ET-GC05.

1
Aircraft Materials (Level 2)
 Ethiopian Aviation Academy Revision No. 0
Aviation Maintenance Training September 2017
ET-GC05: Aircraft Materials and Hardware

Table of Contents

Introduction...........................................................................................................2
1 Aircraft Materials (Level 2)..............................................................................3
1.1 Aircraft Materials-Ferrous..................................................................................... 3
1.1.1 Properties of Metals................................................................................................... 3
1.1.2 Common Alloy Steels Used In Aircraft........................................................................8
1.2 Aircraft Materials-Non-Ferrous............................................................................19
1.2.1 Properties & Identification of Common Non-Ferrous Materials.................................19
1.2.2 Heat Treatment of Non-Ferrous Materials................................................................26
1.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite & Non-Metallic....................................................28
1.3.1 Composite and Non-Metallic (other than Wood and Fabric).....................................28
1.3.2 Wooden Structures.................................................................................................. 37
1.3.3 Fabric Covering....................................................................................................... 41
1.4 Corrosion (Level 1)............................................................................................. 43
1.4.1 Chemical Fundamentals..........................................................................................43
1.4.2 Formation by : Galvanic Action Process, Microbiological, Stress..............................45
1.4.3 Types of Corrosion & Their Identification.................................................................47
1.4.4 Causes Of Corrosion................................................................................................ 57
1.4.5 Material Types, Susceptibility To Corrosion.............................................................59

Issue No. 0 ET-GC05.1 Page 1 of 59

 Ethiopian Aviation Academy Revision No. 0
Aviation Maintenance Training September 2017
ET-GC05: Aircraft Materials and Hardware

Introduction
This is the first module of ET-GC05: aircraft materials.
An understanding of aircraft materials is a fundamental requirement for those wishing to practice
as aircraft technicians. This module will introduce trainees to the variety of materials used for the
construction and repair of aircraft airframes. The module is subdivided into lessons on metallic,
composite and wood & fabric. There will also be a lesson on corrosion which is a related subject
with aircraft materials especially those of metallic parts.

At the end of the topic the trainee will be able to:

 Identify properties and types of aircraft Ferrous materials.
 Identify steel alloys.
 Identify heat treatment of Ferrous Materials.
 Identify properties and types of aircraft Non-Ferrous materials.
 Identify Non-ferrous alloys.
 Identify heat treatment of Non-Ferrous Materials.
 Identify properties and types of aircraft Composite and Non-Metallic materials.
 Identify basics of Composite and Non-metallic material repair.
 Identify Properties, Types and repair of Fabric coverings.
 Identify corrosion and its protection.

Issue No. 0 ET-GC05.1 Page 2 of 59

 Ethiopian Aviation Academy Revision No. 0
Aviation Maintenance Training September 2017
ET-GC05: Aircraft Materials and Hardware

1 Aircraft Materials (Level 2)

1.1 Aircraft Materials-Ferrous

Many different metals are required in the repair of aircraft. This is a result of the varying needs
with respect to strength, weight, durability, and resistance to deterioration of specific structures
or parts. Among the common materials used are ferrous metals. The term “ferrous” applies to
the group of metals having iron as their principal constituent.

1.1.1 Properties of Metals

Knowledge and understanding of the uses, strengths, limitations, and other characteristics of
structural metals is vital to properly construct and maintain any equipment, especially airframes.
In aircraft maintenance and repair, even a slight deviation from design specification, or the
substitution of inferior materials, may result in the loss of both lives and equipment.

Of primary concern in aircraft maintenance are such general properties of metals and their alloys
as hardness, malleability, ductility, elasticity, toughness, density, brittleness, fusibility,
conductivity contraction and expansion, and so forth. These terms are explained to establish a
basis for further discussion of structural metals.

a. Hardness, Strength, Density

Hardness

Hardness refers to the ability of a material to resist abrasion, penetration, cutting action, or
permanent distortion. Hardness may be increased by cold working the metal and, in the case of
steel and certain aluminum alloys, by heat treatment. Structural parts are often formed from
metals in their soft state and are then heat treated to harden them so that the finished shape
will be retained. Hardness and strength are closely associated properties of metals.

Figure 1.1 Hardness

Issue No. 0 ET-GC05.1 Page 3 of 59

 Ethiopian Aviation Academy Revision No. 0
Aviation Maintenance Training September 2017
ET-GC05: Aircraft Materials and Hardware

Strength

Strength is the ability of a material to resist deformation. Strength is also the ability of a material
to resist stress without breaking. The type of load or stress on the material affects the strength it
exhibits.

Tensile Strength Shear

Compress
ive
Figure 1.2

Density

Density is the weight of a unit volume of a material. In aircraft work, the specified weight of a
material per cubic inch is preferred since this figure can be used in determining the weight of a
part before actual manufacture. Density is an important consideration when choosing a material
to be used in the design of a part in order to maintain the proper weight and balance of the
aircraft.

b. Malleability, Ductility, Elasticity, Toughness

Malleability

A metal which can be hammered, rolled, or pressed into various shapes without cracking,
breaking, or leaving some other detrimental effect, is said to be malleable. This property is
necessary in sheet metal that is worked into curved shapes, such as cowlings, fairings, or
wingtips. Copper is an example of a malleable metal.

Issue No. 0 ET-GC05.1 Page 4 of 59

 Ethiopian Aviation Academy Revision No. 0
Aviation Maintenance Training September 2017
ET-GC05: Aircraft Materials and Hardware

Figure 1.3 Malleability

Ductility

Ductility is the property of a metal which permits it to be permanently drawn, bent, or twisted
into various shapes without breaking. This property is essential for metals used in making wire
and tubing. Ductile metals are greatly preferred for aircraft use because of their ease of forming
and resistance to failure under shock loads. For this reason, aluminum alloys are used for cowl
rings, fuselage and wing skin, and formed or extruded parts, such as ribs, spars, and bulkheads.
Chrome molybdenum steel is also easily formed into desired shapes. Ductility is similar to
malleability.

Figure 1.4 Ductility

Elasticity

Issue No. 0 ET-GC05.1 Page 5 of 59

 Ethiopian Aviation Academy Revision No. 0
Aviation Maintenance Training September 2017
ET-GC05: Aircraft Materials and Hardware

Elasticity is that property that enables a metal to return to its original size and shape when the
force which causes the change of shape is removed. This property is extremely valuable because
it would be highly undesirable to have a part permanently distorted after an applied load was
removed. Each metal has a point known as the elastic limit, beyond which it cannot be
loaded without causing permanent distortion. In aircraft construction, members and parts are so
designed that the maximum loads to which they are subjected will not stress them beyond their
elastic limits. This desirable property is present in spring steel.

Figure 1.5 Elasticity

Toughness

A material which possesses toughness will withstand tearing or shearing and may be stretched
or otherwise deformed without breaking. Toughness is a desirable property in aircraft metals.

Figure 1.6 Toughness

c. Brittleness, Fusibility, Conductivity, Thermal Expansion

Brittleness

Issue No. 0 ET-GC05.1 Page 6 of 59

 Ethiopian Aviation Academy Revision No. 0
Aviation Maintenance Training September 2017
ET-GC05: Aircraft Materials and Hardware

Brittleness is the property of a metal which allows little bending or deformation without
shattering. A brittle metal is apt to break or crack without change of shape. Because structural
metals are often subjected to shock loads, brittleness is not a very desirable property. Cast iron,
cast aluminum, and very hard steel are examples of brittle metals.

Fusibility

Fusibility is the ability of a metal to become liquid by the application of heat. Metals are fused in
welding. Steels fuse around 2,600 °F and aluminum alloys at approximately 1,100 °F.

Conductivity

Conductivity is the property which enables a metal to carry heat or electricity. The heat
conductivity of a metal is especially important in welding because it governs the amount of heat
that will be required for proper fusion. Conductivity of the metal, to a certain extent, determines
the type of jig to be used to control expansion and contraction. In aircraft, electrical conductivity
must also be considered in conjunction with bonding, to eliminate radio interference.

Thermal Expansion

Thermal expansion refers to contraction and expansion that are reactions produced in metals as
the result of heating or cooling. Heat applied to a metal will cause it to expand or become larger.
Cooling and heating affect the design of welding jigs, castings, and tolerances necessary for hot
rolled material.

1.1.2 Common Alloy Steels Used In Aircraft

a. Properties & Identification

To facilitate the discussion of steels, some familiarity with their nomenclature is desirable. A
numerical index, sponsored by the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) and the American
Iron and Steel Institute (AISI), is used to identify the chemical compositions of the structural
steels. In this system, a four-numeral series is used to designate the plain carbon and alloy
steels; five numerals are used to designate certain types of alloy steels. In the four digit
numerical index system:
 The first digit identifies the principal alloying element in the steel.

 The second digit, the percentage of the alloying element.

 The last two digits, the percentage in hundredths of a percent of the carbon in the steel.

Where there is more than 0.99% carbon, a fifth digit is added. The fifth digit is also applied to
distinguish between some of the corrosion resistant alloys.

Issue No. 0 ET-GC05.1 Page 7 of 59

 Ethiopian Aviation Academy Revision No. 0
Aviation Maintenance Training September 2017
ET-GC05: Aircraft Materials and Hardware

Figure 1.7 example of SAE and AISI four digit numerical index

Small quantities of certain elements are present in alloy steels that are not specified as required.
These elements are considered as incidental and may be present to the maximum amounts as
follows: copper, 0.35 percent; nickel, 0.25 percent; chromium, 0.20 percent; molybdenum, 0.06
percent. The list of standard steels is altered from time to time to accommodate steels of proven
merit and to provide for changes in the metallurgical and engineering requirements of industry.

Table 1.1 classification of steel alloy

Metal stock is manufactured in several forms and shapes, including sheets, bars, rods, tubing,
extrusions, forgings, and castings. Sheet metal is made in a number of sizes and thicknesses.
Specifications designate thicknesses in thousandths of an inch. Bars and rods are supplied in a
variety of shapes, such as round, square, rectangular, hexagonal, and octagonal. Tubing can be

Issue No. 0 ET-GC05.1 Page 8 of 59

 Ethiopian Aviation Academy Revision No. 0
Aviation Maintenance Training September 2017
ET-GC05: Aircraft Materials and Hardware

obtained in round, oval, rectangular, or streamlined shapes. The size of tubing is generally
specified by outside diameter and wall thickness.

The sheet metal is usually formed cold in such machines as presses, bending brakes,
drawbenches, or rolls. Forgings are shaped or formed by pressing or hammering heated metal in
dies. Castings are produced by pouring molten metal into molds. The casting is finished by
machining.

Spark testing is a common means of identifying various ferrous metals. In this test the piece of
iron or steel is held against a revolving grinding stone and the metal is identified by the sparks
thrown off. Each ferrous metal has its own peculiar spark characteristics. The spark streams vary
from a few tiny shafts to a shower of sparks several feet in length. (Few nonferrous metals
give off sparks when touched to a grinding stone. Therefore, these metals cannot be successfully
identified by the spark test.)

Identification by spark testing is often inexact unless performed by an experienced person, or

the test pieces differ greatly in their carbon content and alloying constituents.

Wrought iron produces long shafts that are straw colored as they leave the stone and white at
the end. Cast iron sparks are red as they leave the stone and turn to a straw color. Low carbon
steels give off long, straight shafts having a few white sprigs. As the carbon content of the steel
increases, the number of sprigs along each shaft increases and the stream becomes whiter in
color. Nickel steel causes the spark stream to contain small white blocks of light within the main
burst.

Low C High C Gray Cast Fe Nickel and Monel Stainless Steel Wrought Fe

Figure 1.8 spark test

Issue No. 0 ET-GC05.1 Page 9 of 59

 Ethiopian Aviation Academy Revision No. 0
Aviation Maintenance Training September 2017
ET-GC05: Aircraft Materials and Hardware

Table 1.2 Metal Identification by Spark Test

b. Common Alloy Steels

i. Iron

Metals which contain mostly iron are known as Ferrous Metals from the Latin "ferrum" meaning
iron. Pure iron is too soft and reactive to be used on its own, but when alloyed with other
elements it is one of the most important metals to the engineer.

Iron Ore

Iron ore is reduced to pig iron in a blast furnace, and the impurities are removed in the form of
slag. Raw materials charged into the furnace include iron ore, coke, and limestone. The pig iron
produced is used to manufacture steel or cast iron. To convert iron ore to iron, the iron ore is
smelted with coke and limestone in a blast furnace to remove from it the oxygen (the process of
reduction) and earth foreign matter. Limestone is used to combine with the earth matter to form
a liquid slag; coke is used to supply the chemical element of carbon needed for the reduction
and carburization of the ore. The iron ore, limestone, and coke are charged into the top of the
furnace. Rapid combustion, with a blast of preheated air into the smelter, causes a chemical
reaction in which the oxygen is removed from the iron. The iron melts, and the molten slag,
consisting of limestone flux and ash from coke, together with compounds formed by the reaction
of the flux with substances present in the ore, floats on the heavier iron liquid. Each material is
then separately drawn off.

