UNDERSTANDING KEY

CONCEPTS AND STEPS IN

QUANTITATIVE AND
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Unito L. Bondad, MSN, RN

College of Nursing
[Link]@[Link]
Selected Key Research Terms
Faces and Places of Research
• Study (investigation): addressing a research question
• Study subject or participant: people being studied or
cooperating in quantitative study
• Informants: people cooperating in qualitative study
• Researchers or investigators: persons who conducts
the research
• Project director or Principal investigator (PI): person
directing the study when a study is done by a team
• Study site: the overall location for a study (e.g., Portland)
• Multisite studies: tend to yield more diverse group of
study participants, potentially enhancing generalizability
of findings
Question #1
A nurse researcher is conducting a quantitative study to
determine protocols for triaging patients in the emergency
department. Which term is generally associated with this
type of research?
a. Phenomena
b. Subject
c. Pattern of association
d. Inductive reasoning
Answer to Question #1
b. Subject
Rationale. The person contributing information in a
quantitative study is called the subject. In the qualitative
study, this person is called the study participant, informant,
or key informant. That which is investigated is called a
concept in quantitative studies and concept or phenomena
in qualitative studies. Pattern of association and inductive
reasoning are qualitative terms. Relationships and
deductive reasoning are quantitative terms.
Question #2
Tell whether the following statement is True or False.
Researchers involved in quantitative research commonly
engage in fieldwork.
a. True
b. False
Answer to Question #2
b. False
Rationale: Researchers engage in fieldwork when
performing qualitative studies.
Concepts and Constructs
• Concepts: abstractions of particular aspects of human
behavior or characteristics (e.g., pain, weight) in
quantitative studies
• Phenomena: abstracts in qualitative studies
• Constructs: slightly more complex abstractions (e.g.,
self-care)
• For example, self-care in Orem’s model of health maintenance is a
construct.
• Theories: knit concepts into a coherent system that
purports to explain phenomena
Theories
• Quantitative researchers may start with a theory,
framework, or conceptual model then they use
deductive reasoning to go from a theory to
specific hypotheses.

• In qualitative studies, theory is the product of the

research. The investigators use information from
participants inductively to develop a theory
rooted in the participants’ experiences.
Variable
• A characteristic or quality that takes on different
values, that is, that varies from one person to the
next associated with quantitative studies
• Examples
• Blood type
• Weight
• Length of stay in hospital
• The term “variable” is used almost exclusively in
quantitative research.
• Variables are the central building blocks of
quantitative studies.
Types of Variables
• Continuous variables have values along a continuum
and, in theory, can assume an infinite number of values
between two points (e.g. weight).
• Discrete variables have a finite number of values
between any two points, representing discrete quantities
(e.g. number of children).

• Variables that take on many discrete, non-quantitative

values are categorical variables.
• When categorical variables take on only two values, they
are dichotomous variables. Gender, for example, is
dichotomous (i.e., male and female).
Variables
• When an attribute is highly varied in the
group under study, the group is
heterogeneous with respect to that
variable. If the amount of variability is
limited, the group is homogeneous.

For example, for the variable height, a sample of

2-year-old children would be more homogeneous
than a sample of 21-year-olds.
Types/Characteristics of Variables
• Inherent (attribute) vs. created (active)
• Independent variable—the presumed
cause (of a dependent variable)
• Dependent variable—the presumed effect
(of an independent variable)
• Often referred to as the outcome variable or
outcome: Example: smoking (IV)  lung
cancer (DV)
• IV and DV terms can be used to indicate
direction of influence rather than cause and
effect.
Research Question:
Among heart failure patients, is reduced gray
matter volume (as measured through magnetic
resonance imagery) associated with poorer
performance in instrumental activities of daily
living?
Independent variable: Volume of gray matter
in the brain
Dependent variable: Performance in
instrumental activities of daily living
Research Question:
Are interruptions during patient medication rounds
in a mental health hospital associated with higher
rates of nurses’ medication-administration errors?

Independent variable: Interruptions during

medication rounds
Dependent variable: Medication
administration errors
Research Question:
What is the effect of critical care nurses’ work
schedule on patient safety? (Scott et al., 2006).

