1.
Standard ATX
Standard ATX motherboards are the most common type, measuring
305 x 244 mm. This size offers ample space for multiple expansion
slots, including:
Up to four RAM slots
Two or more PCIe slots for dual graphics cards
Additional USB and other ports for enhanced connectivity
When to Use:
Standard ATX motherboards are ideal for users who need more
expansion options, such as adding multiple GPUs, additional storage
devices, and PCIe cards for heavy workloads like gaming or video
editing.
Pros:
More connectivity options
Good for high-performance setups
Better airflow due to larger size
Cons:
Requires a larger case that supports ATX
2. Micro ATX
Micro ATX motherboards are more compact, measuring 244 x 244 mm.
They offer fewer expansion slots but still provide sufficient connectivity for
general-purpose computing. Typically, you’ll find:
Fewer PCIe slots (often one or two)
Up to four RAM slots
Enough ports for moderate connectivity needs
When to Use:
This type is suitable for users who don’t need extensive future upgrades or
multiple GPUs. It’s great for budget builds or home/office computers.
Pros:
More affordable
Fits in smaller cases
Compatible with both ATX and EATX cases
Cons:
Limited expansion options
Can have reduced airflow in smaller cases
3. eXtended ATX (EATX)
The largest option, eXtended ATX, measures 344 x 330 mm and is
designed for high-end workstations and servers. This form factor offers:
Up to 8 RAM slots
Multiple PCIe slots for expansion
Dual CPU support in some models
When to Use:
EATX motherboards are best suited for professionals running resource-
heavy applications, such as 3D rendering, AI modeling, or server
management.
Pros:
Maximum expandability
Ideal for workstations and servers
Great for multitasking and high-performance tasks
Cons:
Requires large cases
Expensive
1. SRAM: Static RAM being expensive, primarily used for Cache
memory. DRAM, being cheaper, is used for main memory. SRAM
is widely used for Level 1, Level 2 or Level 3 cache memory. Level
1 cache is internal to the processor, and level 2 and level 3
caches are external to the processor, it resides on the
motherboard.
2. DRAM: Dynamic RAM holds its data if it is continuously accessed
by special logic called a refresh circuit. If the memory is not
refreshed regularly, then the DRAM will lose its contents. This
refreshing action is why the memory is called dynamic. All PCs
use DRAM for their main system memory, instead of SRAM, even
though DRAMs are slower than SRAMs and require the overhead
of the refresh circuitry. The reason that DRAMs are used is that
they are much cheaper and take up much less space.
The computer main memory usually consists of some type of DRAM.
Types of Read-Only Memory (ROM)
MROM (Masked read-only memory): We know that ROM is as
old as semiconductor technology. MROM was the very first ROM
that consists of a grid of word lines and bit lines joined together
transistor switches. This type of ROM data is physically encoded
in the circuit and only be programmed during fabrication. It was
not so expensive.
PROM (Programmable read-only memory): PROM is a form of
digital memory. In this type of ROM, each bit is locked by a fuse
or anti-fuse. The data stored in it are permanently stored and
can not be changed or erasable. It is used in low-level programs
such as firmware or microcode.
EPROM (Erasable programmable read-only
memory): EPROM also called EROM, is a type of PROM but it can
be reprogrammed. The data stored in EPROM can be erased and
reprogrammed again by ultraviolet light. Reprogrammed of it is
limited. Before the era of EEPROM and flash memory, EPROM
was used in microcontrollers.
EEPROM (Electrically erasable programmable read-only
memory): As its name refers, it can be programmed and erased
electrically. The data and program of this ROM can be erased and
programmed about ten thousand times. The duration of erasing
and programming of the EEPROM is near about 4ms to 10ms. It
is used in microcontrollers and remote keyless systems.
•Components of nothbridge :
Northbridge is becoming less important as memory
controller and graphics chips are getting in the processor
itself now. Classically the nothbridge has:
Memory controller
•Graphics card Interface – AGP or PCI Express
•Processor Interface - FSB
•Connection with the Southbridge
In some models, northbride has connection with RAM too.
Components of southbridge :
South Bridge is connected to the northbridge via a bus or a
direct connection. Although southbridge is mainly responsible
for the management of peripheral interfaces it is connected to
the processor.�Also the BIOS is included here.
Link to northbridge
Peripheral interfaces
BIOS
PCI slots, or Peripheral Component Interconnect slots, are physical connectors on a
computer's motherboard that allow you to add expansion cards to your computer:
PCI slots connect expansion cards to your computer's motherboard, allowing you to
add components like graphics cards, sound cards, network cards, and storage devices.
An Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) slot was a hardware interface on a computer
motherboard that connected a graphics card to the system
Unit-2: File System
File system is the part of the operating system which is responsible for file management.
It provides a mechanism to store the data and access to the file contents including data
and programs. Some Operating systems treats everything as a file for example Ubuntu.
The File system takes care of the following issues
• File Structure
We have seen various data structures in which the file can be stored. The task of the file
system is to maintain an optimal file structure.
• Recovering Free space
Whenever a file gets deleted from the hard disk, there is a free space created in the disk.
There can be many such spaces which need to be recovered in order to reallocate them
to other files.
• disk space assignment to the files
The major concern about the file is deciding where to store the files on the hard disk.
There are various disks scheduling algorithm which will be covered later in this tutorial.
• tracking data location
A File may or may not be stored within only one block. It can be stored in the non
contiguous blocks on the disk. We need to keep track of all the blocks on which the part
of the files reside.
Types of File System
FAT (File Allocation Table): An older file system used by older
versions of Windows and other operating systems.