Cast Iron

Cast iron is produced by melting a certain quantity or charge of pig iron, limestone, and coke in a
cupola furnace. It is then poured into sand or alloy steel molds, and allowed to cool at room
temperature. Cast iron is basically an alloy whose chief elements are iron, silicon, and carbon.
The material is available with a wide range of properties. Pig iron, gray cast iron, white cast iron,
chilled cast iron, and malleable cast iron are all referred to as cast iron.

Issue No. 0 ET-GC05.1 Page 10 of 59

 Ethiopian Aviation Academy Revision No. 0
Aviation Maintenance Training September 2017
ET-GC05: Aircraft Materials and Hardware

Wrought Iron

This is the oldest form of iron made by man. It is a metal that contains high purity iron and iron
silicate. It is very low in carbon with the iron silicate or slag distributed throughout the base
metal in fibers. These fibers give the material a woody or stringy appearance when broken.

ii. Alloy Steels

Steel is often described as an alloy of iron and carbon, although all commercially available
ferrous metals contain a proportion of carbon, in fact cast iron contains more carbon than high
carbon steel! The difference is in the form that the carbon takes; steel never contains free
carbon (graphite).

Plain Carbon Steel

Plain carbon steels are alloys of iron and up to 1.7% carbon although 1.5% is seldom exceeded.
Low carbon or 'mild' steel contains up to 0.3% carbon, Medium carbon steel 0.3% to 0.8% carbon
and High Carbon Steel 0.8% to 1.7% carbon. Above 1.7% Carbon, the excess is in the form of
free (uncombined) carbon or graphite, which has very low strength (e.g. cast iron).

Most ordinary steels also contain up to 1.0% manganese, left over during the steel making
process. As with cast iron, manganese dissolves in steel, slightly increasing its strength and
hardness, and helps reduce the sulphur content of the steel. Both sulphur and phosphorous are
harmful impurities causing brittleness in steels. Most specifications allow no more than 0.06% of
either of these elements. High quality steels would contain no more than 0.04% of each element.

In low carbon steel, these constituents, when viewed through a microscope, appear as a
laminated structure (pearlite), surrounded by free ferrite. With increasing carbon content, the
proportion of pearlite to ferrite increases until, at 0.83% carbon content, the steel is entirely
pearlite. Above 0.83% carbon content, a microscopic examination shows pearlite surrounded by
free cementite. Ferrite is soft, ductile and not very strong. Pearlite is strong and tough, but soft
enough to be worked. Cementite is very hard and brittle. As the carbon content is increased up
to 0.83% the steel gets tougher and stronger. When the carbon content exceeds 0.83%, because
of the increasing cementite content the steel becomes very hard and progressively more brittle.

Apart from its composition, the properties of steel are affected by the condition of its crystalline
grains. When work is performed on the metal at normal temperatures, such as bending,
squeezing and stretching ('cold working'), the grains become distorted and stressed, and the
metal becomes stiff and brittle. In this state it is said to be 'work hardened'.

Similarly, hot working, such as forging, hot rolling and extrusion at elevated temperatures, can
lead to excessive grain growth, which occurs well below the melting point and which again
weakens the metal.

Both of these problems can be overcome by recrystallizing the metal in a heat treatment process
which will be described later.

Alloy Steels

Issue No. 0 ET-GC05.1 Page 11 of 59

 Ethiopian Aviation Academy Revision No. 0
Aviation Maintenance Training September 2017
ET-GC05: Aircraft Materials and Hardware

All steels, in addition to iron and carbon, contain other elements like silicon, manganese, sulphur
and phosphorus in varying amounts. In carbon steels manganese normally varies up to 1 percent
and silicon upto 0.3 percent. Against this, there is another variety of steel in which manganese is
more than one percent and silicon more than 0.3 percent. Also, in addition to iron and carbon,
they carry sulphur, phosphorus, nickel, chromium, molybdenum and vanadium etc. in varying
proportions. Such steels are called ‘Alloy steels’, and they owe their different properties mainly
to these alloying elements. They are normally named after the principal alloying elements. These
elements are alloying with steel for one or more of the following reasons:
 improve tensile strength without adversely affecting the ductility.
 improve hardenability.
 Improve toughness.
 improve corrosion resistance.
 improve wear resistance.
 impact capability to retain physical properties at high temperatures.
 improve cutting ability and ability to retain shape and resist distortion at elevated
temperatures.
 promote fine grain size.
 improve case hardening properties.

Effects of Alloying Elements

The various nickel steels used in aircraft are produced by combining nickel with carbon steel.
Steels containing from 3 to 3.75 percent nickel are commonly used. Nickel increases the
hardness, tensile strength, and elastic limit of steel without appreciably decreasing the ductility.
It also intensifies the hardening effect of heat treatment. SAE 2330 steel is used extensively for
aircraft parts, such as bolts, terminals, keys, clevises, and pins.

Chromium steel has high hardness, strength, and corrosion-resistant properties, and is
particularly adaptable for heat-treated forgings that require greater toughness and strength than
can be obtained in plain carbon steel. Chromium steel can be used for such articles as the balls
and rollers of antifriction bearings.

Chrome-nickel ‘Stainless Steel’ or 'Corrosion Resistant Steel’ (Often referred to as SS or

CRES) are the most corrosion-resistant alloy steels. The anticorrosive degree of this steel is
determined by the surface condition of the metal as well as by the composition, temperature,
and concentration of the corrosive agent. The principal alloy of stainless steel is chromium.

The corrosion-resistant steel most often used in aircraft construction is known as 18-8 steel
because it is 18 %chromium and 8 % nickel. One distinctive feature of 18-8 steel is that its
strength can be increased by cold working. Stainless steel can be rolled, drawn, bent, or formed
to any shape.

Because these steels expand about 50 percent more than mild steel and conduct heat only
about 40 percent as rapidly, they are more difficult to weld. Stainless steel can be used for
almost any part of an aircraft. Some of its common applications are in the fabrication of
structural and machine parts, springs, castings, tie rods, and control cables.

Chrome-vanadium steels are made of approximately 18 percent vanadium and about 1

percent chromium. When heat treated, they have strength, toughness, and resistance to wear

Issue No. 0 ET-GC05.1 Page 12 of 59

 Ethiopian Aviation Academy Revision No. 0
Aviation Maintenance Training September 2017
ET-GC05: Aircraft Materials and Hardware

and fatigue. A special grade of this steel in sheet form can be cold formed into intricate shapes.
It can be folded and flattened without signs of breaking or failure. SAE 6150 is used for making
springs, while chrome vanadium with high carbon content, SAE 6195, is used for ball roller
bearings.

Molybdenum in small percentages is used in combination with chromium to form Chrome-

molybdenum steel, which has various uses in aircraft.

Molybdenum is a strong alloying element that raises the ultimate strength of steel without
affecting ductility or workability. Molybdenum steels are tough and wear resistant, and they
harden throughout when heat treated. They are especially adaptable for welding and, for this
reason, are used principally for welded structural parts and assemblies. This type steel has
practically replaced carbon steel in the fabrication of fuselage tubing, engine mounts, landing
gears, and other structural parts. For example, a heat-treated SAE X4130 tube is approximately
four times as strong as an SAW 1025 tube of the same weight and size.

Inconel is a family of nickel-chromium-Iron alloys closely resembling stainless steel in

appearance but is a nickel alloy not steel (60% nickel, 29% chromium, 6% iron). Because these
two metals look very much alike, a distinguishing test is often necessary. One method of
identification is to use a solution of 10 grams of cupric chloride in 100 cubic centimeters of
hydrochloric acid. With a medicine dropper, place 1 drop of the solution on a sample of each
metal to be tested and allow it to remain for 2 minutes.

At the end of this period, slowly add 3 or 4 drops of water to the solution on the metal samples, 1
drop at a time, then wash the samples in clear water and dry them. If the metal is stainless
steel, the copper in the cupric chloride solution will be deposited on the metal leaving a copper-
colored spot. If the sample is Inconel, a new-looking spot will be present.

c. Heat Treatment of Alloy Steels

Heat treatment is a series of operations involving the heating and cooling of metals in the solid
state. Its purpose is to change the mechanical properties of the metal so that it will be harder,
stronger or more resistant to impact. It can also make a metal softer and more ductile when it
has become work hardened and release internal stresses after cold working. No single heat
treatment can produce all these characteristics. Some properties may be improved at the
expense of others e.g. when being hardened a metal may become brittle. The most common
forms of heat treatment for ferrous metal are annealing, normalizing, hardening, tempering and
surface hardening.

The temperature to which the metal is heated and the rate of cooling is most important. The
results obtained depend on the structure of the metal and on the way the structure changes
when the metal is heated and cooled. Most alloys respond to heat treatment since their
structures change with heating and cooling.

During heat treatments, steel should be heated slowly and uniformly. Close control of
temperature is essential. Electric and salt bath furnaces are often used. The steel must remain in
the furnace until it is heated throughout and thus soaking time varies.

Cooling after heating can be carried out in the furnace, in air or by quenching in liquid depending
on the process. Oil is normally used for quenching alloy steels.

Issue No. 0 ET-GC05.1 Page 13 of 59

 Ethiopian Aviation Academy Revision No. 0
Aviation Maintenance Training September 2017
ET-GC05: Aircraft Materials and Hardware

Many alloy steels respond to the same heat treatment processes as plain carbon steels although
the alloying elements may alter the temperature required for the process.

The first important consideration in the heat treatment of a steel part is to know its chemical
composition. This, in turn, determines its upper critical point. When the upper critical point is
known, the next consideration is the rate of heating and cooling to be used. Carrying out these
operations involves the use of uniform heating furnaces, proper temperature controls, and
suitable quenching mediums.

Critical Points

When a piece of steel containing about 0.3% carbon is heated at a uniform rate, the temperature
of the steel will, at first, rise steadily. When the temperature reaches 723°C (a dull red colour) it
will remain there for a time then rise again at a uniform rate. If the heating is continued there is
a second pause in the rise in temperature. After this, if the heating is continued, the temperature
will continue to rise at approximately the initial rate until it melts at around 1600°C.

During these periods of arrest, the metal absorbs heat, but instead of raising the temperature,
the heat brings about a structural change in the steel. The temperatures at which these periods
occur are called 'critical' or 'arrest' points.

If the steel is heated to 900°C (a bright reddish yellow color) then removed from the furnace and
observed in a darkened room, it will be seen that as it cools it will lose its brilliance. At the points
where it received its checks in heating the metal is seen to glow more brightly and it will seem
that the cooling has stopped. In fact the steel will be seen to take on an extra glow as though it
was reheated. After this the rate of cooling will be normal until the metal is cold.

The temperature at which the changes start (the lower critical point) is the same for all steels
and is about 723°C.

Figure 1.9 Carbon steel- heating critical points

Issue No. 0 ET-GC05.1 Page 14 of 59

 Ethiopian Aviation Academy Revision No. 0
Aviation Maintenance Training September 2017
ET-GC05: Aircraft Materials and Hardware

Behavior of Steel During Heating and Cooling

Changing the internal structure of a ferrous metal is accomplished by heating to a temperature

above its upper critical point, holding it at that temperature for a time sufficient to permit certain
internal changes to occur, and then cooling to atmospheric temperature under predetermined,
controlled conditions.

At ordinary temperatures, the carbon in steel exists in the form of particles of iron carbide
scattered throughout an iron matrix known as “ferrite.” The number, size, and distribution of
these particles determine the hardness of the steel. At elevated temperatures, the carbon is
dissolved in the iron matrix in the form of a solid solution called “austenite,” and the carbide
particles appear only after the steel has been cooled. If the cooling is slow, the carbide particles
are relatively coarse and few. In this condition, the steel is soft. If the cooling is rapid, as by
quenching in oil or water, the carbon precipitates as a cloud of very fine carbide particles, and
the steel is hard. The fact that the carbide particles can be dissolved in austenite is the basis of
the heat treatment of steel. The temperatures at which this transformation takes place are called
the critical points and vary with the composition of the steel. The percentage of carbon in the
steel has the greatest influence on the critical points of heat treatment.

