Module 1

Overview of microbiology and

microorganisms
1. Scope and history of microbiology

What is microbiology?
• Microbiology is the science that deals with the study of microorganisms.
• The term microbiology derives its name from three Greek words mikros [small] bios [life]
and logos [study].
• Microorganisms are tiny and invisible to naked eye. So, they can be looked into and studied
only with the help of microscope.
• Microbiology can be applied or basic.
• Microbiology is linked to many other scientific disciplines including biochemistry, cell
biology, genetics, evolution, ecology.

What are Microorganisms?

• Small subcellular or cellular living beings with milli-micron or micron in size and are not
visible to our naked eyes are called micro-organisms.
• Micro-organisms are commonly called microbes and they were the first to occupy planet
earth even before man and other creatures. Microbes are present in every part of biosphere.
• The term is very general. It is used to describe many different types of life forms, with
dramatically different sizes and characteristics.
• Since microbes are so small, they can colonize many environments including our bodies,
which leads to health benefits as well as problems.
• Micro-organisms are basically classified under the following 2 groups:
a. Prokaryotic Microbes: These include subcellular living entities like prions, viroid,
viruses and cellular organisms like bacteria, cyanobacteria etc.
b. Eukaryotic Microbes: These include cellular microbe belonging to following
groups.
 Algae. Ex: Chlamydomonas, Diatoms.
 Fungi. Ex: Yeast, Rhizopus.
 Protozoans. Ex: Plasmodium, Amoeba.

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 • Research on microbes gave booster for the recent developments in the genetic engineering
and biotechnology scientists from many disciplines recognized the usefulness of microbes as
experimental models Thus microbiology played a crucial role in the development of
biotechnology.

Importance and scope of microbiology.

• Microbiology is an applied science that has great impact on genetics, biochemistry, food
sciences, ecology, immunology, agriculture, medicine and many other disciplines.
• Despite their small size they form the largest resource for biotechnology.
• "Escherichia coli" is a wonderful colon bacterium that has been extensively studied by
biotechnologists.
• They used it for cloning and Microbes play a pivotal role in human welfare majority of the
microbes are useful to mankind but some of them are harmful as they cause infectious
diseases in human beings, domestic animals and agricultural crops.
I. Biotechnology:
• Microbes produce very important DNA manipulating enzymes like REN (Restriction Endo
Nucleases) and Ligase. These two are used as molecular scissors and stitches in
biotechnology/Genetic Engineering.
• Some microbes, for example: E. coli is used as host organism to clone desired gene for
desired product.
II. Agriculture:
• Some microbes can be used as bio-fertilizers to enrich soil fertility.
• Some bacteria can fix inert atmospheric nitrogen known as nitrogen fixing bacteria. Ex:
rhizobium, Azotobacter, Anabaena etc.
• Some microbes like viruses and bacteria are used as bio-pesticides to protect the crop plants
from pest and insect eating.
III. Industry:
• The production of industrial chemicals like acetic acid, lactic acid, citric acid etc. by
fermentation process.
• Microbes also find their importance in food industry and dairy industries to produce
fermented food products.
• Microbes also play an important role in the production of ethyl alcohol in brewing industry.
• Microbes also find their importance in food and dairy industry to produce fermented food
products.
IV. Medicine:
• From the point of medicine various kinds of antibiotics used to treat pathogenic diseases of
man and animals are derived from microbial group called actinomycetes.
• Some heat killed microbes are used as vaccine against various kinds of pathogenic microbes
causing diseases.
V. Environment:
• Microbes help to clean the environment by degrading all kinds of biodegradable waste
products. Hence, the microbes are regarded as scavengers of nature.
• Microbes play important role bio-geo chemical cycles.
• Microbes also play an important role in the production of Bio-gas from the biological waste
products.
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VI. Bio-remediation:
• Bioremediation is a method of pollution alleviation using microbes.
• Several bacteria and fungi are capable of decay the natural waste, toxic chemicals, heavy
metals, oil spills etc.
VII. Bioleaching:
• When the ore contains lower metal content, it is difficult to extract them by direct smelting, in
such cases some microbes (Thiobacillus species) are used to separate the mineral from crude
ores. This process is known as bioleaching or microbial leaching.

Branches of microbiology
1. Industrial Microbiology
• It deals with the exploitation of microbes for industrial production. Here the microbes can be
considered as mini chemical factories, as they are capable of converting some raw materials
into end products which have value for human use.
• Microbes have been used to produce alcohols, antibiotics and organic acids.
2. Diary Microbiology
• It deals with the study of harmful and beneficial bacteria present in milk and milk products.
• In diary microbiology the aspects like production of (yogurt) fermented milk products.
• Pasteurization of milk and milk products can be studied. Many such fermented milk products
are used in treatment of dysentery and gastro enteritis.
3. Environmental Microbiology
• It is one of the important branches of microbiology where the role of microbes in maintaining
quality of environment is studied. Since microbes are found in every environment the air,
water, soil and food, they influence the degradation and decay of natural wastes
(bioremediation) they also influence the energy flow in ecosystem.
4. Food Microbiology
• It is concerned with study of role of microbes in food processing, food preservation and
canning. Extensive study of microbes in relation to food products lead to characterization of
microbes. This branch also provides a platform for the study of food borne microbial diseases
and their control.
5. Agricultural Microbiology
• In this branch, the role of microbial activity in plants and their surroundings is studied. Many
microbes like fungi, bacteria, and viruses cause many diseases in plants. This branch is
concerned with study of nitrogen fixation activity. Use of microbes as biofertilizers, use of
microbes as bio pesticides and many more aspects.
6. Medical Microbiology
• The study of pathogenic microbes, the etiology, their life cycle, physiology. Genetics,
pathogenicity and control are known as medical microbiology. The integral part of medical
microbiology is to understand how immune system of vertebrate protects themselves from
pathogens and shows response to the pathogen.
7. Air Microbiology
• The branch covers the study of dispersal of pathogenic microbes through air, microbial
population in air and control of air borne microbes by chemical agents, radiations, filtration
and laminar air flow methods.
8. Aquatic Microbiology
• It encompasses the study of microbes present in fresh water, ocean water and estuarine.
• Many aquatic microbes are pathogenic to human beings.

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 • Most of them are important in food chain in the ecosystem.
9. Immunology
• It is one of the fastest growing areas that covers the practical health problems their nature and
treatments.
• It is the study of immunity against invading microbes by a host.
10. Biotechnology
• It is the most significant branch that deals with the application of biological techniques for
the benefit of mankind.
• It encompasses the use of microbes for the production of drugs, fermented foods and
treatment of waste.
• It also includes developing techniques for the more efficient production of specific
compounds.
• It focuses on aspects such as nature of genetic material, regulation, development and function
of a cell, the method of production of new microbial cells by recombinant DNA technology
which are useful in industrial microbiology.
11. Exo-Microbiology
• It is branch still in its infancy, it includes explore and the study of microbes in outer space
and other planets such as moon and mars.
12. Geo-chemical Microbiology
• Study of role of microbes in coal, gas and mineral formation. Exploration of oil, gas and
minerals is known as geochemical microbiology.
• In addition to the above-mentioned branches, the basic microbiology encompasses the
following branches that are concerned with the study of morphology, ecology, taxonomy,
genetics and physiology of specific groups of microbes.
a. Bacteriology-Study of bacteria.
b. Phycology- Study of algae.
c. Mycology -Study of fungi, molds and yeasts.
d. Virology- Study of viruses.
e. Protozoology- Study of protozoa.

Types of microorganisms
I. Bacteria:
• Bacteria are microscopic, single-celled organisms that have no nucleus and a cell wall made
of peptidoglycan.
• Bacteria are the direct descendants of the first organisms that lived on Earth, with fossil
evidence going back about 3.5 billion years.
• Bacteria are a huge and diverse group. Its members have many shapes, sizes, and functions,
and they live in just about every environment on the planet.
II. Archaea:
• Archaea are microscopic, single-celled organisms that have no nucleus and an outer
membrane containing unique lipids. On the surface, archaea look a lot like bacteria.
• Archaea are best known for living in extreme environments, but they also live in non-extreme
environments, including the human gut and skin.
III. Fungi:

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 • Fungi are single-celled or multicellular organisms with nuclei and with cell walls made of
chitin. They also have membrane-wrapped organelles, including mitochondria. Unlike plants,
fungi cannot make their own food.
• Familiar fungi include yeasts, molds, and mushrooms. Yeasts live as small, individual cells,
between the size of bacteria and our own cells.
• Fungi are important decomposers in most ecosystems.
IV. Protists:
• Protists are single-celled or multi-cellular, microscopic organism with cell nuclei, and which
aren't plants, animals, or fungi. Multi-cellular protists live as colonies, without specialization.
V. Viruses:
• Viruses are microscopic particles made of nucleic acids, proteins, and sometimes lipids.
Viruses can’t reproduce on their own. Instead, they reproduce by infecting other cells and
hijacking their host’s cellular machinery.
VI. Microscopic Animals/Plants
History:
• Written evidence from India and the Roman Empire points to an awareness for the concept of
microbes as far back as over two thousand years ago. This idea was further refined in Turkey
and Italy over the centuries.
• However, thanks to progressing work on the compound microscope, the official discovery
of microbes in the mid 17th Century can be attributed to members of a scientific community
known as the Royal Society, specifically Englishman Robert Hooke and
Dutchman Anthonie van Leeuwenhoek. Both were able to observe and document a range of
microbes in different substrates including mold.
• French scientist Louis Pasteur’s work in the 19th Century led to a deeper understanding
of microbial fermentation, vaccination and the process of pasteurization.
• Pasteur's work led to a greater understanding of the germ theory of disease, which was
advanced later that century by German microbiologist Robert Koch. Both of these scientists
are considered the founders of modern microbiology.
a) Discovering the “Organisms"
• 1676: A. Leeuwenhoek – first to observe and describe microbes accurately.
• 1884: C. Chamberland – constructed a bacterial filter that allowed the identification of
viruses.
• 1898: Loeffler and Frosch – identified filterable infectious agent as cause of foot-and-mouth
disease in cattle.
• 1898-1900: M. Beijerinck – identified tobacco mosaic virus.
• 1982: S. Prusiner – described prions (infectious protein that causes a particular normal
protein to alter its shape and become a prion) .
b) Origin of Life: -Disproving Spontaneous Generation (that living organisms could
develop from non-living matter)
• 1688: F. Redi – first to challenge theory of spontaneous generation by showing that if raw
meat was protected from flies, the formation of maggots was prevented.
• 1748: R. Needham – supported spontaneous generation of microbes by showing that even
after boiling mutton broth and pouring into sealed containers, growth of microbes occurred.
• 1776: L. Spallanzani - challenged spontaneous generation as it pertained to microbes by
showing that sealed containers that were boiled do not produce microbes.
• 1861: L. Pasteur – rigorously disproved spontaneous generation

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 i. filtered air (showed that air contained microbial organisms)
ii. constructed flasks with curved neck that allowed air into the flasks while dust, etc.
remained in the neck, placed broth into the flasks and boiled (showed that no
microbial growth resulted unless flasks were tipped to allow the broth into the neck)-
refer page 9 for image
c) The Germ Theory of Disease
• Previously, people thought that disease was punishment for an individual's crimes, due to
poisonous vapours, and/or an imbalance of the "four humors".
• First proponents of the idea that invisible organisms caused disease were Lucretius (B.C.) and
Fracas Toro (1546)
• 1835: A. Bassi showed that silkworm disease was due to a fungus.
• 1867: J. Lister showed that antiseptic surgical procedures reduced the frequency of wound
infections.
• 1876/1884: R. Koch definitively proved that Bacillus anthracis caused the disease anthrax in
cows and Mycobacterium tuberculosis caused the disease tuberculosis using Koch's
postulates.

