Type Ia supernova

A Type Ia supernova (read: "type one-A") is a type of supernova that occurs in binary
systems (two stars orbiting one another) in which one of the stars is a white dwarf. The other
star can be anything from a giant star to an even smaller white dwarf.[1]

At the core of a planetary nebula,

Henize 2-428, two white dwarf stars
slightly under one solar mass each
are expected to merge and create a
Type Ia supernova destroying both
in about 700 million years (artist's
impression).

Physically, carbon–oxygen white dwarfs with a low rate of rotation are limited to below
1.44 solar masses (M☉).[2][3] Beyond this "critical mass", they reignite and in some cases
trigger a supernova explosion; this critical mass is often referred to as the Chandrasekhar
mass, but is marginally different from the absolute Chandrasekhar limit, where electron
degeneracy pressure is unable to prevent catastrophic collapse. If a white dwarf gradually
accretes mass from a binary companion, or merges with a second white dwarf, the general
hypothesis is that a white dwarf's core will reach the ignition temperature for carbon fusion
as it approaches the Chandrasekhar mass. Within a few seconds of initiation of nuclear
fusion, a substantial fraction of the matter in the white dwarf undergoes a runaway
reaction, releasing enough energy (1 × 1044 J)[4] to unbind the star in a supernova
explosion.[5]

The Type Ia category of supernova produces a fairly consistent peak luminosity because of
the fixed critical mass at which a white dwarf will explode. Their consistent peak luminosity
allows these explosions to be used as standard candles to measure the distance to their host
galaxies: the visual magnitude of a type Ia supernova, as observed from Earth, indicates its
distance from Earth.
Consensus model

Spectrum of SN 1998aq, a type Ia

supernova, one day after maximum
light in the B band[6]

The Type Ia supernova is a subcategory in the Minkowski–Zwicky supernova classification

scheme, which was devised by German-American astronomer Rudolph Minkowski and Swiss
astronomer Fritz Zwicky.[7] There are several means by which a supernova of this type can
form, but they share a common underlying mechanism. Theoretical astronomers long
believed the progenitor star for this type of supernova is a white dwarf, and empirical
evidence for this was found in 2014 when a Type Ia supernova was observed in the galaxy
Messier 82.[8] When a slowly-rotating[2] carbon–oxygen white dwarf accretes matter from a
companion, it can exceed the Chandrasekhar limit of about 1.44 M☉, beyond which it can no
longer support its weight with electron degeneracy pressure.[9] In the absence of a
countervailing process, the white dwarf would collapse to form a neutron star, in an
accretion-induced non-ejective process,[10] as normally occurs in the case of a white dwarf
that is primarily composed of magnesium, neon, and oxygen.[11]

The current view among astronomers who model Type Ia supernova explosions, however, is
that this limit is never actually attained and collapse is never initiated. Instead, the increase
in pressure and density due to the increasing weight raises the temperature of the core,[3]
and as the white dwarf approaches about 99% of the limit,[12] a period of convection ensues,
lasting approximately 1,000 years.[13] At some point in this simmering phase, a deflagration
flame front is born, powered by carbon fusion. The details of the ignition are still unknown,
including the location and number of points where the flame begins.[14] Oxygen fusion is
initiated shortly thereafter, but this fuel is not consumed as completely as carbon.[15]
 G299 Type Ia supernova remnant.

Once fusion begins, the temperature of the white dwarf increases. A main sequence star
supported by thermal pressure can expand and cool which automatically regulates the
increase in thermal energy. However, degeneracy pressure is independent of temperature;
white dwarfs are unable to regulate temperature in the manner of normal stars, so they are
vulnerable to runaway fusion reactions. The flare accelerates dramatically, in part due to
the Rayleigh–Taylor instability and interactions with turbulence. It is still a matter of
considerable debate whether this flare transforms into a supersonic detonation from a
subsonic deflagration.[13][16]

Regardless of the exact details of how the supernova ignites, it is generally accepted that a
substantial fraction of the carbon and oxygen in the white dwarf fuses into heavier elements
within a period of only a few seconds,[15] with the accompanying release of energy increasing
the internal temperature to billions of degrees. The energy released (1–2 × 1044 J)[17] is more
than sufficient to unbind the star; that is, the individual particles making up the white dwarf
gain enough kinetic energy to fly apart from each other. The star explodes violently and
releases a shock wave in which matter is typically ejected at speeds on the order of
5,000–20,000 km/s, roughly 6% of the speed of light. The energy released in the explosion
also causes an extreme increase in luminosity. The typical visual absolute magnitude of
Type Ia supernovae is Mv = −19.3 (about 5 billion times brighter than the Sun), with little
variation.[13] The Type Ia supernova leaves no compact remnant, but the whole mass of the
former white dwarf dissipates through space.

The theory of this type of supernova is similar to that of novae, in which a white dwarf
accretes matter more slowly and does not approach the Chandrasekhar limit. In the case of a
nova, the infalling matter causes a hydrogen fusion surface explosion that does not disrupt
the star.[13]
Type Ia supernovae differ from Type II supernovae, which are caused by the cataclysmic
explosion of the outer layers of a massive star as its core collapses, powered by release of
gravitational potential energy via neutrino emission.[18]

Formation

Formation process

An accretion disc forms around a

compact body (such as a white dwarf)
stripping gas from a companion giant
star. NASA image
 Supercomputer simulation of the
explosion phase of the deflagration-to-
detonation model of supernova
formation.