Hardening

Pure iron, wrought iron, and extremely low carbon steels cannot be appreciably hardened by
heat treatment, since they contain no hardening element. Cast-iron can be hardened, but its
heat treatment is limited. When cast iron is cooled rapidly, it forms white iron, which is hard and
brittle. When cooled slowly, it forms gray iron, which is soft but brittle under impact. In plain
carbon steel, the maximum hardness depends almost entirely on the carbon content of the steel.
As the carbon content increases, the ability of the steel to be hardened increases. However, this
increase in the ability to harden with an increase in carbon content continues only to a certain
point. In practice, that point is 0.85 percent carbon content. When the carbon content is
increased beyond 0.85 percent, there is no increase in wear resistance.

For most steels, the hardening treatment consists of heating the steel to a temperature just
above the upper critical point, soaking or holding for the required length of time, and then
cooling it rapidly by plunging the hot steel into oil, water, or brine. Although most steels must be
cooled rapidly for hardening, a few may be cooled in still air. Hardening increases the hardness
and strength of the steel but makes it less ductile.

When hardening carbon steel, it must be cooled to below 1,000 °F in less than 1 second. Should
the time required for the temperature to drop to 1,000 °F exceed1 second, the austenite begins
to transform into fine pearlite. This pearlite varies in hardness, but is much harder than the
pearlite formed by annealing and much softer than the martensite desired. After the 1,000 °F
temperature is reached, the rapid cooling must continue if the final structure is to be all
martensite.

When alloys are added to steel, the time limit for the temperature drop to 1,000 °F increases
above the 1 second limit for carbon steels. Therefore, a slower quenching medium will produce
hardness in alloy steels.

Because of the high internal stresses in the “as quenched” condition, steel must be tempered
just before it becomes cold. The part should be removed from the quenching bath at a

Issue No. 0 ET-GC05.1 Page 15 of 59

 Ethiopian Aviation Academy Revision No. 0
Aviation Maintenance Training September 2017
ET-GC05: Aircraft Materials and Hardware

temperature of approximately200 °F, since the temperature range from 200 °F down to room
temperature is the cracking range.

Hardening Precautions

A variety of different shapes and sizes of tongs for handling hot steels is necessary. It should be
remembered that cooling of the area contacted by the tongs is retarded and that such areas may
not harden, particularly if the steel being treated is very shallow hardening. Small parts may be
wired together or quenched in baskets made of wire mesh.

Special quenching jigs and fixtures are frequently used to hold steels during quenching in a
manner to restrain distortion.

When selective hardening is desired, portions of the steel may be protected by covering with
alundum cement or some other insulating material. Selective hardening may be accomplished
also by the use of water or oil jets designed to direct quenching medium on the areas to be
hardened.

Shallow hardening steels, such as plain carbon and certain varieties of alloy steels, have such a
high critical cooling rate that they must be quenched in brine or water to effect hardening. In
general, intricately shaped sections should not be made of shallow hardening steels because of
the tendency of these steels to warp and crack during hardening. Such items should be made of
deeper hardening steels capable of being hardened by quenching in oil or air.

Tempering

Tempering reduces the brittleness imparted by hardening and produces definite physical
properties within the steel. Tempering always follows, never precedes, the hardening operation.
In addition to reducing brittleness, tempering softens the steel. Tempering is always conducted
at temperatures below the low critical point of the steel. In this respect, tempering differs from
annealing, normalizing, or hardening, all of which require temperatures above the upper critical
point. When hardened steel is reheated, tempering begins at 212 °F and continues as the
temperature increases toward the low critical point. By selecting a definite tempering
temperature, the resulting hardness and strength can be predetermined. The minimum time at
the tempering temperature should be 1 hour. If the part is over 1 inch in thickness, increase the
time by 1 hour for each additional inch of thickness. Tempered steels used in aircraft work have
from 125,000 to 200,000 psi ultimate tensile strength.

Generally, the rate of cooling from the tempering temperature has no effect on the resulting
structure; therefore, the steel is usually cooled in still air after being removed from the furnace.

Annealing

Annealing of steel produces a fine grained, soft, ductile metal without internal stresses or strains.
In the annealed state, steel has its lowest strength. In general, annealing is the opposite of
hardening.

Annealing of steel is accomplished by heating the metal to just above the upper critical point,
soaking at that temperature, and cooling very slowly in the furnace. Soaking time is

Issue No. 0 ET-GC05.1 Page 16 of 59

 Ethiopian Aviation Academy Revision No. 0
Aviation Maintenance Training September 2017
ET-GC05: Aircraft Materials and Hardware

approximately 1 hour per inch of thickness of the material. To produce maximum softness in
steel, the metal must be cooled very slowly. Slow
cooling is obtained by shutting off the heat and allowing the furnace and metal to cool together
to 900 °F or lower, then removing the metal from the furnace and cooling in still air. Another
method is to bury the heated steel in ashes, sand, or other substance that does not conduct heat
readily.

Normalizing

The normalizing of steel removes the internal stresses set up by heat treating, welding, casting,
forming, or machining. Stress, if not controlled, will lead to failure.
Because of the better physical properties, aircraft steels are often used in the normalized state,
but seldom, if ever, in the annealed state.

One of the most important uses of normalizing in aircraft work is in welded parts. Welding causes
strains to be set up in the adjacent material. In addition, the weld itself is a cast structure as
opposed to the wrought structure of the rest of the material. These two types
of structures have different grain sizes, and to refine the grain as well as to relieve the internal
stresses, all welded parts should be normalized after fabrication.

Normalizing is accomplished by heating the steel above the upper critical point and cooling in
still air. The more rapid quenching obtained by air cooling, as compared to furnace cooling,
results in a harder and stronger material than that obtained by annealing.

1.2 Aircraft Materials-Non-Ferrous

The term “nonferrous” refers to all metals which have elements other than iron as their base or
principal constituent. This group includes such metals as aluminum, titanium, copper, and
magnesium, as well as such alloyed metals as Monel and babbit.

1.2.1 Properties & Identification of Common Non-Ferrous Materials

a. Aluminum Alloys

Commercially pure aluminium is a white lustrous metal which stands second in the scale of
malleability, sixth in ductility, and ranks high in its resistance to corrosion. Aluminium combined
with various percentages of other metals forms alloys which are used in aircraft construction.

Aluminium alloys in which the principal alloying ingredients are manganese, chromium, or
magnesium and silicon show little attack in corrosive environments. Alloys in which substantial
percentages of copper are used are more susceptible to corrosive action. The total percentage of
alloying elements is seldom more than 6 or 7% in the wrought alloys.

Aluminium is one of the most widely used metals in modern aircraft construction. It is vital to the
aviation industry because of its high strength-to-weight ratio and its comparative ease of
fabrication. The outstanding characteristic of aluminium is its light weight. Aluminium melts at
the comparatively low temperature of 1 250°𝐹. It is nonmagnetic and is an excellent conductor.

Issue No. 0 ET-GC05.1 Page 17 of 59

 Ethiopian Aviation Academy Revision No. 0
Aviation Maintenance Training September 2017
ET-GC05: Aircraft Materials and Hardware

Commercially pure aluminium has a tensile strength of about 13 000 𝑃𝑆𝐼, but by rolling or other
cold-working processes its strength may be approximately doubled. By alloying with other

000 𝑃𝑆𝐼 or to within the strength range of structural steel.

metals, or by using heat-treating processes, the tensile strength may be raised to as high as 65

Aluminium alloys, although strong, are easily worked because they are malleable and ductile.
They may be rolled into sheets as thin as 0.0017 inch or drawn into wire 0.004 inch in diameter.
Most aluminium alloy sheet stock used in aircraft construction ranges from 0.016 to 0.096 inch in
thickness; however, some of the larger aircraft use sheet stock which may be as thick as 0.356
inch.
The various types of aluminium may be divided into two general classes:
1. The casting alloys (those suitable for casting in sand, permanent mould, or die castings), and

2. The wrought alloys (those which may be shaped by rolling, drawing, or forging).

Of these two, the wrought alloys are the most widely used in aircraft construction, being used for
stringers, bulkheads, skin, rivets, and extruded sections.

Aluminium casting alloys are divided into two basic groups. In one, the physical properties of the
alloys are determined by the alloying elements and cannot be are determined by the alloying
elements and cannot be changed after the metal is cast. In the other, the alloying elements
make it possible to heat treat the casting to produce the desired physical properties.

The properties of aluminum can be drastically improved by alloying it with other elements.
Although older national specifications exist, aluminum and its alloys are now normally
classified into eight groups, identified by a four digit series number devised by the Aluminum
Association Inc and accepted as an international standard.

The first digit indicates the principal alloying element. For example any alloy in the 2000 series
such as 2117 or 2024 has copper as its main alloying element. 7075 has zinc as its main alloy.

The second digit identifies the alloy modification. 0 indicates that the alloy is original. 1
indicates that the alloy has been modified once etc. The 3rd and 4th digits identify the specific
aluminum alloy.

In the case of 2024, the alloy consists of about 4.5% copper, 1.5% magnesium, 0.6%
manganese, with traces of other specific elements permitted, and the remainder aluminum.
Various aluminum alloys are used for aircraft fabrication:
1000 series: - Aluminum of 99 percent or higher purity has practically no application in the
aerospace industry. These alloys are characterized by excellent corrosion resistance, high
thermal and electrical conductivity, low mechanical properties, and excellent workability.
Moderate increases in strength can be obtained by strain hardening. Soft 1100 rivets are used in
non-structural applications.

2000 series: - Copper is the principal alloying element in this group. These alloys require
solution heat-treatment to obtain optimum properties; in the heat-treated condition mechanical
properties are similar to, and sometimes exceed, those of mild steel. In some instances artificial
aging is employed to further increase the mechanical properties. This treatment materially
increases yield strength. These alloys in the form of sheet are usually clad with a high-purity

Issue No. 0 ET-GC05.1 Page 18 of 59

 Ethiopian Aviation Academy Revision No. 0
Aviation Maintenance Training September 2017
ET-GC05: Aircraft Materials and Hardware

alloy. Alloy 2024 is perhaps the best known and most widely used aircraft alloy. Most aircraft
rivets are of alloy 2117.

3000 series: - Manganese is the major alloying element of alloys in this group, which are
generally non-heat treatable. One of these is 3003, which has limited use as a general-purpose
alloy for moderate-strength applications requiring good workability, such as cowlings and non-
structural parts. Alloy 3003 is easy to weld.

4000 series: - This alloy series is seldom used in the aerospace industry.

5000 series: - Magnesium is one of the most effective and widely used alloying elements for
aluminum. When it is used as the major alloying element, or with manganese, the result is a
moderate to high strength non-heat treatable alloy. Alloys in this series possess good welding
characteristics and good resistance to Corrosion in various atmospheres. It is widely used for the
fabrication of tanks and fluid lines.

6000 series: - Alloys in this group contain silicon and magnesium in approximate proportions to
form rnagnesiurn silicide, thus making them heat treatable. The major alloy in this series is 6061,
one of the most versatile of the heat-treatable alloys. Though less strong than most of the 2000
or 7000 alloys, the magnesium-silicon (or magnesium-silicide) alloys possess good formability
and corrosion resistance, with medium strength.

7000 series Zinc is the major alloying element in this group, and when coupled with a smaller
percentage of magnesium results in heat treatable alloys of very high strength. Usually other
elements, such as copper and chromium, are also added in small quantities. The outstanding
member of this group is 7075, which is among the highest strength alloys available and is used
in airframe structures for highly stressed parts.

8000 series of this group the Aluminum-Lithium alloys are the most important for the aviation
industry. Having a low density, lithium reduces the weight of the alloy while offering strength
comparable to the 7000 series and competes with carbon composite material. Its development
problems and high cost have so far prevented its wide spread use in commercial aviation.
Other terms which may be encountered include;

Issue No. 0 ET-GC05.1 Page 19 of 59

 Ethiopian Aviation Academy Revision No. 0
Aviation Maintenance Training September 2017
ET-GC05: Aircraft Materials and Hardware

Table 1.3 common aluminum alloys

b. Magnesium Alloys

Magnesium is difficult to obtain from its ore, and is now normally extracted from sea water or
deep well brine by electrolysis.

It is the lightest engineering metal in general use, having a relative density of 1.7 and a weight
only 66% that of aluminum. Silvery-white pure magnesium is a fairly weak metal but alloying
with small amounts of aluminum, zinc, manganese and zirconium will increase its strength.
Although weaker than aluminum alloys, their lower densities often result in magnesium alloys
having a better strength to weight ratio.

Magnesium has an affinity for oxygen and will ignite and burn with a fierce white flame if
overheated. Its high conductivity prevents large sections from overheating, but when molten
(650°C) or in the form of fine dust or chips it burns readily. Machining processes must,
therefore, be performed very carefully. Casting is also difficult and dangerous. The metal is
melted under a flux to exclude atmospheric oxygen and, when poured, is dusted with sulphur
powder which burns on contact producing sulphur dioxide to blanket the metal until it has
cooled. Magnesium fires should be fought with dry powder extinguishing as water and foam
will intensify combustion and may cause explosions.