Independent variable: Nurses’ work

schedule
Dependent variable: Patient safety
Conceptual and Operational Definition
• Conceptual: the abstract or theoretical meaning
of a concept being studied

• Operational: the operations (measurements) a

researcher must perform to measure the concept
and collect the desired information
Question #3
What is the best description of a dependent variable?
a. Outcome being measured
b. A person’s gender
c. Presumed cause
d. Measurements performed
Answer to Question #3
a. Outcome being measured
Rationale: The dependent variable is the presumed effect
or outcome of an independent variable (the presumed
cause). Gender typically is a categorical variable. The
operations (measurements) to be performed for data
collection refer to the operational definition of a variable.
Data
• Data (singular = datum): the pieces of information
researchers collect in a study
• Quantitative researchers collect numeric (quantitative)
data.
Data
• Data (singular = datum): the pieces of information
researchers collect in a study
• Qualitative researchers collect narrative (verbal) data.
Relationships
• A relationship is a bond or connection between
phenomena.
• Cause-and-effect (causal) relationship (e.g., cigarette
smoking and lung cancer)
• Associative (functional) relationship (e.g., gender and
life expectancy)
• Qualitative study of pattern: Qualitative researchers
may seek patterns of association as a way of
illuminating the underlying meaning and dimensionality
of phenomena of interest.
Quantitative Research: Experimental and
Nonexperimental Studies
• Experimental research
• Researchers actively introduce an intervention or
treatment most often to address Therapy questions.
• Called clinical trials in medical research
• Test causal relationships
• Nonexperimental research
• Researchers collect data without intervening or
introducing treatments
• Called observational studies in medical research
Examples:
Huang and colleagues (2014) studied factors that predicted
fatigue severity in Taiwanese women with breast cancer 1
year after surgery. They found, for example, that women
who were married and who had poorer functional
performance at diagnosis had higher levels of fatigue.
Non-experimental Research

Williams and colleagues (2014) tested the effect of an

intervention called Reasoning Exercises in Assisted Living
on residents’ problem solving and reasoning. Some study
participants received the cognitive training intervention, and
others did not. Experimental Research
Examples:
• Cooke and colleague (2005) tested the effect of music on
day surgery patients’ level of anxiety. During a
preoperative wait, some patients received the intervention
– the opportunity to listen to patient-preferred music – and
others did not. Experimental Research