Swan Neck
Experiment
d) Preventing disease by Vaccination
• 1876-84: E. Jenner inoculated people with cowpox to protect against smallpox.
• 1885: Pasteur developed the rabies vaccine.
• 1890: von Behring and Kitasato produced antibodies to purified toxins to protect against
diphtheria and tetanus.
• 1884: E. Metchnikoff described phagocytosis of bacteria.
e) Discovering the Effect of Microbes on organic and inorganic matter

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 • 1856: Pasteur described lactic acid fermentation; contributions to wine industry.
• 1887-1900: S. Winogradsky and M. Beijerinck studied soil microbes and their role in the
biochemical cycles of sulphur, carbon, nitrogen.
f) Recent History of Microbiology – the 20th Century
• Infectious Diseases: The etiological agent of most infectious diseases has been ascertained.
Current research focuses on understanding the molecular mechanisms by which disease is
caused.
• Chemotherapy: Discovery of antibiotics; antibiotic resistance
• Immunology develops as a science.
• Physiology and Biochemistry: Using microbes as a model, many physiological and
biochemical processes have been elucidated.
• Genetics: Many of the advances in molecular genetics were made using bacteria as models. A
few of the many:
– 1941: Beadle and Tatum – 1 gene = 1 enzyme
– 1943: Luria and Delbruck – mutations are spontaneous in nature
– 1944: Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty – DNA is the genetic material
– 1961: Jacob and Monod – the operon and gene regulation
• Molecular biology: Many of the advances in molecular biology were made using bacteria as
models. A few of the many:
– 1970: Restriction enzymes discovered
– 1979: Insulin synthesized using recombinant techniques
– 1990: Gene therapy trials begin
– 1995: The nucleotide sequence of the first free-living organism (Haemophilus influenzea)
published.

2. Major milestones and contribution by scientists

History of microbiology
Microbes were the first life forms to occupy the planet earth, the knowledge about Microbiology is
well developed with new dimension only after the invention of microscopes and contribution of
knowledge to the field of microbiology from various scientists.

Antony Van Leeuwenhoek

• He was Dutch Philosopher, born on 24 October 1632.
• He is regarded as Father of “Bacteriology” and “Protozoology”, because of his contribution
to the field of bacteria and protozoa.
• He invented simple microscope having magnification power up to 300X.
• He observed bacteria from his teeth scrap under the microscope invented by him and he
named them as “animalcules”.
• He also discovered bacteria in rain water ditch and protozoans like paramecium and amoeba.
• He presented all his observations with illustration before scientist organization “Royal
Society of London” in 1683.

Louis Pasteur (1822-1895)

• He was a French Biochemist, born on 27 December 1822.
• He is regarded as “Father of Microbiology and Immunology”.
• He proposed the “Theory of Germ Disease”, where diseases of plants, viruses, animals and
human beings are caused by pathogenic microbes.
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 • He disproved the theory of abiogenesis by conducting “Swan neck flask experiment”.
• He discovered the presence of bacteria in the air and classified the bacteria into aerobic and
anaerobic forms.

• He coined the term “microbiology”, aerobic, anaerobic.

• He discovered the role of anaerobic microbes in the fermentation of sugar.
• He developed technique to prevent souring of milk and spoilage of wine. His technique is
now called Pasteurization technique.
• He first isolated bacteria causing cholera (Vibrio cholerae).
• He developed technique to strengthen immunity against anthrax bacteria by injecting
weakened anthrax bacteria to healthy animal.
• Pasteur demonstrated a disease of silkworm was due to a protozoan parasite.

Robert Koch (1843-1910)

• He discovered the anthrax disease cycle (1876) and the bacteria responsible for tuberculosis
(1882) and cholera (1883).
• Koch's postulates are the following:
– The microorganism must be found in abundance in all organisms suffering from the disease,
but should not be found in healthy organisms.
– The microorganism must be isolated from a diseased organism and grown in pure culture.
– The cultured microorganism should cause disease when introduced into a healthy organism.
– The microorganism must be reisolated from the inoculated, diseased experimental host and
identified as being identical to the original specific causative agent.
• He was a German microbiologist born on 11 December 1843.
• His contribution to the field of microbiology and medical science is the most valuable one.
• He developed for the first-time culture technique to culture the bacteria in the laboratory.
• He discovered bacteria caused tuberculosis of man.
• He developed for the first-time staining technique to stain the bacteria with acidic or basic
stain.
• He isolated and identified different kinds of bacteria from various sample.
• He proved theory of germ diseases of Louis Pasteur by conducting investigative experiment.
• He was awarded Nobel Prize of medicine in 1905, formulating principles regarding diseases.
These are now called “Koch Postulates”.

Lister (1827-1912)
• He was a British surgeon and a pioneer of antiseptic surgery.
• Lister successfully introduced carbolic acid (now known as phenol) to sterilize surgical
instruments and to clean wounds

Edward Jenner (1749 - 1823)

• He was an English physician and scientist who was the pioneer of smallpox vaccine, the
world's first vaccine.
• Jenner is often called “the father of immunology”, and his work is said to have “saved more
lives than the work of any other human”.

Alexander Flemming (1881-1955)

• He was a Scotland doctor and biochemist born in 1881.
• He contributed knowledge about antibiotic Penicillin for this kind of work.

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 • He was awarded Nobel Prize in 1945.
• He studied bacterial action in blood and their response to the antibiotic.
• He worked on antimicrobial substances. That is not toxic to human body but toxic to
microbial body.
• He discovered bacteriolytic substance lysosome in the animal tissue.
• He developed technic to study sensitivity of the microbes to the antibiotic drugs.

Robert H. Whittaker Kingdom Classification (1969)

3. Classification of microorganisms
5 Kingdoms and the 3 Domain classifications of
Microorganisms
Classification: classification is a scheme by which various organisms are arranged according to the
relationship between the individuals and groups. In 1969, R. H. Whittaker proposed a five-kingdom
classification scheme that has been widely accepted universally. These five kingdoms are:
1. Monera
2. Protista
3. Fungi
4. Plantae
5. Animalia
Viruses are non-cellular molecular particles that remain on the threshold of life between living and
non-living viruses are not included in any of these kingdoms and are treated as a separate group.

Five Kingdoms

I. KINGDOM: MONERA (PROKARYOTA)

It includes two major groups namely bacteria and cyanobacteria blue green algae.

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 Salient features of Monera
• Monerans are present in both living and non-living environment.
• Some have rigid cell walls, while some do not.
• Membrane bound nucleus is absent in monerans.
• Habitat – Monerans are found everywhere in hot or thermal springs, in the deep ocean floor,
under ice, in deserts and on or inside the body of plants and animals.
• They are autotrophic, i.e., they can synthesize food on their own while some others have a
heterotrophic, saprophytic, parasitic, symbiotic, commensality and mutualistic modes of
nutrition.
• Locomotion is with the help of flagella.
• Circulation is through diffusion.
• Respiration in these organisms vary, few are obligate aerobes, while some are obligate
anaerobes and facultative anaerobes
• Reproduction is mostly asexual and few also reproduce by sexual reproduction.
• Usually, the cells undergo reproduction by budding or binary fission.
• Examples: Mycobacterium, E.coli, Streptococcus etc.

II. KINGDOM: PROTISTA

The term “Protista” is derived from the Greek word “Protistos”, meaning “the very first”.
These organisms are usually unicellular and the cells of these organisms contain a nucleus
which is bound to the organelles. Some of them even possess structures that aid locomotion
like flagella or cilia.
Salient features of Protista
• They are simple, unicellular, eukaryotic organisms.
• Most of the protists live in water, some in moist soil or even the body of human and plants.
• These organisms have a membrane-bound nucleus, endomembrane systems, mitochondria for
cellular respiration and some have chloroplasts for photosynthesis.
• Nuclei contain multiple DNA strands and the number of nucleotides is significantly less.
• Respiration – cellular respiration is the primarily aerobic process, but some living in the
moist soil underneath ponds or in digestive tracts of animals are facultative anaerobes.
• Locomotion is often by flagella or cilia.
• Nutrition- include both heterotrophic and autotrophic.
• Reproduction – Some reproduce sexually and others asexually.
• Some protists are pathogens of both plants and animals. Example: Plasmodium falciparum
causes malaria in humans.
• Examples: Amoeba, Paramecium, Euglena.

III. KINGDOM: MYCOTA (FUNGI)

These include yeast and molds. These are non-photosynthetic heterotrophs having either
parasitic or saprophytic mode of nutrition.
General features of fungi are as follows
• Fungi are eukaryotic, non-vascular and non-motile organisms.
• The growth rate of fungi is slower than that of bacteria.
• The Kingdom Fungi grow best in an acidic environment.

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 • The Kingdom Fungi consist of both unicellular (e.g., Yeast, Molds) and multicellular (e.g.,
mushrooms) organisms.
• Like plant cells, fungi have cell walls made up of complex sugar molecules called chitin. But
unlike plants, they do not undergo photosynthesis.
• The vegetative body of the fungi may be unicellular or composed of microscopic threads
called hyphae.
• They have a heterotrophic mode of nutrition. Few species are saprophytes i.e., they feed on
dead and decaying organic matters.
• Some fungi are parasitic while some are symbionts.
• Reproduction in fungi is both by sexual and asexual means.
• Examples: Mycorrhiza, Saccharomyces etc.

IV. KINGDOM: PLANTAE

• Plants are multicellular organisms compared of eukaryotic cells.
• The cells are organized into tissues and have cell wall.
• They obtain nutrients by photosynthesis and absorption.
• They are primarily non-motile and live anchored to a substance.
• Reproduction is sexual and asexual.
• Ex: mosses, ferns, conifers and flowering plants

V. KINGDOM: ANIMALIA
• Animals are multicellular organisms composed of eukaryotic cells.
• The cells are organized into tissue and lack cell wall.
• They do not carry out photosynthesis and obtain nutrients primarily by ingestion.
• Many animals are adapted for locomotion.
• Heterotrophic mode of nutrition.
• They reproduce by sexual mode of reproduction.
• Ex: sponges, worms, insects and vertebrates.

Three Domain Classifications

• This system was proposed by Carl Woese in 1978 on the basis of molecular biology and
biochemistry.
• This classification is entirely dependent on the differences in the nucleotides sequences of
rRNA in the cells and also differences in cell membrane lipids structure.
• The sequence similarity in the rRNA molecule provided a strong basement to predict the
evolutionary classification of microbes.
• According to this classification system and ancestor cell give rise to three different cell types
each representing a domain
i. Archaea
ii. Bacteria (Prokaryotes)
iii. Eukarya (Eukaryotes) which includes algae, fungi Protozoa, plants and animals.
I. The Archaea (archaebacteria)
Archaea bacteria represent a unique group of microorganisms that are related to bacteria, but
might have deviated from the evolutionary live of bacteria very early during the evolution of
Monera. They are considered as the primitive bacteria.
Salient features of Archaea

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 • The cell wall lacks (peptidoglycan) (pseudopeptidoglycan).
• The membrane consists of characteristic lipids i.e., the lipids have branched hydrocarbon that
increase the fluidity of the membrane.
• In some Archaea bacteria the plasma membrane is a monolayer composed of glycerol tetra
ether lipids.
• The genome consists of single covalently closed circular DNA.
• Some of the Archaea bacteria can survive in extreme environment such as high temperature
(Thermophiles) extremely halophilic (Salt Lakes, tidal pools) and anaerobic environments
(methanogenic bacteria).
• The archaea are insensitive to certain antibiotics (ex: chloramphenicol) but are sensitive to
diphtheria toxin.