Without protection magnesium alloy corrodes easily, but chemical surface treatments and
coating processes give it good protection from corrosion by excluding oxygen. Use of

Issue No. 0 ET-GC05.1 Page 20 of 59

 Ethiopian Aviation Academy Revision No. 0
Aviation Maintenance Training September 2017
ET-GC05: Aircraft Materials and Hardware

compatible bolts, nuts, rivets etc. is also important in combating dissimilar metal corrosion.
Most of the alloys can be annealed, solution treated precipitation hardened in a similar way to
that used for aluminum alloys.

Magnesium alloys have been used to make aircraft wheels, piston engine crankcases, turbine
engine compressor casings, gearboxes, valve bodies etc. Magnesium alloy sheet is used in the
structure of some aircraft and helicopters where weight saving is particularly important.

American magnesium alloys are identified by a series of letters and numbers. The first letter or
letters identify the main alloying elements. The middle digits identify the percentage of each
of the identified elements. The last letter and number indicate the heat treatment of the alloy.

Example: AZ31A - T4

AZ The main alloying elements are aluminum and zinc.

31 This is 3% aluminum and 1% zinc.
A Indicates that the alloy is original.
T4 The alloy has been solution heat treated

c. Nickel Alloy, Copper Alloy & Titanium

Nickel and Nickel Alloys

There are basically two nickel alloys used in aircraft. They are Monel and Inconel. Monel contains
about 68 percent nickel and 29 percent copper, plus small amounts of iron and manganese.
Nickel alloys can be welded or easily machined. Some of the nickel Monel, especially the nickel
Monels containing small amounts of aluminum, are heat-treatable to similar tensile strengths of
steel. Nickel Monel is used in gears and parts that require high strength and toughness, such as
exhaust systems that require high strength and corrosion resistance at elevated temperatures.

Inconel alloys of nickel produce a high strength, high temperature alloy containing approximately
80 percent nickel, 14 percent chromium, and small amounts of iron and other elements. The
nickel Inconel alloys are frequently used in turbine engines because of their ability to maintain
their strength and corrosion resistance under extremely high temperature conditions.

Inconel and stainless steel are similar in appearance and are frequently found in the same areas
of the engine. Sometimes it is important to identify the difference between the metal samples. A
common test is to apply one drop of cupric chloride and hydrochloric acid solution to the
unknown metal and allow it to remain for 2 minutes. At the end of the soak period, a shiny spot
indicates the material is nickel Inconel, and a copper colored spot indicates stainless steel.

Copper and Copper Alloys

Copper is one of the most widely distributed metals. It is the only reddish colored metal and is
second only to silver in electrical conductivity. Its use as a structural material is limited because
of its great weight. However, some of its outstanding characteristics, such as its high electrical
and heat conductivity, in many cases overbalance the weight factor.

Issue No. 0 ET-GC05.1 Page 21 of 59

 Ethiopian Aviation Academy Revision No. 0
Aviation Maintenance Training September 2017
ET-GC05: Aircraft Materials and Hardware

Because it is very malleable and ductile, copper is ideal for making wire. It is corroded by salt
water but is not affected by fresh water. The ultimate tensile strength of copper varies greatly.
For cast copper, the tensile strength is about 25,000 psi, and when cold rolled or cold drawn its
tensile strength increases to a range of 40,000 to 67,000 psi.

In aircraft, copper is used primarily in the electrical system for bus bars, bonding, and as
lockwire.

Beryllium copper is one of the most successful of all the copper base alloys. It is a recently
developed alloy containing about 97 percent copper, 2 percent beryllium, and sufficient nickel to
increase the percentage of elongation. The most valuable feature of this metal is that the
physical properties can be greatly stepped up by heat treatment, the tensile strength rising from
70,000 psi in the annealed state to 200,000 psi in the heat-treated state. The resistance of
beryllium copper to fatigue and wear makes it suitable for diaphragms, precision bearings and
bushings, ball cages, and spring washers.

Brass is a copper alloy containing zinc and small amounts of aluminum, iron, lead, manganese,
magnesium, nickel, phosphorous, and tin. Brass with a zinc content of 30 to 35 percent is very
ductile, but that containing 45 percent has relatively high strength.

Muntz metal is a brass composed of 60 percent copper and 40 percent zinc. It has excellent
corrosion resistant qualities in salt water. Its strength can be increased by heat treatment. As
cast, this metal has an ultimate tensile strength of 50,000 psi, and it can be elongated 18
percent. It is used in making bolts and nuts, as well as parts that come in contact with salt water.

Red brass, sometimes termed “bronze” because of its tin content, is used in fuel and oil line
fittings. This metal has good casting and finishing properties and machines freely.

Bronzes are copper alloys containing tin. The true bronzes have up to 25 percent tin, but those
with less than 11 percent are most useful, especially for such items as tube fittings in aircraft.

Among the copper alloys are the copper aluminum alloys, of which the aluminum bronzes rank
very high in aircraft usage. They would find greater usefulness in structures if it were not for
their strength to weight ratio as compared with alloy steels. Wrought aluminum bronzes are
almost as strong and ductile as medium carbon steel, and they possess a high degree of
resistance to corrosion by air, salt water, and chemicals. They are readily forged, hot or cold
rolled, and many react to heat treatment.

These copper base alloys contain up to 16 percent of aluminum (usually 5 to 11 percent), to

which other metals, such as iron, nickel, or manganese, may be added. Aluminum bronzes have
good tearing qualities, great strength, hardness, and resistance to both shock and fatigue.
Because of these properties, they are used for diaphragms, gears, and pumps. Aluminum
bronzes are available in rods, bars, plates, sheets, strips, and forgings.

Cast aluminum bronzes, using about 89 percent copper, 9 percent aluminum, and 2 percent of
other elements, have high strength combined with ductility, and are resistant to corrosion,
shock, and fatigue. Because of these properties, cast aluminum bronze is used in bearings and
pump parts. These alloys are useful in areas exposed to salt water and corrosive gases.

Issue No. 0 ET-GC05.1 Page 22 of 59

 Ethiopian Aviation Academy Revision No. 0
Aviation Maintenance Training September 2017
ET-GC05: Aircraft Materials and Hardware

Manganese bronze is an exceptionally high strength, tough, corrosion resistant copper zinc alloy
containing aluminum, manganese, iron and, occasionally, nickel or tin. This metal can be formed,
extruded, drawn, or rolled to any desired shape. In rod form, it is generally used for machined
parts, for aircraft landing gears and brackets.

Silicon bronze is a more recent development composed of about 95 percent copper, 3 percent
silicon, and 2 percent manganese, zinc, iron, tin, and aluminum. Although not a bronze in the
true sense because of its small tin content, silicon bronze has high strength and great corrosion
resistance.

Titanium

Titanium is a greyish white metal having a high strength to weight ratio. It has a relative density
of 4.5, making it 60% heavier than aluminum, but twice as strong, and 45% lighter than steel but
equal in strength. Titanium also falls between Aluminum and Stainless Steel in terms of
elasticity, and elevated temperature strength.

Titanium has excellent corrosion resistance properties due to the oxide film which forms. It is not
normally susceptible to stress, fatigue, intergranular or galvanic corrosion, pitting or localized
attack. Under certain circumstances it will burn in air, so to prevent its reaction with oxygen or
nitrogen it may be treated with chlorine gas to form a coating of titanium dioxide.

Commercially pure titanium and some of its alloys are non-heat treatable and can be annealed
but not hardened or strengthened. These are usually hot formed or rolled and work hardens.
When suitably alloyed, heat treatable forms can be produced which can be both annealed and
hardened. These are softer and more ductile for cold working until hardened.

The normal alloying elements include aluminum, chromium, iron, manganese, molybdenum and
vanadium.

Titanium and its alloys are classed as A (alpha), B (beta) and C (combined) depending on their
crystalline form:

 A - is weldable, tough, strong both hot and cold and resistant to oxidization.
 B - Has excellent bend ductility, strong both hot and cold but vulnerable to contamination.
 C - Combined alpha and beta with compromised performance. Strong cold and warm but
weak hot, excellent forgeability, good bendability, moderate contamination resistance.

The melting point of titanium is 1668°C, and it has low thermal conductivity and a low coefficient
of expansion. Its high temperature properties are, however, disappointing. Ultimate yield
strength falls rapidly above 425°C. And atmospheric oxygen and nitrogen absorption above
540°C makes the metal brittle and worthless after long exposure. It is useful for short duration,
high temperature applications where strength is not important such as aircraft fire walls
where it can withstand brief exposure at 1650°C.

Special care is required when machining titanium due to its extreme work hardening properties.
For example, center drilling should be used prior to drilling, as center punching would harden the
metal, causing difficulty in starting the drill.

Issue No. 0 ET-GC05.1 Page 23 of 59

 Ethiopian Aviation Academy Revision No. 0
Aviation Maintenance Training September 2017
ET-GC05: Aircraft Materials and Hardware

Fine titanium swarf or powder, even when moist, is a possible fire risk. Piles of fine titanium
swart or dust must not be allowed to accumulate around machines. A fire can be extinguished
with dry powder. Water must not be used.

Cadmium coated fasteners must not be used with titanium as, when stressed, cadmium atoms
will migrate into the titanium causing localized embrittlement and cracking. Chlorinated hydro
carbons such as trichloroethylene cleaning fluids will cause hydrogen embrittlement as will
phosphate ester hydraulic fluids (e.g. Skydrol) at elevated temperatures.

Titanium specification is described by a number of systems.

The American A-55 is an example of commercially pure titanium; it has yield strength of 55 to 80
ksi and is a general-purpose grade for moderate to severe forming. It is sometimes used for non-
structural aircraft parts and for all types of corrosion resistant applications, such as tubing.

Type A-70 titanium is closely related to type A-55, but has yield strength of 70 to 95 ksi. It is
used where higher strength is required, and it is specified for many moderately stressed aircraft
parts. For many corrosion applications, it is used interchangeably with type A-55. Type A-55
and type A-70 are weldable.

One of the widely used titanium-base alloys is C-110M. It is used for primary structural members
and aircraft skin, has 110 ksi minimum yield strength, and contains 8 percent manganese.

Type A-11OAT is a titanium alloy that contains 5 percent aluminum and 2.5 percent tin. It also
has high minimum yield strength at elevated temperatures with the excellent welding
characteristics inherent in alpha type titanium alloys.

Titanium and its alloys are used to make corrosion resistant, high strength bolts and fasteners,
compressor discs and blades for gas turbine engines, fire walls, hot air pipes, hydraulic pipes and
structural parts which require high strength or operate at high temperatures. It is also used to
skin high performance aircraft where skin friction prevents the use of aluminum.

1.2.2 Heat Treatment of Non-Ferrous Materials

There are two types of heat treatments applicable to aluminum alloys. One is called solution heat
treatment, and the other is known as precipitation heat treatments. Some alloys, such as 2017
and 2024, develop their full properties as a result of solution heat treatment followed by about 4
days of aging at room temperature. Other alloys, such as 2014 and 7075, require both heat
treatments.

Alloys which require precipitation heat treatment (artificial aging) to develop their full strength
also age to a limited extent at room temperature; the rate and amount of strengthening depends
upon the alloys. Some reach their maximum natural or room-temperature aging strength in a few
days, and are designated as - T4 or -T3 temper. Others continue to age appreciably over a long
period of time. Because of this natural aging, the -W designation is specified only when the
period of aging is indicated, for example, 7075-W (½ hours). Thus, there is considerable
difference in the mechanical and physical properties of freshly quenched (-W) material and
material that is in the -T3 or -T4 temper.

The hardening of an aluminum alloy by heat treatment consists of four distinct steps:

Issue No. 0 ET-GC05.1 Page 24 of 59

 Ethiopian Aviation Academy Revision No. 0
Aviation Maintenance Training September 2017
ET-GC05: Aircraft Materials and Hardware

1. Heating to a predetermined temperature.

2. Soaking at temperature for a specified length of time.
3. Rapidly quenching to a relatively low temperature.
4. Aging or precipitation hardening either spontaneously at room temperature, or as a result of a
low-temperature thermal treatment.

The first three steps above are known as solution heat treatment, although it has become
common practice to use the shorter term, “heat treatment”. Room-temperature hardening is
known as natural ageing, while hardening done at moderate temperatures is called artificial
aging, or precipitation heat treatment.