• Taxis and co-authors (2004) studied coping skills and

perceptions of stress in white and Hispanic school-aged
children in Texas. The primary stressor was ―feeling sick‖
and one of the children’s most frequently identified coping
strategies was ―watching TV or listening to music.‖
Greater use of coping strategies was associated with
lower stress. Non-experimental Research
Question #4
Tell whether the following statement is True or False.
Clinical trials are an example of observational research in
medicine.
a. True
b. False
Answer to Question #4
b. False
Rationale: Clinical trials are a form of experimental
research in medicine. Observational research is
nonexperimental research in medicine.
Qualitative Research: Disciplinary
Traditions
• Grounded theory research
• Seeks to understand key social psychological
processes that are grounded in reality
• Phenomenological research
• Focuses on the lived experiences of humans
• Ethnographic research
• Focuses on the patterns and lifeways of a cultural group
and strives to learn from members of a cultural group to
understand their worldview and to describe their
customs and norms
Examples:
• Ramirez and Badger (2014) conducted a grounded theory
study to explore the social psychological processes of
men who suffer from depression. They uncovered six
stages through which men navigated in their experiences
with depression. Grounded theory study
• Ekwall and co-researchers (2014) conducted in-depth
interviews to explore the lived experience of having
recurring ovarian cancer. Phenomenological study
• Broadbent and colleagues (2014) conducted ethnographic
fieldwork to investigate the emergency department triage
environment and its effect on triage practices for clients
with a mental illness. Ethnographic study
Examples:
• Schoenfeld and Juarbe (2005) conducted fieldwork on two rural
Ecuadorian communities and studied the burdens of women’s
roles, the women’s perceived health needs, and their health
care resources.
Ethnographic study
• King and colleagues (2006) conducted a study with men and
women from five ethnocultural groups in Canada who had been
diagnosed with coronary artery disease (CAD). The analysis
focused on the process through which patients met the
challenge of managing CAD risk.
Grounded theory study
• O’Dell and Jacelon (2005) conducted in-depth interviews to
explore the experiences of women who had undergone vaginal
closure surgery to correct severe vaginal prolapse.
Phenomenological study
Question #5
What is an example of a question that researchers ask
when using phenomenology during qualitative research?
a. What is the meaning of the phenomenon experienced
by the people?
b. What are the psychological phases that characterize a
particular event?
c. What are the patterns and lifeways of a defined cultural
group?
d. What is the core variable that explains what is
happening in the social scene?
Answer to Question #5
a. What is the meaning of the phenomenon experienced
by the people?
Rationale: The phenomenological researcher asks the
questions What is the essence of this phenomenon as
experienced by these people? or What is the meaning of
the phenomenon to those who experience it? The focus of
most grounded theory studies is on a developing social
experience—the social and psychological phases that
characterize a particular event or episode. Ethnography
provides a framework for studying the patterns and lifeways
of a defined cultural group in a holistic fashion.
Phases in a Quantitative Study
• Phase 1: Conceptual Phase
• Phase 2: Design and Planning Phase
• Phase 3: Empirical Phase
• Phase 4: Analytic Phase
• Phase 5: Dissemination Phase
Major Steps
in a
Quantitative
Study
Major Steps in a Quantitative Study:
Phase 1: Conceptual Phase
• Step 1: Formulating/delimiting the problem
(attend to substantive, theoretical, clinical,
methodological, ethical issues)
• Step 2: Reviewing related literature
• Step 3: Undertaking clinical fieldwork
• Step 4: Defining the framework and developing
conceptual definitions
• Step 5: Formulating hypotheses
NUHRA 2023-2028
The main themes under the updated NUHRA are as follows:
• Disease management;
• Halal in health;
• Health security, emergency, and disaster risk management;
• Health technology and innovation;
• Health of vulnerable populations;
• Health promotion;
• Health systems strengthening towards UHC;
• Maternal, newborn, and child health;
• Mental health;
• Nutrition and food security; and
• Sexual and reproductive health.
Major Steps in a Quantitative Study:
Phase 2: Design and Planning Phase
• Step 6: Selecting a research design
• Step 7: Developing intervention protocols
• Step 8: Identifying the population
• Step 9: Designing the sampling plan
• Step 10: Specifying methods to measure
variables and collect data
• Step 11: Developing methods to protect
human/animal rights
• Step 12: Reviewing and finalizing the research
plan
Major Steps in a Quantitative Study:
Phase 3: Empirical Phase
• Step 13: Collecting the data
• Step 14: Preparing data for analysis (e.g., coding
the data)
Major Steps in a Quantitative Study:
Phase 4: Analytic Phase
• Step 15: Analyzing the data (through statistical
analysis)
• Step 16: Interpreting results
Major Steps in a Quantitative Study:
Phase 5: Dissemination Phase
• Step 17: Communicating the findings in a
research report (e.g., in a journal article)
• Step 18: Putting the evidence into practice
Question #6
Which action would be performed first when designing and
planning a quantitative study?
a. Developing intervention protocols
b. Identifying the population
c. Designing the sampling plan
d. Formulating a research design
Answer to Question #6
d. Formulating a research design
Rationale: The first step in designing and planning a
quantitative study is formulating a research design. This is
followed by developing intervention protocols, identifying
the population, and designing the sampling plan.
Activities in a Qualitative Study
• Qualitative researchers continually:
• Examine and interpret data
• Make decisions about how to proceed based on what
has been discovered
Activities in a Qualitative Study
• Conceptualizing and planning the study
• Identifying the research problem
• Doing a literature review
• Selecting sites and gaining entrée
• Developing an overall approach
• Addressing ethical issues (safeguard
participants)
Activities in a Qualitative Study
• Developing data collection strategies
• Deciding what type of data to gather and how to
gather them
• Deciding from whom to collect the data
• Deciding how to enhance trustworthiness
• Conducting the qualitative study: undertaking
iterative activities through emergent design
• Making sampling decisions
• Deciding what questions to ask
Activities in a Qualitative Study
• Gathering and analyzing the data
• Collecting data
• Evaluating integrity and quality
• Analyzing and interpreting data
• Making new decisions
• Disseminating findings
• Communicating findings
• Utilizing findings in practice and future research
Example narrative in a
phenomenological study
• Taken from the study of Samson, et al. (2022)
Thank you for listening!
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