II. The Bacteria (eubacteria)

Salient features
• They are unicellular prokaryotes.
• The bacterial cell wall contains peptidoglycan (murein).
• The cell membrane is composed of phospholipids.
• Bacteria are sensitive to some common antibiotics like tetracycline, ampicillin, and penicillin.
• The cytoplasm contains double stranded covalently closed circular DNA.
• Bacteria contain rRNA that is unique to the bacteria, as indicated by the presence of
molecular region distinctly different from the rRNA of archaea and eukarya.
• Bacteria include mycoplasmas, cyanobacteria, gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria.
• A typical prokaryotic cell might contain the following parts:
– Cell wall: the membrane surrounding and protecting the cell.
– Cytoplasm: all of the material inside a cell except the nucleus.
– Flagella and pili: protein-based filaments found on the outside of some prokaryotic cells.
– Nucleoid: a nucleus-like region of the cell where genetic material is kept.
– Plasmid: a small molecule of DNA that can reproduce independently.

III. The Eukarya (eukaryotes)

The eukaryote (also called as eukarya) possess the following characteristics.
• Eukarya has eukaryotic cells.
• Like the bacteria, they have membranes composed of unbranched fatty acid chains attaches to
glycerol by eater linkage.
• Not all eukarya possess cells which have a cell wall, but for those eukarya having a cell wall
that wall contains no peptidoglycol.
• Eukarya contain rRNA that is unique to the eukarya as indicated by the presence of molecular
regions distinctly different from the rRNA of Archaea and Bacteria.

Eukaryotes
• Eukaryotes are organisms made up of cells that possess a membrane-bound nucleus (that
holds DNA in the form of chromosomes) as well as membrane-bound organelles.

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 • Eukaryotic organisms may be multicellular or single-celled organisms. All animals are
eukaryotes.
• Other eukaryotes include plants, fungi, and protists.
• A typical eukaryotic cell is surrounded by a plasma membrane and contains many different
structures and organelles with a variety of functions.
• Examples include the chromosomes (a structure of nucleic acids and protein which carry
genetic information in the form of genes), and the mitochondria (often described as the
"powerhouse of the cell").

Difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell

Prokaryotic Cell Eukaryotic cell

Size is 0.1-5.0 μm Size 5-100 μm
Nucleus is absent Nucleus is present
Membrane bound nucleus absent Membrane bound nucleus is present
One chromosome is present, but not true More than one number of chromosomes is
chromosome plastids. present.
Unicellular Multicellular
Lysosomes and peroxisomes absent Lysosomes and peroxisomes present
Microtubules absent Microtubules present
Endoplasmic reticulum absent Endoplasmic reticulum present
Mitochondria absent Mitochondria present
Cytoskeleton absent Cytoskeleton present
Ribosomes smaller Ribosomes larger
Vesicles present Vesicles present
Golgi apparatus absent Golgi apparatus present
Chloroplasts absent; chlorophyll scattered in Chloroplasts present in plants
the cytoplasm
Submicroscopic in size Flagella is present Submicroscopic in size Flagella is present
made up of only one fiber made up of only one fiber
Cell wall chemically complexed Cell wall is present in plants and fungi and
chemically simpler
Vacuoles present Vacuoles present
Permeability of Nuclear membrane is not Permeability of Nuclear membrane is
present. selective.

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 Sexual reproduction is absent Sexual reproduction is present
Endocytosis and exocytosis are absent Endocytosis and exocytosis occurred
It may have pili and fimbriae. Pili and fimbriae are absent
Transcription occurs in the cytoplasm Transcription occurs inside the nucleus

4. Microbial diversity and taxonomy

Microbial diversity and taxonomy are two important concepts in the field of microbiology that help
scientists understand and categorize the vast array of microorganisms that exist on Earth.

Microbial Diversity
• Microbial diversity refers to the variety of microorganisms, such as bacteria, archaea, fungi,
viruses, and other microscopic life forms, that exist in a given environment.
• Microorganisms are found in almost every habitat on Earth, including soil, water, air, extreme
environments like hot springs and deep-sea hydrothermal vents, and even within the bodies of
plants, animals, and humans.
• This diversity of microorganisms plays a crucial role in various ecological processes,
including nutrient cycling, decomposition, and symbiotic relationships.
• Microbial diversity includes microorganism’s distribution in nature, their relationship with
each other and other living organisms, their effects on human beings and other animals and
plants.
• It includes the following branches: Pure microbiology, Bacteriology, Mycology, Phycology,
Protozoology, Parasitology, Immunology, Virology.

Habitat of Bacteria
• Bacteria widely distributed in soil and water, or with other biological symbiosis.
• Human body also has a considerable number of bacteria.
• It is estimated that the human body and the skin on the total number of bacterial cells is about
ten times the total number of human cells.
• There are also some species found in extreme environments, such as hot springs, they are
classified as extremophiles, which is one of the most famous types of habitats.

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 Fungi /Molds
• The term Mold is applied to a large and taxonomically diverse number of fungal species
where their growth results in a mouldy appearance of objects, especially food.
Yeast
• Yeasts are eukaryotic microorganisms, classified in the Kingdom fungi.
• Yeasts are unicellular, although some species with yeast forms may become multicellular.
Nutrition and Growth
• Use organic compounds as a source of energy
• Do not require sunlight to grow
• Carbon is obtained mostly from hexose sugars, such as glucose and fructose.
• Grow best in a neutral or slightly acidic pH environment
• Some species can metabolize pentose sugars like ribose, alcohols, and organic acids.
Some common virus and their effect

Habitat of Viruses
• Viruses are not able to survive without a host cell, and thus active viruses reside inside a host
body. They effect on host vary as well. They can lower host immunity

Taxonomy and classification

• Classification, Nomenclature, and Identification are the three separate but interrelated areas
of Taxonomy.
• Classification can be defined as the arrangement of organisms into taxonomic groups (taxa)
on the basis of similarities or relationships
• Nomenclature is naming an organism by international rules according to its characteristics.
• Identification refers to the practical use of a classification scheme:
a. to isolate and distinguish desirable organisms from undesirable ones;
b. to verify the authenticity or special properties of a culture; or, in a clinical
setting,
c. to isolate and identify the causative agent of a disease.
Phenotypic Classification of Bacteria Genotypic Classification of Bacteria
Microscopic morphology Guanine plus cytosine ratio
Macroscopic morphology DNA hybridization
Bio typing Nucleic acid and sequence analysis
Serotyping Plasmid analysis
Antibiogram patterns Ribotyping
Phage typing Chromosomal DNA fragment analysis
• Identification refers to the classification and grouping of organisms

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 • based on genotypic (genetic) and phenotypic (observable) similarities and differences.

Classification Systems
• Natural classification – Arranges organisms into groups whose members share many
characteristics – Most desirable system because reflects biological nature of organisms.
• Two Methods for Construction
a. Phenetically: grouped together based on overall similarity
b. Phylogenetically: grouped based on probable evolutionary relationships.
1. Phenetic Classification
• Groups organisms together based on mutual similarity of phenotypes.
• Can reveal evolutionary relationships, but not dependent on phylogenetic analysis – i.e.,
doesn’t weight characters.
• Best systems compare as many attributes as possible.
• Numerical Taxonomy
a. Used to create phenetic classification systems
b. Multistep process – code information about properties of organisms
c. e.g., 1 = has trait; 0 = doesn’t have trait
 Use computer to compare organisms on ≥ 50 characters
 Determine association coefficient
 Construct similarity matrix – identify phenons and construct dendograms.
2. Phylogenetic Classification
• Also called phyletic classification systems
• Phylogeny – evolutionary development of a species
• Usually based on direct comparison of genetic material and gene products
• Major Characteristics Used in Taxonomy (Two major types)
i. Classical characteristics
 Morphological
 Physiological and Metabolic
 Ecological
 Genetic Analysis
ii. Molecular characteristics
 Comparison of proteins
 Nucleic acid base composition
 Nucleic acid hybridization
 Nucleic acid sequencing
Nomenclature
• Provides naming assignments for each organism.
• Family name is capitalized and has an-aceae ending (e.g., Micrococcaceae).
• Genus name is capitalized and followed by the species name, begins with a lowercase letter;
should be italicized in print but underlined in the script (e.g., Staphylococcus aureus or
Staphylococcus aureus).
• Using the first letter of the genus followed by a period and the species epithet (name) (e.g., S.
aureus).
• Species abbreviated sp. (singular) or spp. (plural) is used when the species is not specified.
• When referred to as a group, their names are neither capitalized nor underlined (e.g.,
staphylococci).

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 • The plural of genus is genera (e.g., Enterobacteriaceae family).

Taxonomy of Microorganisms
The taxonomy of microorganisms includes the following hierarchical levels, from the broadest to the
most specific:
• Domain: The highest level of classification. Microorganisms are primarily divided into three
domains: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya. Bacteria and Archaea are prokaryotic, while
Eukarya includes eukaryotic microorganisms and other complex life forms.
• Phylum: Each domain is further subdivided into phyla based on shared genetic and structural
characteristics.
• Class: Phyla are divided into classes based on more specific characteristics.
• Order: Classes are further divided into orders.
• Family: Orders are divided into families.
• Genus: Families are divided into genera. A genus comprises one or more species that share
common characteristics.
• Species: The most specific level of classification, where organisms with very similar
characteristics are grouped together. A species is denoted by a two-part scientific name, often
in Latin, consisting of the genus name (capitalized) and the species name (lowercase). For
example, Escherichia coli is the scientific name of a bacterium.
The Rank of Taxonomy can be seen in this Table:
Grading Example
Kingdom Prokaryote
Division Gracilicutes
Class Scotobacteria
Order Eubacteriales
Family Enterobacteriaceae
Genus Escherichia
Species Coli
Methods for Studying Microbial Diversity and Taxonomy
• Various methods and techniques are used to study microbial diversity and taxonomy,
including:
1. DNA Sequencing: DNA analysis, such as 16S rRNA gene sequencing for bacteria and
archaea, and other gene markers for eukaryotes, helps identify and classify
microorganisms.
2. Microscopy: Microscopes can be used to observe the morphology and structure of
microorganisms.
3. Metagenomics: This approach involves sequencing the genetic material in an
environmental sample, providing insights into the diversity of microorganisms present.
4. Culturing Techniques: Microbiologists culture and isolate microorganisms to study their
characteristics and taxonomy in the laboratory.
5. Bioinformatic Tools: Various software and databases are used for analyzing and
comparing microbial genetic data.

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 Why It is Essential to Study Microbial Diversity and Taxonomy?
• Studying microbial diversity and taxonomy is essential for understanding the roles
microorganisms play in various ecosystems, human health, and industry.
• It helps researchers make informed decisions regarding disease control, biotechnology, and
environmental management.

5. Classification, Characteristics and Reproduction of Bacteria

“Bacteria are unicellular organisms belonging to the prokaryotic group where the organisms lack a
few organelles and a true nucleus.”

