address Filtering

Advanced security measures include:

• Configure encryption using WEP or WPA
• Configure authentication
• Configure traffic filtering

Configuration Backups
With most integrated routers designed for the home and small business
markets, this is simply a matter of selecting the Backup Configurations option
from the appropriate menu and specifying the location where the file should be
saved. The integrated router provides a default name for the configuration file.
This file name can be changed.
The restore process is just as simple. Select the Restore Configurations
option. Then, simply browse to the location where the configuration file was
previously saved and select the file. Once the file is selected, click Start to
Restore to load the configuration file.
Sometimes it may be necessary to return the setting to the factory default
conditions. To accomplish this select either the Restore Factory Defaults option
from the appropriate menu or press and hold the RESET button located for 30
seconds. The latter technique is especially useful if you are unable to connect to
the AP of the integrated router through the network but have physical access to
the device.