NTFS (New Technology File System): A modern file system
used by Windows. It supports features such as file and folder
permissions, compression, and encryption.
ext (Extended File System): A file system commonly used
on Linux and Unix-based operating systems.
HFS (Hierarchical File System): A file system used by macOS.
APFS (Apple File System): A new file system introduced by
Apple for their Macs and iOS devices.
What is RAID?
RAID (Redundant Array of Independent Disks) is like having
backup copies of your important files stored in different places on
several hard drives or solid-state drives (SSDs). If one drive stops
working, your data is still safe because you have other copies
stored on the other drives. It’s like having a safety net to protect
your files from being lost if one of your drives breaks down.
RAID (Redundant Array of Independent Disks) in a Database
Management System (DBMS) is a technology that combines
multiple physical disk drives into a single logical unit for data
storage. The main purpose of RAID is to improve data reliability,
availability, and performance. There are different levels of RAID,
each offering a balance of these benefits.
Types of RAID Controller
There are three types of RAID controller:
Hardware Based: In hardware-based RAID, there’s a physical controller that manages
the whole array. This controller can handle the whole group of hard drives together. It’s
designed to work with different types of hard drives, like SATA (Serial Advanced
Technology Attachment) or SCSI (Small Computer System Interface). Sometimes, this
controller is built right into the computer’s main board, making it easier to set up and
manage your RAID system. It’s like having a captain for your team of hard drives, making
sure they work together smoothly.
Software Based: In software-based RAID, the controller doesn’t have its own special
hardware. So it use computer’s main processor and memory to do its job. It perform the
same function as a hardware-based RAID controller, like managing the hard drives and
keeping your data safe. But because it’s sharing resources with other programs on your
computer, it might not make things run as fast. So, while it’s still helpful, it might not
give you as big of a speed boost as a hardware-based RAID system
Firmware Based: Firmware-based RAID controllers are like helpers built into the
computer’s main board. They work with the main processor, just like software-based
RAID. But they only implement when the computer starts up. Once the operating
system is running, a special driver takes over the RAID job. These controllers aren’t as
expensive as hardware ones, but they make the computer’s main processor work
harder. People also call them hardware-assisted software RAID, hybrid model RAID, or
fake RAID.
EXT2, EXT3, EXT4
These are Linux file systems, with EXT2 being the original, EXT3
being an enhanced version, and EXT4 being the newest
version:
EXT2: The original file system, introduced in 1993 by Rémy
Card. It doesn't have journaling, which means it's more
vulnerable to data corruption.
EXT3: An enhanced version of EXT2, introduced in 2001 by
Stephen Tweedie. It includes journaling, which makes it more
reliable but slightly slower than EXT2.
EXT4: The newest version of the EXT file system, introduced in
2008. It includes journaling, delayed allocation and extents, and
online defragmentation. It also supports backward
compatibility with EXT3.
FAT32
A file system used to organize files on a disk drive. It's
supported by most major operating systems, including
Windows, macOS, and Linux. However, it's more vulnerable to
data corruption than NTFS and EXT4 because it doesn't have
journaling.
NTFS
The default file system for Windows. It includes journaling,
which makes it more reliable and secure than FAT32. It also
includes security descriptors for each file record, which allows
administrators to control access rights.
BIOS configuration, or Basic Input/Output System
configuration, involves changing the parameters of a computer's firmware
settings. Here are some steps to configure BIOS:
1. Access BIOS
Restart the computer and press a specific key during the boot process. The key
to press depends on the computer's manufacturer and model, but is usually F2,
F10, Del, or Esc. It's important to press the key as soon as the manufacturer's
logo appears, but before the operating system loads.
2. Navigate the menu
Use the arrow keys to select menu options and navigate to the top-level screen.
3. Modify settings
Use the arrow keys to select options on the top-level screen. Only modifiable
options are highlighted.
4. Save changes
Press Esc to save changes and exit the screen.
5. Exit BIOS
Press the right arrow key until the Exit menu screen appears, then follow the
instructions to save or discard changes.
The booting process is the procedure of starting a computer and
loading the operating system:
Power on: The computer's power button is pressed, which sends
power to the bootloader in the cache memory.
Power-On Self-Test (POST): The POST tests all hardware devices to
ensure there are no issues. If there are issues, the booting process
stops.
BIOS: The CPU looks for the BIOS (Basic Input/Output System), which
is a firmware located on the motherboard. The BIOS starts the booting
sequence.
Operating system loads: The operating system is loaded into the main
memory.
System configuration: Device drivers are loaded into the memory.
System utilities loads: System utilities like antivirus and volume control
are loaded into the memory.
User authentication: The system prompts the user to input their
credentials.
The two main types of booting are cold booting and warm
booting:
Cold booting
Also known as a hard boot, this is the process of starting a
computer for the first time or after it has been completely shut
down.
Warm booting
Also known as a soft boot, this is the process of restarting a
computer while it is powered on.
A device driver is a software program that allows a computer's
operating system to communicate with a specific hardware device
attached to the computer. Device drivers act as an intermediary between
the two, ensuring that the computer functions properly.
Types of device drivers
There are several types of device drivers, including:
Generic device drivers: Used for broad purposes, such as keyboard and
mouse control. These are usually included with the operating system.
Original equipment manufacturer (OEM) drivers: Developed by the original
hardware manufacturer to ensure compatibility and optimal performance.
Class drivers: Used for a particular class of similar hardware, such as USB-
connected devices.
Open-source drivers: These drivers are usually provided by the hardware or
software manufacturer, and offer more privacy.
Virtual device drivers: Used to emulate the hardware of the host device
that is running on a virtual machine.