Classification of bacteria
• Bacteria can be classified into various categories based on their features and characteristics.
The classification of bacteria is mainly based on the following:
1. Shape
2. Composition of the Cell Wall
3. Mode of Respiration
4. Mode of Nutrition
I. The Primary Classification of Bacteria is based on their Shape
a) Cocci: These are spherical or round-shaped bacteria. Examples: Staphylococcus,
Streptococcus.
b) Bacilli: These are rod-shaped bacteria. Examples: Escherichia coli (E. coli), Bacillus.
c) Spirilla: These are spiral-shaped bacteria with a rigid helical shape. Examples: Spirillum,
Campylobacter.
d) Spirochetes: These are spiral-shaped bacteria with flexible helical shapes. Examples:
Treponema, Borrelia.
II. Classification of Bacteria based on the Composition of the Cell Wall
• Peptidoglycan cell wall: -Gram-positive bacteria
• Lipopolysaccharide cell wall: - Gram-negative bacteria

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Gram Staining Technique

III. Classification of Bacteria based on the Mode of Nutrition

• Autotrophic
• Heterotrophic
• Phototrophic
• Organotrophic
IV. Classification of Bacteria based on the Mode of Respiration
• Anaerobic Bacteria
• Aerobic Bacteria

Characteristics of Bacteria
Bacteria exhibit several characteristic features:
• Prokaryotic: Bacteria lack a true nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles. Their
genetic material is present as a single circular DNA molecule in the nucleoid region of the
cell.
• Cell Wall: Bacteria have a cell wall that provides structural support and protection. The
composition of the cell wall varies among different bacterial species and is a key factor in the
Gram staining classification.
• Metabolism: Bacteria can be classified based on their metabolic pathways, such as aerobic
(requiring oxygen), anaerobic (not requiring oxygen), autotrophic (producing their own
food), and heterotrophic (relying on external sources for food).

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 • Mobility: Some bacteria are motile, possessing flagella or pili for movement, while others
are non-motile.
• Reproduction: Bacteria reproduce asexually through binary fission, a process in which one
cell divides into two genetically identical daughter cells. Some bacteria can also exchange
genetic material through horizontal gene transfer methods like conjugation, transformation,
and transduction.
• Diversity: Bacteria exhibit remarkable genetic and metabolic diversity, allowing them to
thrive in a wide range of environments, from extreme heat to deep-sea hydrothermal vents.

Structure of Bacteria
• Bacteria (singular: bacterium) are classified as prokaryotes, which are single-celled
organisms with a simple internal structure that lacks a nucleus, and contains DNA that either
floats freely in a twisted, thread-like mass called the nucleoid, or in separate, circular pieces
called plasmids.
• Ribosomes are the spherical units in the bacterial cell where proteins are assembled from
individual amino acids using the information encoded in ribosomal RNA. Bacterial cells are
generally surrounded by two protective coverings: an outer cell wall and an inner cell
membrane.
• Some bacteria may even have a third, outermost protective layer called the capsule.
• Whip-like extensions often cover the surfaces of bacteria — long ones called flagella or short

ones called pili — that help bacteria to move around and attach to a host.
• Cell wall: It is a tough and rigid structure of peptidoglycan with accessory specific materials
(e.g. LPS, teichoic acid etc.) surrounding the bacterium like a shell and lies external to the
cytoplasmic membrane. It is 10-25 nm in thickness. It gives shape to the cell.
• Capsule: It is an outer covering of thin jelly-like material (0.2 μm in width) that surrounds
the cell wall. Only some bacterial species possess capsule. Capsule is usually made of
polysaccharide (e.g. pneumococcus), occasionally polypeptide (e.g. anthrax bacilli) and
hyaluronic acid (e.g. streptococcus).
• Flagella: These are long filamentous, cytoplasmic appendages, 12-30 μm in length,
protruding through the cell wall and contain contractile protein flagellin. These are organs of
locomotion.

• Fimbriae or pili: These are thin, short filaments (0.1-1.5 μm x 4 to 8 nm) extruding from the
cytoplasmic membrane, also called pili. They are made of protein (pilin).
• The bacterial DNA and Plasmids:
Bacterial DNA can be located in two places:

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 i. Bacterial chromosome, located in the irregularly shaped region known as
the nucleoid.
ii. Extrachromosomal DNA, located outside of the nucleoid region as circular or
linear plasmids.
• Endospore:
i. An endospore is a dormant, tough, and non-reproductive structure produced by certain
bacteria.
ii. Endospore formation is usually triggered by lack of nutrients, and usually occurs in
Gram-positive bacteria.

Reproduction in Bacteria
• The production of new individuals by the existing ones is called reproduction.
• There are two quite distinct methods of producing offsprings viz., asexual and sexual
methods.
• The asexual reproduction involves a single parent and produces offsprings which are
genetically identical to the parent.
• The sexual reproduction involves genetic recombination between two parents and so
produces offsprings which differ not only from the parent but also from each other.
• Bacteria reproduce by Vegetative, Asexual & Sexual method:
i. Vegetative method: Binary fission, Budding, Fragmentation.
ii. Asexual method: Endospore formation.
iii. Sexual method: it occurs through genetic recombination viz; Transformation,
Conjugation and Transduction.
1. Vegetative method
i. Binary fission:
• In Binary fission, single cell divides into two equal cells.
• Initially the bacterial cell reaches a critical mass in its structure and cellular con-
stituents.
• The circular double stranded DNA of bacteria undergoes replication, where both
the strands separate and new complementary strands are formed on the original
strands.
• Resulting in the formation of two identical double stranded DNA.
ii. Budding:

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 • The bacterial cell develops small swelling at one side which gradually increases in
size.
• Simultaneously the nucleus undergoes division, where one remains with the
mother and other one with some cytoplasm goes to the swelling.
• This outgrowth is the bud, which gets separated from the mother by partition wall
iii. Fragmentation:
• It occurs in colonial cyanobacteria.
• After reaching a certain length, the blue bacterium breaks up into pieces called
fragments. Each fragment is the beginning of a new colony.

2. Asexual method

Endospore formation
• Spores are formed during unfavorable environmental condition like desiccation and
starvation.
• As the spores are formed within the cell, they are called endospores.
• Only one spore is formed in a bacterial
cell.
• On germination, it gives rise to a
bacterial cell

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 3. Sexual method
• Cytological observations and genetic studies indicate that something like sexual
reproduction, involving the fusion of two different cells and a transfer of hereditary
factors, occurs in bacteria, although infrequently.
• But, typical sexual reproduction through the agency of gametes is absent in bacteria.
• There is no fertilization and meiosis.
• However, the gene transfer in bacteria occurs by three methods—Transformation,
Conjugation, and Transduction
i. Transformation
Frederick Griffith (1928), an English bacteriologist, accidently found that the heat-killed bacteria
of virulent strain (type) of Pneumococcus pneumoniae could transfer characteristics of its strain
to the non-virulent strain of living bacteria.

Mechanism of transformation
• Competency
• Binding
• Penetration
• Synapsis
• Integration
• Covalent linkage

ii. Conjugation
Conjugation involves transfer of DNA from a donor or male cell to a recipient or female cell through
a specialized sex pilus or conjugation tube.
• Donor cell produces pilus.
• Pilus attaches to recipient cell, brings the two cells together.

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 • The mobile plasmid is nicked and a single strand of DNA is then transferred to the recipient
cell.
• Both cells re-circularize their plasmids, synthesize second strands, and reproduce pili; both
cells are now viable donors.

Conjugation between Hfr male and F- female

• The F factor can integrate into the host chromosome.
• An F+ cell carrying an integrated F factor is called an Hfr(for high-frequency
recombination).
• Therefore, the F+ male becomes Hfr male.
• In the integrated state, the F factor mediates the transfer of a chromosome of the Hfr male
cell to a recipient (F-) cell.
• Usually only a portion of the Hfr chromosome is transferred before the cells separate,
thus, breaking the chromosome.

iii. Transduction
It was first discovered by N. Zinder and J. Lederberg in 1952, in Salmonella typhimurium, a
mouse typhoid bacterium. Transduction is the transfer of DNA from a donor cell to a recipient

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 cell by bacteriophages. In most cases only a small segment of the host (i.e., the donor) DNA is
transferred.

Mechanism of transduction

6. Classifications, characteristics and reproduction of Viruses

Viruses are unique infectious agents that are not considered living organisms because they lack the
cellular structure and metabolic processes found in living cells. Instead, they consist of genetic
material (either DNA or RNA) enclosed in a protein coat called a capsid.
Viruses of Bacteria- bacteriophage
• Bacteriophage is a type of virus that infects bacteria. In fact, the word "bacteriophage"
literally means "bacteria eater," because bacteriophages destroy their host cells.
• Viruses that attack bacteria were observed by Twort and Herelle in 1915 and 1917.
• They observed that broth cultures of certain intestinal bacteria could be dissolved by addition
of a bacteria-free filtrate obtained from sewage.
• The lysis of the bacterial cells was said to be brought about by a virus which meant a
"filterable poison" ("virus" is Latin for "poison").
• Bacteriophages are ubiquitous viruses, found wherever bacteria exist. It is estimated there are
more than 1031 bacteriophages on the planet, more than every other organism on Earth,
including bacteria, combined.

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 Classification of Viruses
Viruses are classified based on several criteria, including their genetic material, shape, host range,
and replication strategies. The main classification categories for viruses are as follows:
1. Genetic Material: Viruses can have either DNA or RNA as their genetic material. This can
be single-stranded or double-stranded, linear or circular, and can vary in length.
2. Shape: Viruses can have different shapes, including helical, icosahedral, or complex. The
shape is often determined by the arrangement of their capsid proteins.
3. Host Range: Viruses are highly specific to their host organisms, and some may infect a wide
range of hosts, while others are highly host-specific.
4. Replication Strategy: Viruses can follow different replication strategies. These include lytic
replication, lysogenic replication, and retroviral replication (for retroviruses like HIV).

Classification based on Genetic Material

Classification based on Morphology

Characteristics of Viruses
1. Non-cellular: Viruses lack cellular structures like a cell membrane, organelles, and metabolic
processes. They cannot carry out independent metabolic activities.
2. Genetic Material: Viruses contain genetic material, which can be DNA or RNA. This
genetic material encodes the information needed for virus replication.
3. Capsid: The protein coat (capsid) protects the genetic material and determines the virus's
shape. Some viruses also have an envelope derived from the host cell membrane.
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 4. Host Specificity: Viruses are highly host-specific, meaning they can only infect specific
types of cells or organisms.
5. Intracellular Parasites: Viruses require a host cell to replicate. They hijack the host's
cellular machinery to reproduce and produce new virus particles.
General characteristics
• They are widely distributed in Environment.
• 20-300 nm in size as per EM view
• They are obligate intracellular parasites and uses host for energy production protein synthesis
and replication.
• Genetic material is DNA/RNA
• Morphology & Structure involves the presence of nucleic acid core & protein coat.
• Life cycle follows either lytic or lysogeny.
• Classified into 7 groups
Genome
Genomic diversity among viruses
property Parameters
Nucleic Acid • DNA
• RNA
• Both DNA and RNA (at different stages
in the life cycle
Shape  Linear
 Circular
 Segmented
Stranded Ness  Single-stranded
 Double-stranded
 Double-stranded with regions of single-
strandedness
Sense  Positive sense (+)
 Negative sense (−)
 Ambisense (+/−)

Reproduction of Viruses
The replication process of viruses varies depending on the type of virus. Here's a general overview of
how viruses reproduce:
1. Attachment: The virus attaches to a specific receptor on the surface of a host cell. This
attachment is highly specific, and it determines the host range of the virus.
2. Entry: The virus injects its genetic material into the host cell, often by fusing with the host
cell membrane or being taken up via endocytosis.
3. Replication and Transcription: Once inside the host cell, the virus's genetic material is
replicated and transcribed. Viral enzymes or the host cell's enzymes are involved in this
process.
4. Assembly: New virus particles are assembled from the replicated genetic material and newly
synthesized viral proteins. These components come together to form new virus particles.