Solution Heat Treatment

Temperature
The temperatures used for solution heat treatment vary with different alloys and range from
8250F. to 9800F. As a rule, they must be controlled within a very narrow range (plus or minus
100) to obtain specified properties.

If the temperature is too low, maximum strength will not be obtained. When excessive
temperatures are used, there is danger of melting the low-melting constituents of some alloys
with consequent lowering of the physical properties of the alloy. Even if melting does not occur,
the use of higher -than- recommended temperatures promotes discoloration and increases
quenching strains.

Time at Temperature
The time at temperature, referred to as soaking time, is measured from the time the coldest
metal reaches the minimum limit of the desired temperature range. The soaking time varies,
depending upon the alloy and thickness, from 10 minutes for thin sheets to approximately 12
hours for heavy forgings. For the heavy sections, the nominal soaking time is approximately 1
hours for each inch of cross-sectional thickness.

The soaking time is chosen so that it will be the minimum necessity to develop the required
physical properties. The effect of an abbreviated soaking time is obvious. An excessive soaking
period aggravates high-temperature oxidation.

With clad material, prolonged heating results in excessive diffusion of copper and other soluable
constituents into the protective cladding and may defeat the purpose of cladding.

Quenching

After the soluable constituents are in solid solution, the materials quenched to prevent or retard
immediate reprecipitation. Three distinct quenching methods are employed .The one to be used
in any particular instance depends upon the part, the alloy, and the properties desired.

Issue No. 0 ET-GC05.1 Page 25 of 59

 Ethiopian Aviation Academy Revision No. 0
Aviation Maintenance Training September 2017
ET-GC05: Aircraft Materials and Hardware

1.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite & Non-Metallic

1.3.1 Composite and Non-Metallic (other than Wood and Fabric)

Composite materials are not as new as most people think. Composite materials and bonded
structures have been in use for many years. Adobe bricks are appropriately considered
composite materials because they are made from a mixture of straw and mud bonded together.
Reinforced concrete used in driveways and roads is a composite material because it is made
from a combination of cement and reinforcing rods.

A Composite is a combination of two or more macro constituents which are different in

composition or form. Unlike metal alloys, which are homogeneous, the component parts of a
composite retain their identities. Normally, the components can be physically identified after
assembly and continue to exhibit an interface between themselves.

An example of a material in common use that is not a composite by definition is a two-part-

mixture epoxy adhesive. When the two parts are mixed together, they form a third material that
becomes a very tough, useful adhesive. Each individual part can no longer be identified. The
previous examples of the adobe bricks and the reinforced concrete are composites because the
individual components can still be identified after compilation into a new material.

a. Characteristics and Properties

Composite structures are those aircraft components that are manufactured using fibrous
materials combined with a specially formulated medium called a matrix. The matrix supports the
fibres, as shown in figure 1.10. The original composite materials used in aircraft components
were limited to fibreglass fibres combined with thermoset polyester resins as the matrix and
were not used in critical applications. A thermoset resin is a type of resin that, once cured,
cannot return to the uncured, or soft, state.

Issue No. 0 ET-GC05.1 Page 26 of 59

 Ethiopian Aviation Academy Revision No. 0
Aviation Maintenance Training September 2017
ET-GC05: Aircraft Materials and Hardware

Improved thermostat adhesives, such as epoxies and vinyl-ester resins, bismaleimides, and
thermoplastic adhesive, such as poly -ether-ether-keytones (PEEK), as well as new fiber-
reinforcement materials have been developed for resins may be repeatedly softened with heat,
even after they are originally cured.

Both thermosetting resins and thermoplastics increase the workability of a material. In addition,
thermosetting resins may be added to the material before the component-fabrication process
begins. When a matrix is added to the fibrous material as part of a material’s manufacturing
material is commonly called pre-preg.

The most critical properties of a composite, which are controlled by the direction of the
reinforcement fibers and the ability of the matrix to transfer loads from one fiber to another, are
called transverse properties. The load-carrying properties of a fibrous composite are greatest
when the load applied runs in the same direction as the fibers. Loads that do not run parallel to
the reinforcement fibers must, at least in part, be transferred through the matrix, which typically
has the lowest load-carrying capability. Therefore, to a point, the greater the ratio of
reinforcement fibers to matrix, the greater the strength of the composite.

Figure 1.10

Kevlar, a Du Pont trade name for aramid, carbon fiber, commonly referred to as graphite (even
though it is not a mined material), boron, tungsten, quartz, silicon carbide, ceramics, and
SPECTRA, a trade name of Allied Signal Corporation, are commonly used composite materials.
Collectively they are referred to as advanced composite materials.

Issue No. 0 ET-GC05.1 Page 27 of 59

 Ethiopian Aviation Academy Revision No. 0
Aviation Maintenance Training September 2017
ET-GC05: Aircraft Materials and Hardware

Bonded and composite structures can be found in a great many parts of today’s aircraft.
Landing-gear doors, flaps, vertical and horizontal tail structures, propellers, internal turbine
engine parts, helicopter rotor blades, and flight-control surfaces are just a few places where
these structures are found. The advantages of the high material strength-to-weight ratio coupled
with corrosion and fatigue resistance frequently makes fibrous reinforced composite materials
the first choice of aircraft designers and manufacturers.

When compared to conventional sheet-metal structures, composites have a low sensitivity to

sonic vibrations (good vibration resistance). There are also lower assembly costs and parts in a
particular assembly. In addition, there are other advantages such as reduced weight, high
corrosion resistance, high deterioration resistance, and the capability of achieving a smooth
surface, thereby reducing aerodynamic and parasitic drag.

b. Types and Identification of Composite

Composites can be made with or without an inner core of material. Solid laminates are
constructed of three or more layers of resin impregnated cloths “wet laminated” together to
form a solid sheet facing or molded shape. Laminated structure with a core center is called a
sandwich structure. Laminate construction is strong and stiff, but heavy. The sandwich laminate
is equal in strength, and its weight is much less; less weight is very important to aerospace
products.

The core of a laminate can be made from nearly anything. The decision is normally based on use,
strength, and fabricating methods to be used.

Various types of cores for laminated structures include rigid foam, wood, metal, or the aerospace
preference of honeycomb made from paper, Nomex, carbon, fiberglass or metal. A sandwich
assembly is made by taking a high-density laminate or solid face and sandwiching a core in the
middle. The selection of materials for the face is decided by the design engineer, depending on
the intended application of the part. It is important to follow manufacturers’ maintenance manual
specific instructions regarding testing and repair procedures as they apply to a particular
aircraft.

Issue No. 0 ET-GC05.1 Page 28 of 59

 Ethiopian Aviation Academy Revision No. 0
Aviation Maintenance Training September 2017
ET-GC05: Aircraft Materials and Hardware

Figure 1.11 Solid laminate composite structure

Figure 1.13 sandwich composite structure

c. Types and Identification of Non-Metallic Materials other than Wood

Plastics

Transparent plastic materials used in aircraft canopies, windshields, windows and other similar
transparent enclosures may be divided into two major classes or groups. These plastics are
classified according to their reaction to heat. The two classes are: thermoplastic and
thermosetting.

Thermoplastic materials will soften when heated and harden when cooled. These materials can
be heated until soft, and then formed into the desired shape. When cooled, they will retain this
shape. The same piece of plastic can be reheated and reshaped any number of times without
changing the chemical composition of the materials.

Thermosetting plastics harden upon heating, and reheating has no softening effect. These
plastics cannot be reshaped once being fully cured by the application of heat.

In addition to the above classes, transparent plastics are manufactured in two forms: monolithic
(solid) and laminated. Laminated transparent plastics are made from transparent plastic face
sheets bonded by an inner layer material, usually polyvinyl butyryl. Because of its shatter
resistant qualities, laminated plastic is superior to solid plastics and is used in many pressurized
aircraft.

Rubber

Rubber is used to prevent the entrance of dirt, water, or air, and to prevent the loss of fluids,
gases, or air. It is also used to absorb vibration, reduce noise, and cushion impact loads. The
term “rubber” is as all inclusive as the term “metal.” It is used to include not only natural rubber,
but all synthetic and silicone rubbers.

Issue No. 0 ET-GC05.1 Page 29 of 59

 Ethiopian Aviation Academy Revision No. 0
Aviation Maintenance Training September 2017
ET-GC05: Aircraft Materials and Hardware

Natural Rubber

Natural rubber has better processing and physical properties than synthetic or silicone rubber.
These properties include: flexibility, elasticity, tensile strength, tear strength, and low heat
buildup due to flexing (hysteresis). Natural rubber is a general purpose product; however, its
suitability for aircraft use is somewhat limited because of its inferior resistance to most
influences that cause deterioration. Although it provides an excellent seal for many applications,
it swells and often softens in all aircraft fuels and in many solvents (naphthas, and so forth).
Natural rubber deteriorates more rapidly than synthetic rubber. It is used as a sealing material
for water/methanol systems.

Synthetic Rubber

Synthetic rubber is available in several types, each of which is compounded of different materials
to give the desired properties. The most widely used are the butyls, Bunas, and neoprene.

d. Sealants & Bonding Agents

Sealants

It is of the utmost importance that the pressure cabin of an aircraft be capable of sustaining the
required differential pressure at high altitude, both for the safety of the passengers and crew and
for the operational efficiency of the aircraft. To this end it is essential that all sources or potential
sources of air leakage from the cabin be carefully sealed in accordance with the process
specification laid down by the manufacturers. Similarly, integral fuel tanks must be satisfactorily
sealed against leakage.

Like Jointing Compounds, sealants also prevent the accumulation of moisture between the
elements of a structure and the risk of corrosion caused by this. In critical areas fasteners are
installed with wet sealant on their shanks and the internal side of each fastener is encapsulated
with sealant.

There are a number of proprietary sealants available in different grades and types and from
different manufacturers. It is important that only the particular sealant specified for a job is used.

Before any sealant is applied it is important to ensure that the surfaces to which it is to be
applied are clean and free from swarf and burrs. The sealant can be used in some cases on
faying surfaces, and in other cases to form beads and fillets over joints. Some are ready for use
in one container, others need mixing immediately before use and may be in two or three parts,
because of these differences, it is important that, after having ascertained the correct sealant
laid down for the task from the relevant; drawing or maintenance/overhaul manual, the process
specification be checked to ensure the correct method of mixing and application.

The sealants are identified by their trade name, manufacturers’ part number and specification
number. The specification number is most important, since the product may be supplied by a
number of manufacturers.

Issue No. 0 ET-GC05.1 Page 30 of 59

 Ethiopian Aviation Academy Revision No. 0
Aviation Maintenance Training September 2017
ET-GC05: Aircraft Materials and Hardware

Typical of the multi part sealants used is PR 1440. This two part poly-sulphide compound is
comprised of a base and an accelerator and is used for sealing integral fuel tanks, pressurized
cabins, and for faying surfaces. It is resistant to aircraft fuels, lubricating oils, and Skydrol
Hydraulic Fluid.

PR 1440 is the Pro-Seal part number but the material satisfies all or part of the following
specifications; Z-16.134, MIL-S-8802 Class A (USA), BMS 5-26 Type III (Boeing), 09-001C (Airbus),
ASNA 4157 (France) DTD 900 (UK) and others which will be quoted by the airframe or equipment
manufacturer.

PR 1440 is available as Type A - 'Brush' type sealant which is fairly fluid for brush application to
faying surfaces, and as a thicker Type B - 'Non-brush' type for fillet seals and encapsulation. It
may also be available with different application times, typically 'half hour' and 'two hour' to allow
flexibility of use.

It may be supplied in a pot with a separate container of accelerator attached, or as a 'Semkit'

cartridge with integral accelerator and mixing facility. If in pot form, it is important to ensure the
correct accelerator is used (usually identified as part number plus Part A and Part 8) and that all
of it is added to the base and mixed thoroughly using a spatula. In the Semkit a dash rod is
supplied and is used to inject the accelerator into the base as the plunger containing it is
withdrawn. The plunger is then pushed in and out and twisted to mix the two parts. In both cases
it is important that the sealant is thoroughly mixed and of uniform color. Failure to add the
correct amount of accelerator or to mix completely will a prevent proper cure and reduce the
effectiveness of the sealant.

Sealant supplied in a can may be applied by brush or spatula, depending on type. Semkit
cartridges can be inserted into a sealant gun for controlled application.

Issue No. 0 ET-GC05.1 Page 31 of 59

 Ethiopian Aviation Academy Revision No. 0
Aviation Maintenance Training September 2017
ET-GC05: Aircraft Materials and Hardware

Figure 1.14 Types of sealant supply

Sealant related terms

Application Time: This is the time that the mixed sealant remains suitable for application.

Tack Free Time: The length of time it takes for the sealant to be no longer tacky or sticky.