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 5. Release: Viruses are released from the host cell through one of two main mechanisms:
i. Lytic Release: The host cell is destroyed, and newly formed virus particles are
released to infect other cells.
ii. Lysogenic Integration: Some viruses, like bacteriophages, may integrate their
genetic material into the host genome, becoming dormant. They can later enter the
lytic cycle and cause the host cell to release new virus particles.
• The specifics of virus replication can vary widely among different types of viruses.
• This general process provides an overview of how viruses propagate, but the details can differ
based on the virus's type and its interactions with the host cell

Lytic Cycle ex/- T4 phage

Lysogenic cycle ex/lambda phage

7. Classifications, characteristics and reproduction of Fungi

• Fungi are eukaryotic microorganisms. They can occur as yeasts, molds, or as a combination
of both forms.

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 • Some fungi can cause superficial, cutaneous, subcutaneous, systemic or allergic diseases.
• Yeasts are microscopic fungi consisting of solitary cells that reproduce by budding. Molds, in
contrast, occur in long filaments known as hyphae, which grow by apical extension.
• Regardless of their shape or size, fungi are all heterotrophic and digest their food externally
by releasing hydrolytic enzymes into their immediate surroundings (absorptive nutrition).
• Other characteristics of fungi are the ability to synthesize lysine by the L-α-adipic acid
biosynthetic pathway and possession of a chitinous cell wall, plasma membranes containing
the sterol ergosterol, 80S rRNA, and microtubules composed of tubulin.

Classification of Fungi
Fungi are classified into different taxonomic groups based on their morphological, genetic, and
ecological characteristics. The primary taxonomic levels for fungi include:
a. Kingdom: Fungi
b. Phylum: The major fungal phyla include Ascomycota, Basidiomycota, Zygomycota, and
Glomeromycota, among others.
c. Class: Further divisions within each phylum, such as Sordariomycetes and Eurotiomycetes in
Ascomycota.
d. Order, Family, Genus, and Species: Fungi are classified into increasingly specific
categories within each phylum.

I. Zygomycetes – The Conjugation Fungi

• It is a class of terrestrial fungi which are mostly saprotrophic, rarely parasitic.
• The mycelium is coenocytic (multinucleate, aseptate).
• Hyphal wall contains chitin or fungus cellulose.
• Motile cells (zoospores and planogametes) are absent.
• Mito-spores are non-motile. They are called sporangiospores as the spores are formed inside
sporangia borne at the tips of special hyphae called sporangiophores.
• Sexual reproduction occurs through gametangial copulation or conjugation. Because of it,
zygomycetes are also called conjugation fungi.
• The gametes are multinucleate and are called coenogametes.
• Sexual reproduction produces a resting diploid spore called zygospore. Because of the
presence of zygospore, the group of fungi is called zygomycetes. Zygospore differs from

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 oospore in that during its formation a distinct large food laden non-motile female gamete is
not produced.
• Zygospore does not give rise to new mycelium directly. Instead, it produces a new
sporangium called germ sporangium.

II. Ascomycetes – The Sac Fungi

• Ascomycetes (Gk. askos- sac, mykes- fungus) is a class of diverse fungi numbering over
30,000 species. They include pigmented moulds (brown, green, blue, pink), powdery
mildews, yeasts, cup fungi, morels and truffles. Nutritionally they are saprotrophic,
decomposers, coprophilous or parasitic.
• The mycelium consists of septate hyphae. Yeasts are an exception in that they are basically
unicellular. They may, however, form short temporary filamentous structure called pseudo-
mycelium.
• The septa possess central pores called septal pores. The pores allow communication between
adjacent cells. Septal pores show plugging of different types.
• Cell wall contains chitin or fungus cellulose.
• In yeasts, asexual reproduction occurs through budding and fission.
• In majority of ascomycetes, the common mode of asexual reproduction is through the
formation of conidia (singular-conidium). Conidia are non-motile fungal mitospores which
are produced exogenously from the tips and sides of hyphae called conidiophores.
• Conidia are often coloured brown, green, blue or pink. They provide colouration to the
fungus. Greenish and bluish growth on bread, citrus fruits and old leather is due to moulds
belonging to ascomycetes e.g., Penicillium, Aspergillus.
• Conidiophores may be branched or un-branched, scattered or aggregated to form structures
like acervulus, synnema, sporodochium, etc.
• Sexual reproduction takes place through fusion of sex cells, somatic cells, gametangial
contact between an antheridium and ascogonium, and autogamy.
• Fertilization occurs in two steps, plasmogamy and karyogamy. Karyogamy is delayed after
plasmogamy.
• Ascus is a sporangial sac peculiar to ascomycetes. 4-8 haploid meiospores named ascospores
are produced internally in each ascus. In most of the cases half the number of ascospores
belong to one mating type while the other half belong to the second mating type.

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 III. Basidiomycetes – The Club Fungi
• Basidiomycetes (Gk. basidium- small base, mykes- fungus) are the most advanced and most
commonly seen fungi as their fructifications are often large and conspicuous.
• The class contains about 25,000 species.
• Basidiomycetes are among the best decomposers of wood. Only a few insects can compete
with basidiomycetes in decomposing hard woods and woody structures of trees.
Basidiomycetes are able to decompose both cellulose and lignin. Lignin is not metabolised
by most other fungi and even bacteria.
• Motile structures or cells are absent.
• Mycelia are of two types, primary and secondary. Primary mycelium contains monokaryotic
cells, that is, cells with single haploid nuclei (n).
• Monokaryotic phase or primary mycelium may multiply by oidia, conidia-like spores and
pycniospores. Dikaryotic mycelium does not multiply by asexual spores.
• There is often differentiation of two mating types, (+) and (-).
• Sexual reproduction does not involve sex organs. Instead plasmogamy (fusion of
protoplasts without fusion of their nuclei) occurs by fusion between basidiospores and other
monokaryotic spores, between a spore or spermatium and a hypha or between two hyphal
cells of primary mycelia.
• Septa possess dolipores or central pores with barrel-shaped outgrowths.

Structure of fungi
• Most fungi grow as hyphae, which are cylindrical, thread-like structures 2–10 µm in diameter
and up to several centimeters in length.
• Hyphae grow at their tips (apices); new hyphae are typically formed by emergence of new
tips along existing hyphae by a process called branching.
• The combination of apical growth and branching/forking leads to the development of a
mycelium, an interconnected network of hyphae.
• Hyphae can be either septate or coenocytic: septate hyphae are divided into compartments
separated by cross wall.

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 • Septa have pores that allow cytoplasm, organelles, and sometimes nuclei to pass through.
• Coenocytic hyphae are essentially multinucleate supercells.

Characteristics of Fungi
Characterization of fungi involves studying their physical and genetic traits, including:
i. Morphology: The size, shape, color, and structure of fungal bodies, such as hyphae,
mycelium, spores, and fruiting bodies (e.g., mushrooms).
ii. Reproductive structures: Examination of reproductive features, such as the presence of
sexual and asexual reproductive structures (asci, basidia, sporangia, conidia, etc.).
iii. Growth conditions: Study of the environmental conditions (temperature, humidity, pH) that
favor fungal growth.
iv. Genetic analysis: DNA sequencing and molecular techniques are used to determine the
genetic relationships among fungal species and to identify them.

General characteristics
• Do not contain chlorophyll, hence Nonphotosynthetic.
• Absorptive heterotrophs - digest food first & then absorb it into their bodies. Release
digestive enzymes to break down organic material or their host.
• Store food energy as glycogen. Most are saprophytes – live on other dead organisms.
• Important decomposers & recyclers of nutrients in the environment.
• Most are multicellular, but some unicellular like yeast.
• Some are internal or external parasites; a few are predators that capture prey.
• They are Nonmotile.
• Cell walls are made of chitin (a complex polysaccharide).
• Some are edible.
• Reproduce by sexual & asexual spores.
• Antibiotic penicillin comes from Penicillium mold.
• Classified by their sexual reproductive structures.
• Grow best in warm, moist environments preferring shade.
• Study of fungi is called Mycology.

Reproduction in Fungi: Asexual and Sexual Methods

I. Asexual Reproduction in Fungi:
i. fission of somatic cell
ii. Budding of somatic cell
iii. Fragmentation or disjoining of hyphae
iv. Asexual spore formation

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Asexual spore of fungi:
 Spore formation is the characteristic feature of fungi.
 Different fungi form different types of spores.
Types of Asexual Spore:
i. Sporangiospore:
• These asexual spore are produced in a sac like structure called sporangia
(singular;saprangium).
• Sporangium are produced at the end of special aerial hyphae called sporangiophore
• Sporangium contains large numbers of haploid spores, which are released by rapture of
sporangial wall
• Examples: Rhizopus

ii. Conidiospore:
• Conidiospore or conidia are single celled, bicelled or multicelled structure born on the tip or
side of aerial hyphal structure called conidiophore
• Conidia are different from sporangiospore as these are not produced inside sporangium or
any sac like structure.
• Conidia are born singly or in chain
• Examples: Penicillium, Apergillus
iii. Arthrospore:
• Arthrospore are very primitive type of spore formed by the breaking up of fungal mycelium
• A spore is formed by separation followed by fragmentation of hyphae
• Examples: Trichosporium, Geotrichum, Coccididious imitis
iv. Chlamydospore:
• These are usually formed during unfavorable condition and are thick walled single celled
spore, which are highly resistant to adverse condition.
• Hyphal cell or portion of hyphae contracts, loose water, round up and develops into thick
walled chalmydospore.
• When favorable condition returns, each chlamydospore give rise to a new individual
fungus.
• Examples: ascomycetes, basidiomycetes, zygomycetes, Histoplasma capsulatum,
Candida albicans
v. Blastospore:
• It is a budding spore usually formed at the terminal end of hyphae.
• These spores may remain attached to hyphae and bud further to gibe branching chain of
blastospores
• Examples: ascomycetes, basidiomycetes, zygomycetes

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 II. Sexual reproduction in fungi
• Sexual reproduction is carried out by diffusion of compatible nuclei from two parent at a
definite state in the life cycle of fungi.
• The process of sexual reproduction involves three phases:
1) Plasmogamy: fusion of protoplasm
2) Karyogamy: fusion of nucleus
3) Meiosis: reductional nuclear division
• Various methods by which compatible nuclei are brought together in plasmogamy. Some are:
1) Gametic copulation
2) Gamete-gametangial copulation
3) Gametangial copulation
4) Somatic copulation
5) Spermatization

1) Gametic copulation:
• Fusion of two naked gametes, one or both of them are motile
• Isogamous
• Anisogamous
• Oogamous
2) Gamete-gametangial copulation:
• Male and female gametangia comes into contact but do not fuse.
• A fertilization tube formed from where male gametangium enters the female gametangium
and male gamete passes through this tube
3) Gametangial copulation;
• Two gametangia or their protoplast fuse and give rise to zygospore
4) Somatic copulation:
• Also known as somatogamy.
• In this process fusion of somatic cell occurs
• This sexual fusion of undifferentiated vegetative cell results in dikaryotic hyphae, so the
process is also called dikarotization
5) Spermatization:
• It is a union of special male structure called spermatium with a female receptive structure.
• Spermatium empties its content into receptive hyphae during plasmogamy

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Sexual Spores of Fungi
• As a result of sexual reproduction sexual spores are produced.
• Sexual spores are fewer in number than asexual spores.
• Types of sexual spores
i. Ascospore:
• It is usually single celled produced in a sac called ascus (plural; asci) and usually there are 4-
8 ascospore in an ascus but the number may vary from species to species
• The ascospore are usually arranged in a linear order. In some case ascospores are long,
narrow and are arranged in parallel order.
ii. Basidiospore:
• It is a reproductive spore produced by basidiomycetes.
• These single celled spores are born in a club shaped structure called basidium.
• These basidiospore serves as main air dispersal unit for the fungi.
iii. Zygospore:
• Zygospores are thick-walled spores formed when two sexually compatible hyphae or
gametangia of certain fungi fuse together.
• In suitable condition, zygospore germinates to produce a single vertical hypha which forms a
sporangium and releases its spores
iv. Oospore:
• These are formed within a special female structure called Oogonium.
• Fertilization of egg by male gamete in female sex organ give rise to oospores.
• There are one or more oospores in each oogonium.
Understanding fungal classification, characterization, and reproduction is vital for identifying,
studying, and managing fungal species, whether in agricultural, medical, or ecological contexts.
Fungi have diverse ecological and economic significance, making their study and classification an
essential field of biology.

8. Classifications, characteristics and reproduction of Protozoa

• Protozoa are a diverse group of unicellular eukaryotic organisms.
• The word “protozoa” was coined by GEORG AUGUST GOLDFUSS in 1818.
• They are heterotrophic organisms and they don’t have chlorophyll.
• e.g. Amoeba, paramecium, euglena.

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 Classification of protozoa

Sporozoa
• Commonly parasitic on vertebrate animals.
• Locomotory organ and contractile vacuoles are absent.
• Body covered with pellicle.
• Exclusively endoparasites.
• Reproduction by means of asexual and sexual.
• Examples: Plasmodium, Monocystis.
Ciliophora
• Complex freshwater or saltwater protozoan.
• It swims by the coordinated beating of their cilia.
• Nuclei is of two types: micronucleus and macronucleus.
• Body is covered by pellicle.
• Examples: Paramecium, Voricella.

Rhizopoda
• These are amoeboid organisms that produce false pseudopodia.
• It preys on fungi, other protists and small invertebrates.
• Reproduction by means of sexual and asexual.
• Mostly free living, some are parasitic.
• Examples: Amoeba, Entamoeba.

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Zoomastigophora
• It is characterised by one or more flagella.
• Free living or parasite.
• Body covered with cellulose, chitin or silica.
• Sexual reproduction occurs by longitudinal fission.
• Examples: Trypnosoma.

Characteristics of protozoa
1. Unicellular
Protozoa are single-celled organisms with a simple structure.
2. Eukaryotic Cells
• They have eukaryotic cells with membrane-bound organelles, including a nucleus.
• A protozoan body consists of only mass of protoplasm, so they are called acellular or non-
cellular animals.
3. Habitat
Mostly aquatic, either free living or parasitic.
4. Size
Most protozoans are in the size of 1 to 10 micrometre long, but Balantidium coli may
measure 150 micrometre.
5. Body
Body of protozoa is either naked or covered by a pellicle.
6. Locomotion
Protozoa exhibit various modes of locomotion, including flagella, cilia, and pseudopodia
(temporary cytoplasmic projections).
7. Nutrition
Nutrition is holophytic (like plant) or holozoic (like animal) or saprophytic or parasitic.
8. Digestion
Digestion is intracellular, occurs in food vacoules.

Reproduction of protozoa
Reproduction occurs by both sexual and asexual reproduction.
• Asexual: usually by binary fission, multiple fission, budding.
• Sexual: happens by Conjugation.
• Nucleus: Nucleus may be compact with diffuse chromatin or vesicular with central
or eccentric karyosome (DNA) and peripheral chromatin (RNA).
• Respiration: Respiration is mostly anaerobic.

Reproduction of protozoa
1. Asexual Reproduction in Protozoa:
Asexual reproduction takes place by two means, namely - binary fission and multiple fission.
a. Binary fission - In binary fission, a single parent cell divides into two daughter cells
as shown in the figure below:

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 b. Multiple fission - As the name suggests, in multiple fission a single parent cell gives
rise to multiple daughter cells.

2. Sexual Reproduction in Protozoa:

• Sexual reproduction in protozoa takes place by means of conjugation.
• Conjugation is a process in which two organisms belonging to the same species exchange
their nuclear material while a temporary union.

3. Respiration: Respiration occurs through the body surface.

4. Osmoregulation:
• Contractile vacuoles help in osmoregulation.
• In most protozoa, the cytoplasm is differentiated into ectoplasm (the outer, transparent
layer) and endoplasm (the inner layer containing organelles).
• The structure of cytoplasm is mostly seen in species with projecting pseudopodia, such as
amoebas.

Economic Importance of protozoa

• They serve as an important link in the food chain of communities in aquatic environment.
• Important in the ecological balance are saprophytic and bacteria feeder: final decomposition
stage of organic matter.
• It follows that protozoa are important in the degradation of sewage.
• In the treatment of industrial waste, where there is accumulation of nitrates & phosphates.

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 • Oil exploration - Petroleum is organic origin. The skeletal deposit of Forminifera and
Radiolaria are often found in association with oil deposits. They help in the exact location of
oil.

Harmful effects of protozoa

• Pollution of water: Drinking water in natural condition is made unpalatable by the
reproduction of some free-living protozoa in it.
• Destruction of wooden articles: Some flagellated like Trichonympha and Colonympha live in
the gut of termites and help in cellular digestion.
• Reduction in Fertility of soil - Protozoans feed on nitrogen fixing bacteria thus reduce the
fertility of soil.

9. Classifications, characteristics and reproduction of Algae

They can be defined as the small autotrophs that fail to show any cellular differentiaton & their sex
organs are unicellular & if multicellular all cells are fertile .

Distinguishing features (characteristics) of algae

• They are photoautotrophs.
• They primarily inhabit aquatic habitats
• The vegetative body does not show any differentiation into various tissue systems
• They show progressive complexity in reproduction
• They do not develop embryo after fusion of gametes during sexual reproduction
• Range in size from microscopic to single celled organisms to large seaweed
• Many species occur as single cells others as multicellular.
• Algal cells are eucaryotic
• Study of algae is called phycology
• Cell wall is thin and rigid
• Motile algae such as euglena have flexible cell
• membrane called peri plasts
• Cell walls of many algae are surrounded by a flexible gelatinous outer matrix
• A discrete nucleus is present
• Inclusions like starch granules, oil droplets and vacuoles are present
• Chlorophyll and other pigments are present
• Chloroplasts may occur one, two or many per cell they may be ribbon like ,bar like, net
like ,or as discrete discs
General characteristics

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 • Thallus organisation
• Cell structure
• Algal flagella
• Algal pigments
• Algal nutrition
• Food reserves
• Reproduction

Thallus Organisation
a. Unicellular algae:
• single cells, motile with flagellate (like Chlamydomonas and Euglena) or nonmotile (like
Diatoms).
• Occur in all groups except carophycae of phylum chlorophyta and pheophyta.
 Rhizopodial
 Flagellate
 Spiral filamentous
 Nonmotile

b. Colonial algae
• Motile or non-motile algae may form a colony by aggregation of the products of cell division
with in a mucillagenous mass.
i. Coenobial: The colony is formed with a definite shape, size and arrangement of cells. Ex:
volvox
ii. Palmelloid: Irregular arrangement of cells varying in number,shape and size. Ex:
Chlamydomonas, Tetraspora
iii. Dendroid: Looks like microscopic tree due to union of mucilagenous threads present at base
of each cell. Ex: Chrysodendron
iv. Rhizopodial colony: Cells are united through rhizopodia. Ex: Chrysidiastrum

c. Filaments algae
• Daughter cells remain attached after cell division and form a cell chain
• Adjacent cells share cell wall (distinguish them from linear colonies)
• May be unbranched (uniseriate such as Zygnema and Ulthrix) or branched (regular
mutiseriate such as Cladophora or unreguler mutiseriate such as Pithophora).

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 cladophor
a

d. Coenocytic or siphonaceaous: One large, multinucleate cell without cross walls such as
Vaucheria
e. Parenchymatous: Mostly macro-scopic algae with tissue of undifferentiated cells and
growth originating from a meristem with cell division in three dimensions such as Ulva.

Cell Structure
• Eukaryotic characterised by presence of well organised nucleus and membrane bound
organelles like plastids, mitochondria and Golgi bodies.
• An intermediate form called mesokaryotic occurs in Dianophyceae which shows both
eukaryotic (nucleus with nuclear membrane & chromosomes) and prokaryotic characters
(basic proteins are absent).
• Some do not have true cell wall Ex: euglena, gymnodinium & possess a membrane called
pellicle around cytoplasm.
• Motile flagella possess a pigmented spot known as eye-spot or stigma(swimming).
• Cell wall is with mixed carbohydrates and substances like alginic acid, fucoidan, fucin &
hemicelluloses present.
• Mitochondria, Golgi complex , Endoplasmic reticulum present.

Algal flagella
• Found in all algae except Rhodophyceae
• The main function is motility
• They are of 2 types:
a. Whiplash or acronematic-possess smooth surface.
b. Tinsel or pleuronematic-covered by fine filamentous appendages called as mastigonemes
or flimmers.
• Tinsel is divided into 3 types:
a. Pantonematic-mastigonemes arranged in two opposite rows or radially.
b. Pantocronematic-Pantonematic flagellum with a terminal fibril.
c. Stichonematic-mastigonemes develop only on one side of the flagellum

Algal Pigments
• Distinct chloroplast, nuclear region and complex organelles.
• Thylakoids are grouped into grana
• Pyrenoids are centres of carbon dioxide fixation within the chloroplasts of algae.

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 • Pyrenoids are not membrane-bound organelles, but specialized areas of the plastid that
contain high levels of ribulose-1,5- bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase
• The pigments are within membrane bound organelles called plastids
• May be leucoplasts (colourless plastids) or chromoplasts (coloured plastids)
• Chromoplasts- contain chlorophyll a and b
• Chromatophores -contain only chlorophyll a
• Types - Chlorophylls (5), xanthophylls (20), carotenes (5) and
phycobillins (7)
• Chlorophyll a present in all
• Xanthophylls(yellow/brown) present in chlorophyceae and pheophyceae
• B carotene present in most algae
• Phycobillins are water soluble red(phycoerythrin) and blue(phycocyanin) confined to
Rhodophyceae.

Algal nutrition
• Photo autotrophic and synthesis their own food from carbon dioxide and water.
• Aquatic forms obtain carbon dioxide and water by diffusion and osmosis.
• Aerials obtain water from damp substratum and carbon dioxide from air.
• They also synthesis oil and proteins from carbohydrates.

Food Reserves
• Food materials accumulated as polysaccharides.
• True starch-seen in two algal divisions Chlorophyta and Charophyta.
• Floridian starch- found in Rhodophyta.
• Laminarin- found in brown algae.
• Paramylon- found in euglenoids.
• Leucosin-peculiar to xanthophyte, Bacillariophyta & cryophyte.
• Fats occur as reserved food in appreciable amounts in the cells of xanthophyta,
bacillariophyta & chrysophyta.