Curing Time: When the accelerator is mixed into the poly-sulphide, a chemical cure takes place.
When the sealants are fully hardened it is said to be 'cured'. Time for curing depends on
temperature and relative humidity. The figures in the table are for standard conditions of 25°C
(77°F) and 50% relative humidity.

Table 1.4

Fast curing sealants are available for line repairs, but these do not usually achieve the full
properties of the standard sealants and may have to be replaced at the next hangar input.

Assembly Time: All riveting/fastening must be completed within this time.

Bonding agents

Adhesives are used for constructional tasks varying from aircraft fuselages components and
flight control surfaces, to propellers and helicopter rotor blades.

The adhesive bond may be achieved mechanically or chemically, but in practice, most adhesives
use both methods of bonding to form a joint.

Mechanical: Here the adhesive penetrates into the surface and forms a mechanical lock, by
keying into surface irregularities. It also forms re-entrants, where the adhesive penetrates behind
parts of the structure, and becomes an integral part of the component to be joined.

Chemical: in this method of bonding, the adhesive is spread over the surfaces to be joined and
forms a chemical bond with the surface, it's molecules diffusing into the substrate.

Issue No. 0 ET-GC05.1 Page 32 of 59

 Ethiopian Aviation Academy Revision No. 0
Aviation Maintenance Training September 2017
ET-GC05: Aircraft Materials and Hardware

Figure 1.15 Types of bond

Adhesive joints are liable to experience four main types of stress; Tensile, Shear, Cleavage and
Peel. Tensile forces pull the bonded joint directly apart, whilst shear forces pull the upper and
lower bonded plates in opposite directions, but in the same plane. Cleavage happens when
separation of the plates is attempted at one end of the joint only. Peel is very similar to cleavage
but the force is applied to one bonded plate only

Joint strength is at a maximum when the adhesive is in shear. Adhesives should not be used if
significant stresses are to be carried in tension or peel. The lap joint is generally favored, as the
strength of the adhesive bond is proportional to the area bonded.

Issue No. 0 ET-GC05.1 Page 33 of 59

 Ethiopian Aviation Academy Revision No. 0
Aviation Maintenance Training September 2017
ET-GC05: Aircraft Materials and Hardware

Figure 1.16 Stresses on a bonded joint

Types of adhesive

There are many types and grades of adhesives, and the correct type for a particular application
will be specified in the relevant repair procedure. Great care must be taken to ensure the correct
adhesive type is used because the consequences could be fatal.

The two major groups of adhesives are Flexible and Structural.

Flexible adhesives are used when some flexing, or slight relative movement of the joint, is
essential and where high load-carrying properties are not paramount. In general, flexible
adhesives are based on flexible plastics or elastomers. They are used for internal decorative trim
etc. Examples include Evostik and Tretobond.

Structural adhesives are primarily aimed at applications where high loads must be carried
without excessive creep. They are relatively rigid without being excessively hard or brittle.
Structural adhesives are based on resins, (the most common ones being epoxy or polyester).
Examples include Scotch-Weld and Hysol products

Another group of adhesives is the two-polymer type, which has a reasonably even balance of
resin and elastomer, which results in a flexible and fairly strong adhesive.

Adhesive Forms

Issue No. 0 ET-GC05.1 Page 34 of 59

 Ethiopian Aviation Academy Revision No. 0
Aviation Maintenance Training September 2017
ET-GC05: Aircraft Materials and Hardware

Adhesives can be obtained in a variety of forms, the most common being liquid, paste and film.
Others available are those such as the special foaming types, which are used to splice
honeycomb sections together. Some require heat for curing, whilst others can be cured at room
temperature. Some require the addition of a catalyst or hardener.

1.3.2 Wooden Structures

Wood is a highly desirable material for aircraft construction. It is lightweight, strong, and has
long life when it is properly preserved. It was used extensively in the early days of aircraft
construction, but is out of favor for modern commercial aircraft because it does not lend itself to
automated high-volume production. This role has been filled by all-metal aircraft, which is
currently being challenged by composite structures.

a. Characteristics & Properties

There are two basic classifications of wood, hardwood and softwood. These classifications are not
based on the actual hardness of the wood, but on its cell structure. Hardwoods come from
deciduous trees whose leaves fall each year. The wood has visible pores and is usually (but not
always) heavier and denser than softwoods. Softwoods come from evergreen trees that have
needles and cones and are typified by their fiber-like cells. The properties of the various woods
that are used in aircraft construction are given in Figure 1.10.

Table 1.5 Properties of aircraft structural wood

Issue No. 0 ET-GC05.1 Page 35 of 59

 Ethiopian Aviation Academy Revision No. 0
Aviation Maintenance Training September 2017
ET-GC05: Aircraft Materials and Hardware

b. Types of Wood

Solid wood is often used for aircraft wing spars, but the difficulty in getting a single piece of wood
large enough for a spar that meets all of the specifications for aircraft structural wood often
makes laminated spars less expensive and thus preferable to solid spars.

Laminated wood is made of strips of wood glued together in such a way that the grain of all
strips run in the same direction. Wing spars made of strips of Sitka spruce glued together are
acceptable as a direct replacement for solid spars, provided both spars are of the same high-
quality material.

Wooden propellers are made of laminations of birch glued together so that the propeller has
more uniformity and strength than it would have if it were made of a single piece of birch.

Plywood is made of sheets of wood veneer glued together with the grains of adjacent layers
crossing each other at either 450 or 900 . Aircraft plywood with surface plies of mahogany, birch,
or spruce often has a core of poplar or basswood to provide the strongest glue bond between the
plies. Plywood up through 3/16 inch in thickness normally has three plies, and 1f/4 inch or thicker
plywood has five plies.

c. Glue Used In Aeroplanes

Wood aircraft depend entirely on glued joints for their strength. Tiny nails are often used in joints
securing a plywood gusset to a wing rib cap strip and cross member, but the nails do not supply
any strength to the joint; they only provide the clamping pressure needed to allow the glued joint
to develop its maximum strength.

Glued joints should carry the full strength of the wood across the joint under all stress directions
to which the wood is subjected. To accomplish this, the glue must meet the specifications, gluing
procedures and conditions found in Chapter I of Advisory Circular 43.13-1B.

Today there are a number of high-strength glues on the market. Plastic resin and resorcinol are
generally FAA -approved for use on certificated airplanes. Other glues, such as epoxies, also
produce extremely strong glued joints, but they should be specifically approved by the local FAA
inspector before they are used on certificated aircraft.

d. Preservation of Wooden Structure

Decay and dry rot (caused by a certain species of fungus) are major problems associated with
wood aircraft. This fungus gets its nourishment from the cellulose of the wood and reproduces by
forming microscopic spores, or seed. These spores are carried by the air currents and when they
settle on an unprotected piece of wood in the presence of moisture, they multiply and cause the
wood to disintegrate.

The low points of the aircraft must have an adequate number of drain holes, so moisture that
accumulates inside the structure will drain out. These holes also ventilate the structure to
prevent water from condensing inside it. Decay first shows up as a discoloration of the wood,
usually black, gray, or brown. Discoloration is not always caused by decay, but you should check
any discolored area. Stick a sharp-pointed knife blade into the discolored area and pry the wood
up. If it comes up as a long splinter, the wood is good, and no decay is present. But if it comes up

Issue No. 0 ET-GC05.1 Page 36 of 59

 Ethiopian Aviation Academy Revision No. 0
Aviation Maintenance Training September 2017
ET-GC05: Aircraft Materials and Hardware

as a chunk about the size of the knife blade tip or crumbles when disturbed by the knife, the
wood has decayed and must be replaced.

You can protect aircraft structure against decay by keeping air and moisture from the wood.
Wood whose moisture content is kept below about 20% will not decay.

After you've completed all of the cutting, drilling, and gluing in an aircraft repair, saturate the
wood with a wood preservative (typically a non-oil-base vehicle with copper naphthonate or
pentachlorophenol). After the preservative is dry, give the structure several coats of varnish to
seal the surface.

e. Types of Defects in Wood Material

Requirements for wood selection:

 Moisture content -12%

 Minimum annual rings per inch-6
 Maximum slope of the grain -1 inch in 15 inches

Defects permitted:

Cross grain - Spiral grain, diagonal grain, or a combination of the two is acceptable providing the
grain does not diverge from the longitudinal more than 1 in 15. A check of all four faces of the
board is necessary to determine the amount of divergence. The direction of free-flowing ink will
frequently assist in determining grain direction.

Wavy, curly and interlocked grain - Acceptable, if local irregularities do not exceed limitations
specified for spiral and directional grain.

Knots - Sound hard knots up to 3fs inch in maximum diameter are acceptable providing:
 They are not in the projecting portions of I-beams, along the edges of rectangular or
beveled unrouted beams, or along the edges of flanges of box beams (except in low
stressed portions)
 They do not cause grain divergence at the edges of the board or in the flanges of a beam
of more than 1: 15.
 They are not in the center third of the beam and are not closer than 20 inches to another
knot or other defect (pertains to 3fs-inch

Pin knot clusters - Small clusters are acceptable providing they produce only a small effect on
grain direction.
Mineral streaks - Acceptable, providing careful inspection fails to reveal any decay.

Defects not permitted:

Cross grain- Not acceptable, except as noted above.

Wavy, curly, and interlocked grain-Not acceptable, except as noted above.
Hard knots - Not acceptable, except as noted above.
Pin knot clusters- Not acceptable if they produce large effect on grain direction.

Issue No. 0 ET-GC05.1 Page 37 of 59

 Ethiopian Aviation Academy Revision No. 0
Aviation Maintenance Training September 2017
ET-GC05: Aircraft Materials and Hardware

Spike knots-These are knots running completely through the depth of a beam, perpendicular to
the annual rings and appear most frequently in quarter sawed lumber. Reject wood containing
this defect.
Pitch pockets - Not acceptable, except as noted above.
Mineral streaks- Not acceptable if accompanied by decay.

Checks, shakes, and splits - Checks are longitudinal cracks extending, in general, across the
annual rings. Shakes are longitudinal cracks usually between two annual rings. Splits are
longitudinal cracks induced by artificially induced stress. Reject wood containing these defects.
Compression wood-This defect is very detrimental to strength and is difficult to recognize readily.
It is characterized by high specific gravity; has the appearance of an excessive growth of
summerwood; and in most species shows but little contrast in color between springwood and
summerwood. In doubtful cases, reject the material, or subject samples to a toughness machine
test to establish the quality of the wood. Reject all material containing compression wood.
Compression failures -This defect is caused from the wood being overstressed in compression
due to natural forces during the growth of the tree, felling trees on rough or irregular ground, or
rough handling of logs or lumber. Compression failures are characterized by a buckling of the
fibers that appear as streaks on the surface of the piece substantially at right angles to the grain,
and vary from pronounced failures to very fine hairlines that require close inspection to detect.
Reject wood containing obvious failures. In doubtful cases reject the wood, or make a closer
inspection in the form of microscopic examination or toughness test; the latter means being the
more reliable.

Decay- Examine all stains and discolorations carefully to determine whether or not they are
harmless, or in a stage of preliminary or advanced decay. All pieces must be free from rot, dote,
red heart, purple heart, and all other forms of decay.

Issue No. 0 ET-GC05.1 Page 38 of 59

 Ethiopian Aviation Academy Revision No. 0
Aviation Maintenance Training September 2017
ET-GC05: Aircraft Materials and Hardware

1.3.3 Fabric Covering

a. Fabric Terms

Figure 1.17 Fabric terms

 Warp—the direction along the length of fabric.

 Fill or weave—the direction across the width of the fabric.
 Count—the number of threads per inch in warp or filling.
 Ply—the number of yarns making up a thread.
 Bias—a cut, fold, or seam made diagonally to the warp or fill threads.
 Pinked edge—an edge which has been cut by machine or special pinking shears in a
continuous series of vs. to prevent raveling.
 Selvage edge—the edge of cloth, tape, or webbing woven to prevent raveling.
 Greige—condition of polyester fabric upon completion of the production process before
being heat shrunk.
 Cross coat—brushing or spraying where the second coat is applied 90° to the direction
the first coat was applied. The two coats together make a single cross coat.

b. Types of Fabrics used In Aeroplanes

Fabric-covered aircraft were at one time the most popular type, but today, all-metal construction
is standard. Aviation maintenance technicians are likely to encounter fabric covering only on

Issue No. 0 ET-GC05.1 Page 39 of 59

 Ethiopian Aviation Academy Revision No. 0
Aviation Maintenance Training September 2017
ET-GC05: Aircraft Materials and Hardware

some of the special-purpose aircraft, such as those used for agricultural applications, or when
restoring antique airplanes. Many amateur-built aircraft are fabric-covered, and the newly
introduced light-sport aircraft (LSA) category will likely bring about new FAA certificated fabric-
covered aircraft.