Reproduction in Algae
• MOST REPRODUCE BOTH SEXUALLY AND ASEXUALLY
• Most sexual reproduction is triggered by environmental stress.
• Asexual Reproduction: Mitosis
• Sexual Reproduction: Meiosis, Zoospores, Plus and minus gametes, Zygospore.

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 REPRODUCTION IN ALGAE
a. Vegetative Cell divisions/Fragmentation=part of the filament breaks off from the rest and
forms a new one.
b. Asexual Reproduction.
c. Sexual- Gametes.

Sexual Reproduction
• ISOGAMY-Both gametes have flagella and similar in size and morphology.
• ANISOGAMY-Gametes have flagella but are dissimilar in shape and size. One gamete is
distinctly smaller than the other one.
• OOGAMY-gamete with flagella (sperm) fuses with a larger, non-flagellated gamete (egg).

• Monecious: both gametes produced by the same individual.

• Diecious: male and female gametes are produced by different individuals.
• Homothallic: gametes from one individual can fuse (self-fertile).
• Heterothallic gametes from one individual cannot fuse (self-sterile)
• Conjugation: a special type of reproduction. The entire cell serves as a gamete
and the cell content are transported passively between two cells taking part in
sexual reproduction

Reproduction in multicellular Algae

• Oedogonium reproduction.
a. Antheridium: release flagellated sperm that swim to the oogonium
• Oogonium - houses the zygote which is a diploid spore.
The spore undergoes meiosis and produces 4 haploid zoospores. One of the four cells
becomes a root like holdfast the others divide and become a new filament.

Classification of algae
• BASED ON SEVEN MAJOR DIVISIONS
a. Nature and properties of pigments
b. Chemistry of reserve food products

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 c. Morphology of flagella
d. Morphology of cells and thalli
e. Life history reproductive structures and methods of
f. reproduction
g. Food-storage substance
h. Cell wall composition

Divided into 9 Phyla

i. Phylum Rhodophycophyta
ii. Phylum Xanthophycophyta
iii. Phylum Chrysophycophyta
iv. Phylum Phaeophycophyta
v. Phylum Bacillariophycophyta
vi. Phylum Euglenophycophyta
vii. Phylum Chlorophycophyta
viii. 1Phylum Cryptophycophyta
ix. Phylum Pyrrophycophyta

I. Phylum Rhodophycophyta
• 4000 species of RED Algae.
• Most are marine.
• Smaller than brown algae and are often found at a depth of 200 meters.
• Contain chlorophyll a and rarely d as well as phycobilins which are important in absorbing
light that can penetrate deep into the water.
• Have cells coated in carageenan which is used in cosmetics, gelatin capsules and some
cheese.
• Red algae GELIDIUM from which AGAR is made.

II. Phylum Rhodophycophyta

• Yellow Green Algae
• Xanthophytes walls with cellulose and pectin
• Chlorophyll a,c and rarely e are present
• Cellular storage product is chrysolaminarin
• Flagella unequal in length
• Asexual reproduction by cell division and fragmentation

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 • Vaucheria is a well known member of this division.

III. Phylum chrysophycophyta

Golden Algae
• predominately flagellates some are amoeboid
• Chlorophyll a and c present
• Reserve food as chrysolaminarin and their frequent incorporation of silica.
• Characteristic color due to masking of their chlorophyl by brown pigments
• Reproduction is commonly asexual but at times isogamous.
IV. Phylum Phaeophycophyta
• 1500 species of Brown algae
• Mostly marine and include seaweed
• All are multicellular and large (often reaching lengths of 147 feet)
• Individual alga may grow to a length of 100m with a holdfast, stipe and blade
• Chlorophyll a and c present
• Used in cosmetics and most ice creams
• Many of them have holdfasts and air bladders which give them buoyancy.
• Ex. Fucus sp. , Nereocystis luekeana
V. Phylum Bacillariophycophyta
• The Diatoms
• Diatoms provide abundant food supply for aquatic animals
• Chlorophyll a and c present
• Shells of diatoms are called frustules
• Deposits of these shells from centuries of growth are called diatomite
or diatomaceous earth.
VI. Phylum Euglenophycophyta
• Unicellular and motile by means of flagella
• Chorophyll a & b present
• 1000 species of Euglenoids
• Have both plant like and animal-like characteristics
• Euglena cell with contractile vacuoles and fibrils
• Carry out photosynthesis in chloroplast and is facultatively autotrophic
• Reproduction by longitudinal binary fission
• Dormant cysts are formed
• Ex: Euglena
VII. Phylum Chlorophycophyta
• Green algae
• 7000 diverse species
• green algae contain one chloroplast per cell which contain pyrenoids
• Both green algae and land plants have chlorophyll a and b as well as carotenoids and store
food as starch.
• Both have walls made of cellulose
• Reproduction by asexual methods or isogamous and heterogamous sexual means
• Ex. Ulva- sea lettuce, Chara
VIII. Phylum Crypyophycophyta
• Cryptomonads are biflagellate organisms

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 • Cells are slipper shaped and flattened occur singly.
• Some with cellulose wall others naked
• There are 1 or 2 plastids with or without pyrenoids
• Reproduction by longitudinal cell division or by zoospores or cysts.

IX. Phylum Pyrrophycophyta

• Flagella are inserted in the girdle and arranged with one encircling the cell and other trailing.
• Many are covered only by plasmalemma and in some there is a wall made of cellulose.
• Some have a series of cellulose plates with in plasmalemma termed thecal plates.
• Dinoflagellates a diverse group of biflagellate unicellular organism’s present

Beneficial Aspects of Algae

• Food for humans
• Food for invertebrates and fishes in mariculture
• Animal feed
• Soil fertilizers and conditioners in agriculture
• Treatment of waste water
• Diatomaceous earth (= diatoms)
• Chalk deposits
• Phycocolloids (agar, carrageenan from red algae; alginates from brown algae)
• Drugs
• Model system for research
• Phycobiliproteins for fluorescence microscopy

Algal role in treating health problems

• Ulva can be used to treat goitre; reduce fever, ease pain, induce urination
• Codium can be used to treat urinary diseases, treat edema,
• Sargassum can be used to treat cervical lymphadenitis, edema;
• Porphyra can be used to treat goitre, bronchitis, tonsillitis and cough
• Gelidium Laxative; can be used to treat tracheitis, gastric diseases and hemorrhoids; can be
used to extract agarinishes inflammation; reduces fever.

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 10. General Features of True Bacteria: Rickettsiae, Mycoplasma,
Chlamydia Spirochetes, Prions
Rikettsiae
• In 1909 Howard taylor ricketts, observed m.o’s in blood sample of patients suffering from
“rocky mountain spotted fever”
• He pointed out that this m.o’s are similar to bacteria.
• In 1910 H.T.ricketts & wilder observed similar m.o’s from blood smear of patients suffering
from typhus fever.
• In 1916 De rochalina gave the name Rickettesiae prowazeki to this organism to honor them.

General features of Rickettsiae

Rickettsia is a genus of Gram-negative bacteria that includes several species responsible for various
diseases in humans, such as typhus and spotted fever.
1. Gram-Negative Bacteria: Rickettsia bacteria have a cell wall structure that stains negatively
in the Gram stain procedure.
2. Obligate Intracellular Parasites: Rickettsia are obligate intracellular parasites, meaning
they cannot replicate outside of a host cell. They rely on the host cell's machinery for their
metabolic processes and reproduction.
3. Small Size: Rickettsia are small bacteria, typically ranging in size from 0.3 to 0.5
micrometers.
4. Vector-Borne Transmission: Many Rickettsia species are transmitted to humans through
arthropod vectors, such as ticks, lice, fleas, and mites. The bacteria cycle between these
arthropod vectors and vertebrate hosts.
5. Complex Life Cycle: The life cycle of Rickettsia involves alternating between vertebrate
hosts and arthropod vectors. The bacteria can exist in different forms, including infectious
forms that allow transmission to a new host and replicative forms for growth within host
cells.
6. Pathogenicity: Various Rickettsia species can cause diseases in humans, including typhus
and spotted fever. The severity of the diseases can range from mild to severe, depending on
the specific species involved.
7. Endothelial Cell Tropism: Rickettsia species often target and infect endothelial cells, which
line the interior surface of blood vessels. This endothelial cell tropism is a characteristic
feature of Rickettsia pathogenesis.
8. Genomic Features: Rickettsia have relatively small genomes compared to free-living
bacteria. They have undergone extensive genome reduction during their adaptation to an
obligate intracellular lifestyle.
9. Diagnostic Methods: Diagnosing Rickettsia infections often involves serological tests,
polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays, and cell culture techniques. Serological tests can
detect antibodies produced by the host in response to infection.
10. Clinical Presentation: The clinical presentation of Rickettsia infections varies depending on
the species involved. Common symptoms include fever, headache, rash, and muscle aches.
• It's important to note that there are various species within the genus Rickettsia, and each may
have specific characteristics and adaptations associated with the diseases they cause.

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 Reproduction of Rickettsiae

General features of Rickettsiae

• Mycoplasma is a genus of bacteria that are characterized by several distinctive features. Here
are some general features of Mycoplasma:
• Cellular Structure: Mycoplasma bacteria are among the smallest known free-living
organisms. They lack a cell wall, which distinguishes them from other bacteria. This lack of a
cell wall contributes to their pleomorphic (variable shapes) nature.
• Plasma Membrane: The plasma membrane of Mycoplasma contains sterols, which provide
stability to the cell membrane. This is unique among bacteria, as most bacteria have a rigid
cell wall made of peptidoglycan.
• Genome: Mycoplasma species have a relatively small genome compared to other bacteria.
Their genomes typically range from 0.58 to 2.2 megabases.
• Motility: Mycoplasma species exhibit gliding motility. This is different from the traditional
bacterial flagella-driven motility seen in many other bacteria.
• Metabolism: Mycoplasma are facultative anaerobes, meaning they can grow both in the
presence and absence of oxygen. They obtain energy through fermentation of sugars.
• Nutritional Requirements: Mycoplasma are fastidious organisms with complex nutritional
requirements. They often require specific nutrients such as sterols and certain amino acids
that they cannot synthesize themselves.
• Colonization: Mycoplasma species can colonize various mucous membranes in animals and
humans. Some species are commensals in the respiratory and urogenital tracts, while others
can cause diseases.
• Pathogenicity: While many Mycoplasma species are commensals and do not cause diseases,
some are pathogenic and can cause infections in humans and animals. Examples include
Mycoplasma pneumoniae, which causes respiratory infections in humans.
• Disease Associations: Mycoplasma species are associated with a range of diseases in humans
and animals, including respiratory infections, urogenital infections, and joint infections.
Mycoplasma pneumoniae, for example, is a common cause of atypical pneumonia.
• Cultivation: Mycoplasma can be challenging to culture in standard laboratory conditions due
to their specific nutritional requirements. Specialized media and conditions are often needed
for their isolation and cultivation.

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 • Understanding the features of Mycoplasma is essential for diagnosing and treating infections
caused by these bacteria.

General features of Chlamydia

Chlamydia is a genus of pathogenic Gram-negative bacteria that are obligate intracellular parasites.
Chlamydia is a bacterial infection caused by the bacterium Chlamydia trachomatis. It is one of the
most common sexually transmitted infections (STIs) worldwide.
• Bacterial Agent: Chlamydia trachomatis is an obligate intracellular bacterium, meaning it
can only replicate within the cells of its host.
• Transmission: Chlamydia is primarily transmitted through sexual contact, including vaginal,
anal, and oral sex. It can also be transmitted from an infected mother to her baby during
childbirth.
• Common Sites of Infection:
1) Genital Infections: Chlamydia often infects the genital tract, leading to urethritis in
men and cervicitis in women. It can also cause infections in the rectum and throat.
2) Conjunctivitis: In newborns, Chlamydia can cause conjunctivitis (eye infection) as a
result of passage through an infected birth canal.
• Asymptomatic Infections: One of the significant challenges with Chlamydia is that many
infected individuals may not experience symptoms, especially in the early stages. As a result,
the infection can go unnoticed and untreated, leading to potential complications.
• Symptoms in Men and Women:
1) Men: Symptoms may include urethritis (inflammation of the urethra), discharge from
the penis, and a burning sensation during urination.
2) Women: Symptoms may include abnormal vaginal discharge, pain during urination,
abdominal pain, and abnormal bleeding between menstrual periods.
• Testing and Diagnosis: Chlamydia can be diagnosed through laboratory tests that detect the
presence of the bacterium. Testing is often done using urine samples or swabs from the
genital, rectal, or throat areas.
• Complications: If left untreated, Chlamydia can lead to various complications, including
pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) in women, which can result in chronic pelvic pain,
infertility, and an increased risk of ectopic pregnancy.
• Treatment: Chlamydia is typically treated with antibiotics, such as azithromycin or
doxycycline. It is crucial for both sexual partners to be treated simultaneously to prevent
reinfection.
• Prevention: Regular testing, especially for those at higher risk, is also an important
prevention strategy.
It's important to note we should seek prompt medical attention for diagnosis and appropriate
treatment.

Spirochetes
• Spirochetes are a group of spiral-shaped bacteria characterized by their helical (spiral)
morphology.
• They belong to the phylum Spirochaetes and are distinguished by their unique corkscrew-like
shape.
• Spirochetes are Gram-negative bacteria, meaning that they do not retain the violet dye used in
the Gram staining technique.

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 • One well-known example of spirochetes is the genus Treponema, which includes species
such as Treponema pallidum, the bacterium responsible for syphilis. Another notable genus is
Borrelia, which includes species like Borrelia burgdorferi, the causative agent of Lyme
disease.
• Spirochetes are motile, and their characteristic shape is due to the presence of axial filaments
or endo flagella.
• These structures run along the length of the bacterium between the inner and outer
membranes and contribute to its unique movement.
• Some spirochetes are pathogens and can cause diseases in humans and animals.
• The aforementioned Treponema pallidum causes syphilis, which is a sexually transmitted
infection with various clinical manifestations.
• Borrelia burgdorferi is transmitted to humans through the bite of infected ticks and causes
Lyme disease, which can lead to a range of symptoms, including skin rashes, joint pain, and
neurological problems.
• Outer most structure of helical cell is multilayered often referred as outer sheath
• Periplasmic flagella are present around protoplasmic cylinder.
• It is also known as periplasmic fibrils, axial filaments fibrils.
• They are components of motility
• Unlike the other bacterial flagella, the periplasmic flagella are;
1) Permanently wound around the cell body
2) Entirely endo cellular, being enclosed by the outer sheath.
• Reproduction is by binary fission.

prions
• They are defined as ‘small protenacious infectious particles’ which resist inactivation by
procedures that modify nucleic acid.
• The term was coined by ‘stanley pruriner’at the university of california, when he recognized
SCRAPIE disease in sheep & goat.
• In 1982, it was 1st identified as prion disease
• Affected animals’ loose coordination.

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 • Prions are unique infectious agents that consist solely of protein and lack genetic material like
DNA or RNA.
• They are associated with a group of rare, progressive neurodegenerative disorders known as
transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs) or prion diseases.
• Examples of prion diseases in animals include scrapie in sheep, bovine spongiform
encephalopathy (BSE or mad cow disease) in cattle, and chronic wasting disease in deer and
elk.
• In humans, prion diseases include Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD), variant Creutzfeldt-
Jakob disease (vCJD), Gerstmann-Sträussler-Scheinker syndrome, and fatal familial
insomnia.
• These disorders result in the accumulation of misfolded prion proteins in the brain, leading to
the formation of plaques and causing neurological damage.
• Prions are unique in that they can induce normal, properly folded proteins to misfold into the
abnormal prion conformation.
• This conversion process contributes to the progressive neurodegeneration seen in prion
diseases.

Structure of Spirochetes
• Prions are composed exclusively of a single sialoprotein called prp without nucleic acid.
• It has a mass f 27-30 Kda & composed of 145 a.a with glycorylation at or near 181 &197 a.a.
• The coo- terminus contains a phosphotidylinositolglycolipid where components are
ethanolamine, po4, myoinositol & stearic acid.
• This protein polymerises into rods possessing the ultrastructure of amyloid.
• It is deposited intercellularly & intracellularly in human diseases.

Structure of Spirochetes
• The prion is a product of human gene termed prp
• This gene contains 2 exons separated by an intron.
• Exon I & Exon II are transcribed & the 2 RNA ligate into single mRNA.
• This mRNA contains a protein coding region which is translated into prp protein.

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 11. Actinomycetes
• Actinomycetes are generally gram-positive and anaerobic and have mycelium in a
filamentous and branching growth pattern and produce spores.
• Some actinobacteria can form rod- or coccoid-shaped forms, while others can form spores on
aerial hyphae.
• Actinomycetes or RAY FUNGI were 1st described by Harz in 1878, in the pus of cattle
suffering from the disease ‘lumpy law’ now called actinomycosis.
• Most antibiotics are obtained from this group.
• Selman.A.blackman was first to isolate broad spectrum antibiotics (streptomycin) from
Streptomyces griseus
• Basically, soil inhabitants & have considerable practical importance in mineralization
• Actinomycetes are a group of Gram-positive bacteria that exhibit a filamentous, branching
growth pattern similar to fungi. They are widespread in nature and can be found in soil,
water, and various other environments. Actinomycetes are known for their ability to produce
a wide array of bioactive compounds, including antibiotics, enzymes, and other secondary
metabolites.
• Key features of actinomycetes include:
1) Morphology: Actinomycetes often form a mycelium, which is a network of thread-
like structures. The mycelium can break apart into rod-shaped or coccoid bacterial
cells.
2) Cell Wall Composition: They have a Gram-positive cell wall structure, meaning they
retain the crystal violet stain in the Gram staining process.
3) Metabolism: Actinomycetes are primarily aerobic, meaning they require oxygen for
growth. They play a crucial role in decomposing organic matter in soil.
4) Secondary Metabolites: One of the most significant contributions of actinomycetes
is the production of secondary metabolites. Streptomyces, a well-known genus of
actinomycetes, is particularly famous for producing antibiotics such as streptomycin,
tetracycline, and erythromycin. These compounds have been crucial in the field of
medicine for treating various bacterial infections.
5) Ecological Importance: Actinomycetes contribute to the decomposition of organic
matter, nutrient cycling, and soil structure formation. They play a vital role in
maintaining the ecological balance in various ecosystems.
6) Biotechnological Applications: Due to their ability to produce a diverse range of
bioactive compounds, actinomycetes have significant biotechnological applications.

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 They are utilized in the pharmaceutical industry for the production of antibiotics and
other therapeutic agents.
7) Pathogenicity: While many actinomycetes are beneficial, some can be opportunistic
pathogens in humans and animals. For example, Actinomyces and Nocardia species
are known to cause infections in humans.

Morphology of Actinomycetes

Actinomycetes produce hyphae and conidia / sporangia like fungi.

Classification of Actinomycetes
• Traditionally classified as part of bacteria.
• According to bergy’s manual of determinative bacteriology, they are placed in order
actinomycetales.
• They are also classified into several groups based on biochemical parameters,such as
phospholipid composition in cell membrane.
• The 1st edition of bergy’s manual divides actinomycetes into 7 sections.
• 4 groups have been identified based on major cell wall constituents
Domain:Bacteria;
Phylum:Actinobacteria;
Class:Actinobacteria;
Order:Actinomycetales;
Family:Actinomycetaceae

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 Difference between fungi and Actinomycetes
Actinomycetes Fungi
1) Actinomycetes are non-motile 1) Fungi are a group of microorganisms
filamentous gram-positive bacteria which include single cell and complex
belonging to the genus of the multicellular organisms such as yeast,
actinobacteria class of bacteria mushrooms, moulds, etc.
2) Actinomycetes are prokaryotic 2) Fungi are eukaryotic organisms
organisms
3) Actinomycetes contain peptidoglycan in 3) Fungi contain chitin in their cell wall
their cell walls
4) Actinomycetes filaments are smaller 4) Fungi filaments are bigger
5) GC content in actinomycetes DNA is 5) Fungi have more GC bases in DNA.
less than fungi
6) No sexual reproduction 6) Sexual reproduction occurs
Similarities between fungi and Actinomycetes

Difference between fungi and Actinomycetes

Actinomycetes Bacteria
1) Filamentous bacteria 1) A large group of microorganisms with a
murine cell wall and no membrane
bound organelles
2) Belong to the order actinomycetales 2) A domain
3) Gram positive 3) Gram positive or gram negative
4) A facultative anaerobe 4) Aerobes, anaerobes or facultative
anaerobe
5) Oval shaped 5) Rod of spherical shaped
6) Form powdery colonies that stick firmly 6) Colonies are slimy and distinct
to the agar
7) Colonies grow slowly 7) Colonies grow fast
8) Form hyphae and conidia as fungi 8) Do not form such structures
9) Non-motile 9) Motile
Similarities between Bacteria and Actinomycetes
1) Actinomycetes and bacteria are prokaryotes
2) They do not have a membrane bound nucleus and organelles
3) Both have a cell wall made up of murine
4) They are microorganisms that from colonies on the solid media
5) Both from endospores
6) They occur in the environment and as a part of the normal microbiota
7) Both can be pathogens

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 Culture Characteristics
• Anaerobic or microaerophilic bacteria and grows well in presence of 5-10% CO2.
• Optimum temperature 35-37 degree Celsius
• Grow on brain heart infusion agar/broth and thioglycolate agar containing o.12%-0.2% rabbit
blood.
• Incubation time: 3-4 days mostly but for few species it extended from 1 to 2 week
• Colony can be rough, pigmented with chalky appearance.

Pathogenicity
• Actinomycetes normally reside in human mouth, throat, gastrointestinal tract, and urogenital
tract without producing disease.
• Since the organisms cannot invade a human or animal body, they must be introduced by a
deep puncture wound or trauma such as dental extraction or jaw trauma, aspiration of dental
debris, surgery (removal of the appendix), or prolonged use of intrauterine devices.
• Actinomycetes require dead or devitalized tissue to facilitate their invasion and proliferation
into deeper tissues. Establishment of human infection by Actinomycetes always requires the
presence of companion bacteria.
• These companion bacteria help in initiation of infection by producing a toxin or an enzyme or
by inhibiting host immunity.
• Once the infection by Actinomycetes is established, the immune system of the infected
human host stimulates an intense inflammation. Bacteria from the infected site may
disseminate to distant organs of the body.
• The Actinomycetes are particularly common type of bacteria found on mouldy hay. Farmers
may be routinely exposed to very high concentrations of Actinomyces and may inhale as
many as 750,000 spores per minute. Frequent exposure to Actinomyces is the cause of
Farmers Lung respiratory problems.

• Streptomyces is one of the most extensively studied genera of actinomycetes, and it has
contributed immensely to the field of antibiotic discovery.
• Researchers continue to explore the potential of actinomycetes for the development of new
drugs and their applications in various biotechnological processes.

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