Organic Fabrics

Cotton and linen are two popular natural, or organic, covering fabrics. Cotton is still used, but
linen is not readily available in the United States.

For many years, mercerized long-staple Grade-A cotton was the standard covering material for
aircraft. Grade-A cotton fabric meets Aeronautical Material Specification AMS 3806 and Military
Specifications MIL-C-5646, and it is manufactured under Technical Standard Order TSO-CI5.
Grade-A fabric is approved for use on aircraft that have wing loadings greater than 9 pounds per
square foot (psf) and with never-exceed speeds (VNE) in excess of 160 miles per hour.

Inorganic Fabrics

There are two inorganic fabrics used for covering FAA-certificated aircraft; fabric made from
polyester fibers and fabric made of glass filaments.

Fabric made from polyester fibers is sold under such trade names as Ceconite®, Superflite®,
and Poly-Fiber® and is the most widely used covering material today. Polyester fibers used in
aircraft covering are heated and stretched during manufacturing. This hot stretching orients the
molecules and increases the strength and toughness of the fibers. Once the fibers are made into
threads and woven into the fabric, they will return to their original unstretched length when
reheated. Polyester used for aircraft covering is applied in its greige condition. It has not been
passed through shrinking rollers, and it still contains some sizing, which is the lubricant required
on the warp threads when the fabric is woven in the high-speed dry looms.

Fiberglass cloth is a loose weave of glass filaments treated with tinted butyrate dope to hold the
filaments together for ease of installation. Both polyester and glass fiber fabric must be installed
and finished according to the instructions in the STC that is sold with the material. Glass cloth
has been used to cover some aircraft structures because it is impervious to moisture, mildew,
chemicals, and acids. It is also fire resistant. However, it was not very popular because it added
significantly more weight than cotton and linen.

c. Approved Fabric Materials

There are a variety of approved materials used in aircraft fabric covering and repair processes. In
order for the items to legally be used, the FAA must approve the fabric, tapes, threads, cords,
glues, dopes, sealants, coatings, thinners, additives, fungicides, rejuvenators, and paints for the
manufacturer, the holder of an STC, or a field approval.

d. General Fabric Covering Process

The aircraft fabric covering process is a three-step process. First, select an approved fabric.
Second, follow the applicable STC steps to attach the fabric to the airframe and to protect it from
the elements. Third, apply the approved topcoat to give the aircraft its color scheme and final
appearance.

Issue No. 0 ET-GC05.1 Page 40 of 59

 Ethiopian Aviation Academy Revision No. 0
Aviation Maintenance Training September 2017
ET-GC05: Aircraft Materials and Hardware

Although Grade-A cotton can be used on all aircraft originally certificated to be covered with this
material, approved aircraft cotton fabric is no longer available. Additionally, due to the
shortcomings of cotton fabric coverings, most of these aircraft have been re-covered with
polyester fabric. In the rare instance the technician encounters a cotton fabric covered aircraft
that is still airworthy, inspection and repair procedures specified in AC 43.13-1, Chapter 2, Fabric
Covering, should be followed.

1.4 Corrosion (Level 1)

1.4.1 Chemical Fundamentals

Corrosion is the electrochemical deterioration of a material or its properties due to its chemical
reaction with the surrounding environment. This reaction occurs because of the tendency of
metals to return to their naturally occurring state, usually oxide or sulfide ores. For example, iron
in the presence of moisture and air will return to its natural state, iron oxide or rust. Aluminum
and magnesium form corrosion products that are white oxides or hydroxides. When a water
solution containing soluble salts is present, corrosion of many alloys can occur easily at ambient
temperatures. This type of corrosion can be effectively treated by maintenance personnel as
discussed in this manual. Corrosion can also occur in the absence of water but only at high
temperatures, such as those found in gas turbine engines. However, the most common type of
corrosion (and the one that can be most effectively treated by maintenance personnel) is
electrochemical corrosion.

Theory of Corrosion

Issue No. 0 ET-GC05.1 Page 41 of 59

 Ethiopian Aviation Academy Revision No. 0
Aviation Maintenance Training September 2017
ET-GC05: Aircraft Materials and Hardware

All metals will corrode to some extent in a natural environment. When a metal corrodes, the
atoms lose electrons and become positively charged. In solution, the positively charged metal
ions can combine with negatively charged ions to form corrosion products, such as metallic
chlorides, oxides, hydroxides, and sulfides.

Four conditions (illustrated in Figure 1.18) must exist before metal corrosion can occur.
 A metal which has a tendency to corrode must be present (the corroding metal is called
the anode);
 A dissimilar conductive material (the cathode), which has less tendency to corrode than
the anode, must be present (a dissimilar metal may be a different metal, a protected part
of the same metal, or conductive plastic);
 A conductive liquid (electrolyte) must connect the anode and cathode (so that ions can
carry electric current between them); and
 Electrical contact between the anode and cathode (usually in the form of metal-to-metal
contact) must exist so that electrons can move between the anode and the cathode.

Figure 1.18 Simplified Corrosion Cell

The elimination of any one of the four conditions will slow or stop corrosion. For example, a paint
film on a metal surface will prevent the electrolyte from connecting the anode and cathode,
thereby stopping the electric current (see Figure 1.19). A change in the electrolyte can also
affect the rate of corrosion. Two connected dissimilar metal parts placed in distilled water
corrode very slowly due to a lack of ions in solution to conduct the electric current; in sea water
the corrosion reaction is accelerated by a factor of 1000 or more (see Figure 1.20).

Issue No. 0 ET-GC05.1 Page 42 of 59

 Ethiopian Aviation Academy Revision No. 0
Aviation Maintenance Training September 2017
ET-GC05: Aircraft Materials and Hardware

Figure 1.19 Elimination of Corrosion by Application of an Organic Film to a Metal

Surface

Figure 1.20 Effect of Sea Water on Galvanic Corrosion

1.4.2 Formation by : Galvanic Action Process, Microbiological, Stress

Galvanic Corrosion

Galvanic corrosion occurs when different metals are in contact with each other in the presence of
an an electrolyte, such as sea water. It is usually recognizable by the presence of a buildup of
corrosion deposits at the joint between the metals. For example, aluminum skin panels and
stainless steel doublers, riveted together in an aircraft wing, form a galvanic couple if moisture

Issue No. 0 ET-GC05.1 Page 43 of 59

 Ethiopian Aviation Academy Revision No. 0
Aviation Maintenance Training September 2017
ET-GC05: Aircraft Materials and Hardware

and contamination are present. Figure 1.21 shows galvanic corrosion of magnesium adjacent to
steel fasteners. The potential for galvanic corrosion is greatest when the two metals are well
separated from each other in the galvanic series and are in electrical contact.

Figure 1.21 Galvanic Corrosion of Magnesium Adjacent to Steel Fastener

Microorganisms

Microbial attack includes the action of bacteria, fungi, or molds. Microorganisms are nearly
everywhere and outnumber all other types of living organisms. Those organisms causing the
greatest corrosion problems are bacteria and fungi. Damage resulting from microbial growth can
be caused by:

(1) the tendency of the growth to hold moisture, which then causes corrosion;
(2) digestion of the substrate as food for the microorganism; or
(3) corrosion of the surface beneath the growth by secreted corrosive fluids.

Modern avionic equipment, because of complexity, dense packaging, and higher sensitivity, is
more susceptible to damage from microbes than earlier systems. Condensed moisture can
provide conditions that promote the growth of molds, bacteria, and fungi. Once established,
these growths continue to absorb and hold moisture. Acid secretions from the microorganisms
are strong electrolytes. These electrolytes corrode the underlying metal. Some nonmetals
provide nutrients that can accelerate growth. The presence of bacteria and fungi can readily be
identified by damp, slimy, and bad smelling growths. These vary in color from black, bluegreen,
green, to yellow.

Stress Corrosion

Also called stress corrosion cracking (SCC). Stress corrosion (Figure 1.22) is the intergranular or
transgranular cracking of a metal caused by the combined effects of constant tensile stress
(internal or applied) and corrosion. Internal or residual stresses may be produced by welding,

Issue No. 0 ET-GC05.1 Page 44 of 59

 Ethiopian Aviation Academy Revision No. 0
Aviation Maintenance Training September 2017
ET-GC05: Aircraft Materials and Hardware

cold working, forming, and heat treatment operations during the manufacture of a part. Stresses
remain concealed in the part unless stress relief operations are used. Other hidden stresses are
induced in parts when press or shrink fits are used and when slightly mismatched parts are
clamped together with rivets and bolts. All these stresses add to those caused by applying
normal loads to parts in operation. Stress corrosion is normally localized and appears in the form
of cracks. During SCC, the metal is unattacked over most of its surface, while fine cracks
progress through the interior of the part. Cracking is generally perpendicular to the applied
stress. Metals have threshold stresses below which stress corrosion cracking will not occur. This
threshold stress varies from metal to metal, is different for different tempers of the same metal,
and is different for each of the three directions in which stress can be applied. In aircraft, high
strength steel parts (e. g. landing gear) and high strength aluminum parts are particularly
susceptible to stress corrosion.

Figure 1.22 Cracking (Typical of Stress Corrosion or

Corrosion Fatigue)

1.4.3 Types of Corrosion & Their Identification

Uniform Surface Corrosion

Uniform surface corrosion is probably the most common type of corrosion. It results from a direct
chemical attack on a metal surface that proceeds uniformly over the entire exposed surface. The
metal gradually becomes thinner and eventually fails. On a polished surface, this type of
corrosion is first seen as a general dulling or etching of the surface and, if the attack is allowed to
continue, the surface becomes rough and possibly frosted in appearance. An example is the
etching of metals by acids. The discoloration or general dulling of metal created by exposure to
elevated temperatures is not considered to be uniform surface corrosion. Coating/sealing the

Issue No. 0 ET-GC05.1 Page 45 of 59

 Ethiopian Aviation Academy Revision No. 0
Aviation Maintenance Training September 2017
ET-GC05: Aircraft Materials and Hardware

exposed surface will protect it from this type of attack. Also, corrosive elements may be removed
through air movement and drain holes.

Figure 1.23 Surface corrosion.

Galvanic Corrosion

Galvanic corrosion occurs when different metals are in contact with each other and an
electrolyte, such as sea water. It is usually recognizable by the presence of a buildup of corrosion
deposits at the joint between the metals. For example, aluminum skin panels and stainless steel
doublers, riveted together in an aircraft wing, form a galvanic couple if moisture and
contamination are present. Figure1.24 shows galvanic corrosion of magnesium adjacent to
steel fasteners. The potential for galvanic corrosion is greatest when the two metals are well
separated from each other in the galvanic series and are in electrical contact.

Figure 1.24 Galvanic Corrosion of Magnesium

Adjacent to Steel Fastener

Issue No. 0 ET-GC05.1 Page 46 of 59

 Ethiopian Aviation Academy Revision No. 0
Aviation Maintenance Training September 2017
ET-GC05: Aircraft Materials and Hardware

Table 1.6 Galvanic series of metals and alloys.

Pitting Corrosion

Pitting is a form of extremely localized attack that results in holes in the metal (see Figure
1.25). Pits can be isolated, or so close together that they look like a rough surface. Pits are often
difficult to detect because of their small size and because they may be covered with corrosion
products. Pitting is usually first noticeable as a white or gray powdery deposit, similar to dust,
which blotches the surface. When the deposit is cleaned away, tiny pits or holes can be seen in
the surface. Most pits develop and grow downward (in the direction of gravity) from a horizontal
surface. Pitting failures are commonly caused by electrolytes containing chloride or chlorine-
containing ions (such as seawater). Stainless steels are most susceptible to pitting damage,
although aluminum, magnesium, and copper are often attacked (see Figure 1.26).

Issue No. 0 ET-GC05.1 Page 47 of 59

 Ethiopian Aviation Academy Revision No. 0
Aviation Maintenance Training September 2017
ET-GC05: Aircraft Materials and Hardware

Figure 1.25 Variations in the Cross-Sectional Shape of Corrosion Pits

Figure 1.26 Pitting of an Aluminum Wing Assembly

Intergranular Corrosion

Intergranular corrosion is an attack on the grain boundaries of the metal. A highly magnified
cross section of any commercial alloy (see Figures 1.27) shows the granular structure of the
metal. It consists of quantities of individual grains, each having a clearly defined boundary, which
chemically differs from the metal within the grain. Frequently the grain boundaries are anodic
(tend to corrode more easily) to the metal within the grain. When an electrolyte is present, rapid

Issue No. 0 ET-GC05.1 Page 48 of 59

 Ethiopian Aviation Academy Revision No. 0
Aviation Maintenance Training September 2017
ET-GC05: Aircraft Materials and Hardware

selective corrosion of the grain boundaries occurs. High strength aluminum alloys, which depend
on precipitated phases of alloying elements for strength, are particularly susceptible to
intergranular attack. Figure 1.28 shows how intergranular corrosion progresses in 7075-T6
aluminum alloy adjacent to steel fasteners. In this example, the grain boundaries are anodic to
both the metal grain and the steel fastener.

Figure 1.27Cross-Section of 7075-T6 Aluminum Alloy

Figure 1.28 Intergranular Corrosion of 7075-T6 Aluminum Adjacent to Steel Fastener

Exfoliation Corrosion

Exfoliation is an advanced form of intergranular corrosion where the surface grains of a metal
are lifted up by the force of expanding corrosion products occurring at the grain boundaries. The
lifting up or swelling is visible evidence of exfoliation corrosion. Exfoliation occurs on extruded,
rolled, wrought, and forged high strength aluminum and magnesium parts. This type of corrosion
most often occurs on extruded sections of metal and is found primarily in aluminum sheet
around steel fasteners. Its prevention involves separating the aluminum and steel by a barrier,
such as zinc-chromate primer or sealant.

Issue No. 0 ET-GC05.1 Page 49 of 59

 Ethiopian Aviation Academy Revision No. 0
Aviation Maintenance Training September 2017
ET-GC05: Aircraft Materials and Hardware

Figure 1.29 Extreme Example of Exfoliation at

Edge of Sheet

Figure 1.30 Exfoliation Adjacent to Fasteners

Crevice Corrosion

Crevice corrosion is one of the most familiar types of corrosion. Field experience shows that this
type of corrosion may occur in any crevice where a stagnant solution has pooled. Crevices are
usually located at gasket surfaces, lap joints, and under bolt or rivet heads. Crevice corrosion
occurs because the environment of the local area is very different from the larger environment.
As a result, the metal surfaces, even though they may be the same metal, have different
activities, and corrosion occurs inside the crevice. This kind of corrosion can also occur when a
surface is covered by a foreign material. Methods to minimize crevice corrosion include closing
the crevice by welding, sealant, or soldering, and use of nonabsorbent gaskets (such as Teflon).

Issue No. 0 ET-GC05.1 Page 50 of 59

 Ethiopian Aviation Academy Revision No. 0
Aviation Maintenance Training September 2017
ET-GC05: Aircraft Materials and Hardware

Figure 1.31 Crevice Corrosion Mechanisms

Filiform Corrosion

Filiform corrosion is a form of crevice corrosion which occurs on metal surfaces having a organic
protective coating. It is recognized by its characteristic wormlike trace of corrosion products
beneath the coating. Filiform corrosion is unusual because it only affects surface appearance, but
does not weaken or destroy the base metal. It starts at breaks in the coating system, such as
scratches and cracks around fasteners and seams, and proceeds underneath the coating, due to
the diffusion of water vapor and oxygen from the air through the coating. Filiform corrosion can
attack steel, magnesium, and aluminum surfaces and may lead to more serious corrosion in
some locations.
Filiform corrosion can be prevented by storing equipment and aircraft in an environment with a
relative humidity below 65%, by using coating systems having a low rate of diffusion for oxygen
and water vapors, by maintaining coatings in good condition (prompt touchup around fasteners),
and applying corrosion preventive compounds (CPCs) when the coating is damaged.

Issue No. 0 ET-GC05.1 Page 51 of 59

 Ethiopian Aviation Academy Revision No. 0
Aviation Maintenance Training September 2017
ET-GC05: Aircraft Materials and Hardware

Figure 1.32 Filiform Corrosion Found Under

Paint Coating on a Magnesium Panel

Figure 1.33 Schematic of the Development of Filiform Corrosion on an Aluminum Alloy

Erosion Corrosion

Erosion corrosion is the increase in the rate of attack on a metal due to the action of a corrosive
fluid against the metal surface. Generally the movement is rapid, and wear or abrasion occurs
with the corrosion. Erosion corrosion is characterized by grooves, gullies, waves, rounded holes
and/or valleys in the metal surface. Metals that are soft (copper, lead) or metals that depend
upon the development of a protective surface film (aluminum, stainless steel) are susceptible to

Issue No. 0 ET-GC05.1 Page 52 of 59

 Ethiopian Aviation Academy Revision No. 0
Aviation Maintenance Training September 2017
ET-GC05: Aircraft Materials and Hardware

erosion corrosion damage. Equipment exposed to moving fluids (e.g. heat exchanger tubing,
pumps, propellers, impellers) are also susceptible.

Stress Corrosion

This type of corrosion is already discussed under 1.4.2 Formation by: Galvanic Action Process,
Microbiological, and Stress.

Corrosion Fatigue

Corrosion fatigue is the cracking of metals caused by the combined effects of cyclic stress and
corrosion. No metal is immune to reduction in its resistance to cyclic stress if the metal is in a
corrosive environment. Corrosion damages the metal by pitting, followed by crack formation in
the pitted area due to cyclic stress. The crack is propagated predominantly in the fatigue mode,
in which the rate of cracking is controlled by the stress concentration in the main cross section,
the physical properties of the metal, and the presence of corrosion products on the crack face.
Fracture of a metal part due to corrosion fatigue occurs when the remaining cross sectional area
is unable to carry the applied loads. Like stress corrosion, corrosion fatigue is normally localized
and appears in the form of cracks. The metal is generally unattacked over most of its surface,
while the crack progresses through the part. Cracking is generally perpendicular to the applied
stress. Protection of all parts subject to cyclic stress is particularly important, even in
environments that are only mildly corrosive. Preventive measures include reducing the stress on
the part, using corrosion inhibitors, and applying a metallic coating (e.g. chromium, cadmium, or
ion vapor deposition (IVD) aluminum) to the part.

Fretting Corrosion

Fretting corrosion occurs at contact areas between materials under load subject to repeated
vibration. The relative motion needed to produce fretting is extremely small (sometimes as little
as 10-8 cm). The corrosion products increase the wear of the surface, and the wear exposes
more bare metal surface to be corroded. The overall effect is greater than the single effects of
corrosion and wear added together. Fretting has the general appearance of galling, in which
chunks of metal are torn from the surface with corrosion at the torn areas or ragged pits.
Although fretting corrosion can take place on any metal, aluminum, stainless steel, and titanium
alloys are most susceptible. These metals depend on an oxide surface film to inhibit further
corrosion. With rapid movement under pressure at the interface, the oxides are removed and
rapid oxidation occurs. Moisture does not appear to increase the corrosion; in fact, it tends to
slow down the reaction. Fretting corrosion is normally encountered in heavily loaded static joints
which are subject to vibration, such as landing gear component attachment areas having lug
holes with slight press fits, slip fit bushings with very close tolerance bolts passing through the
bushings, wing root access panels or wing-to-body fairings, and engine blade roots. Practical
means of reducing fretting corrosion include reducing the amount of relative motion at the
surface, adding a lubricant at the interface to reduce friction and seal out oxygen, increasing the
surface hardness of the part, and increasing the overall hardness of one or both contacting
metals.

Hot Corrosion

Issue No. 0 ET-GC05.1 Page 53 of 59

 Ethiopian Aviation Academy Revision No. 0
Aviation Maintenance Training September 2017
ET-GC05: Aircraft Materials and Hardware

Also called high temperature oxidation. Corrosion in the absence of water can occur at high
temperatures, such as those found in turbine engine combustors, turbine sections, and
afterburners. When hot enough, metals can react directly with the surrounding gases, producing
oxide scale. Contaminants, such as chlorides and sulfates, can accelerate the hot corrosion
reaction by reducing the melting point of the metallic oxide and promoting its vaporization. High
temperature ceramic coatings can reduce this type of corrosion but are usually applied only by
the manufacturer due to the highly specialized equipment required for application.

Figure 1.34 Hot Corrosion on Fasteners

Figure 1.35 Hot Corrosion on Engine Components

Issue No. 0 ET-GC05.1 Page 54 of 59

 Ethiopian Aviation Academy Revision No. 0
Aviation Maintenance Training September 2017
ET-GC05: Aircraft Materials and Hardware

1.4.4 Causes Of Corrosion

Type of Material

The best time to prevent corrosion is at the design stage. Proper material selection is critical for
the protection of equipment against harmful environmental effects. Most pure metals are not
suitable for aircraft construction and are used only in combination with other metals, and
sometimes non-metals, to form alloys. The metals most commonly used in aircraft construction
are aluminum, steel, titanium, and magnesium. Cadmium, nickel, chromium, and silver are
sometimes used as protective platings.

Heat Treatment and Grain Direction

Most alloys are made up entirely of small crystalline regions called grains. When heat treated
during manufacturing or repair, heavy sections of metals do not cool uniformly and, as a result,
tend to vary in chemical composition from one part of the metal to another. This can cause
corrosion if one area is more active than another. Alloys which are fabricated by rolling,
extruding, forging, or pressing have properties which depend highly on direction (parallel to
grain elongation vs. cross grain). Corrosion can occur on surfaces of those regions which are less
resistant and also at grain boundaries, resulting in the formation of pits and intergranular
corrosion. For example, exposed end grains corrode much more easily than flattened elongated
surfaces in sheet stock. This explains why exfoliation occurs at the edge of aircraft skin sections
or next to countersunk fasteners.

Dissimilar Metals

When two dissimilar metals make electrical contact in the presence of an electrolyte, the rate at
which corrosion occurs depends on the difference in their activities. The greater the difference in
activity, the faster corrosion occurs. For example, magnesium would corrode very quickly when
coupled with gold in a humid atmosphere. But aluminum would corrode very slowly, if at all, in
contact with cadmium.

Anode and Cathode Surface Area

The rate of corrosion also depends on the size of the parts in contact. If the surface area of the
corroding metal (the anode) is smaller than the surface area of the less active metal (the
cathode), corrosion will be rapid and severe. But, when the corroding metal is larger than the
less active metal, corrosion will be slow and superficial. For example, an aluminum fastener in
contact with a relatively inert monel structure may corrode severely, while a monel bracket
secured to a large aluminum member would result in a relatively superficial attack on the
aluminum sheet.

Issue No. 0 ET-GC05.1 Page 55 of 59

 Ethiopian Aviation Academy Revision No. 0
Aviation Maintenance Training September 2017
ET-GC05: Aircraft Materials and Hardware

Figure 1.36 Effect of Area Relationship in Dissimilar Metal Contacts

Presence of Electrolytes

Electrically conducting solutions are easily formed on metallic surfaces when condensation, salt
spray, rain, or rinse water accumulate. Dirt, salt, acidic stack gases, and engine exhaust gases
can dissolve on wet surfaces, increasing the electrical conductivity of the electrolyte, thereby
increasing the rate of corrosion.

ELECTROLYTE CONCENTRATION

In the same way that metals can corrode when exposed to different concentrations of oxygen in
an electrolyte, corrosion will also occur if the concentration of the electrolyte on the surface
varies from one location to another. This corrosive situation is known as a concentration cell.

Temperature

Higher temperature environments tend to produce more rapid corrosion due to accelerated
chemical reactions and, in humid environments, higher concentration of water vapor in the air. In

Issue No. 0 ET-GC05.1 Page 56 of 59

 Ethiopian Aviation Academy Revision No. 0
Aviation Maintenance Training September 2017
ET-GC05: Aircraft Materials and Hardware

addition, nightly drops in temperature can cause greater amounts of condensation, leading to
increased corrosion rates.

Biological Organisms

Bacteria, molds, fungi, and other living organisms (some microscopic) can grow on damp
surfaces. Once they are well established, the area tends to remain damp, increasing the
possibility of corrosion. Their presence can cause the areas they occupy to have different oxygen
and electrolyte concentrations. In addition, acidic wastes are secreted, which cause corrosion.

Mechanical Stress

Many alloys used in aircraft construction are sensitive to a form of corrosion known as stress
corrosion cracking. Manufacturing processes such as machining, forming, welding, or heat
treatment can leave residual mechanical stresses in aircraft parts. The addition of in-service
stresses to residual stresses can cause corrosion to proceed more rapidly than would be
expected in normal service.

1.4.5 Material Types, Susceptibility To Corrosion

Order of Corrodibility in Common Metals

1. Magnesium
2. Aluminium
3. Zinc
4. Iron
5. Cadmium
6. Nickel
7. Lead
8. Tin
9. Silver
10. Tungsten
11. Vanadium
12. Chromium

Issue No. 0 ET-GC05.1 Page 57 of 59