Single degenerate progenitors

One model for the formation of this category of supernova is a close binary star system. The
progenitor binary system consists of main sequence stars, with the primary possessing
more mass than the secondary. Being greater in mass, the primary is the first of the pair to
evolve onto the asymptotic giant branch, where the star's envelope expands considerably. If
the two stars share a common envelope then the system can lose significant amounts of
mass, reducing the angular momentum, orbital radius and period. After the primary has
degenerated into a white dwarf, the secondary star later evolves into a red giant and the
stage is set for mass accretion onto the primary. During this final shared-envelope phase,
the two stars spiral in closer together as angular momentum is lost. The resulting orbit can
have a period as brief as a few hours.[19][20] If the accretion continues long enough, the white
dwarf may eventually approach the Chandrasekhar limit.

The white dwarf companion could also accrete matter from other types of companions,
including a subgiant or (if the orbit is sufficiently close) even a main sequence star. The
actual evolutionary process during this accretion stage remains uncertain, as it can depend
both on the rate of accretion and the transfer of angular momentum to the white dwarf
companion.[21]

It has been estimated that single degenerate progenitors account for no more than 20% of all
Type Ia supernovae.[22]

Double degenerate progenitors

A second possible mechanism for triggering a Type Ia supernova is the merger of two white
dwarfs whose combined mass exceeds the Chandrasekhar limit. The resulting merger is
called a super-Chandrasekhar mass white dwarf.[23][24] In such a case, the total mass would
not be constrained by the Chandrasekhar limit.

Collisions of solitary stars within the Milky Way occur only once every 107 to 1013 years; far
less frequently than the appearance of novae.[25] Collisions occur with greater frequency in
the dense core regions of globular clusters[26] (cf. blue stragglers). A likely scenario is a
collision with a binary star system, or between two binary systems containing white dwarfs.
This collision can leave behind a close binary system of two white dwarfs. Their orbit decays
and they merge through their shared envelope.[27] A study based on SDSS spectra found 15
double systems of the 4,000 white dwarfs tested, implying a double white dwarf merger every
100 years in the Milky Way: this rate matches the number of Type Ia supernovae detected in
our neighborhood.[28]

A double degenerate scenario is one of several explanations proposed for the anomalously
massive (2 M☉) progenitor of SN 2003fg.[29][30] It is the only possible explanation for
SNR 0509-67.5, as all possible models with only one white dwarf have been ruled out.[31] It
has also been strongly suggested for SN 1006, given that no companion star remnant has
been found there.[22] Observations made with NASA's Swift space telescope ruled out existing
supergiant or giant companion stars of every Type Ia supernova studied. The supergiant
companion's blown out outer shell should emit X-rays, but this glow was not detected by
Swift's XRT (X-ray telescope) in the 53 closest supernova remnants. For 12 Type Ia
supernovae observed within 10 days of the explosion, the satellite's UVOT (ultraviolet/optical
telescope) showed no ultraviolet radiation originating from the heated companion star's
surface hit by the supernova shock wave, meaning there were no red giants or larger stars
orbiting those supernova progenitors. In the case of SN 2011fe, the companion star must
have been smaller than the Sun, if it existed.[32] The Chandra X-ray Observatory revealed that
the X-ray radiation of five elliptical galaxies and the bulge of the Andromeda Galaxy is 30–50
times fainter than expected. X-ray radiation should be emitted by the accretion discs of Type
Ia supernova progenitors. The missing radiation indicates that few white dwarfs possess
accretion discs, ruling out the common, accretion-based model of Ia supernovae.[33] Inward
spiraling white dwarf pairs are strongly-inferred candidate sources of gravitational waves,
although they have not been directly observed.

Double degenerate scenarios raise questions about the applicability of Type Ia supernovae
as standard candles, since total mass of the two merging white dwarfs varies significantly,
meaning luminosity also varies.

Type Iax

It has been proposed that a group of sub-luminous supernovae should be classified as

Type Iax.[34][35] This type of supernova may not always completely destroy the white dwarf
progenitor, but instead leave behind a zombie star.[36] Known examples of type Iax
supernovae include: the historical supernova SN 1181, SN 1991T, SN 1991bg, SN 2002cx, and SN
2012Z.

The supernova SN 1181 is believed to be associated with the supernova remnant Pa 30 and its
central star IRAS 00500+6713, which is the result of a merger of a CO white dwarf and an ONe
white dwarf. This makes Pa 30 and IRAS 00500+6713 the only SN Iax remnant in the Milky
Way.[37]
Observation

Supernova remnant N103B taken by

the Hubble Space Telescope.[38]

Unlike the other types of supernovae, Type Ia supernovae generally occur in all types of
galaxies, including ellipticals. They show no preference for regions of current stellar
formation.[39] As white dwarf stars form at the end of a star's main sequence evolutionary
period, such a long-lived star system may have wandered far from the region where it
originally formed. Thereafter a close binary system may spend another million years in the
mass transfer stage (possibly forming persistent nova outbursts) before the conditions are
ripe for a Type Ia supernova to occur.[40]

A long-standing problem in astronomy has been the identification of supernova

progenitors. Direct observation of a progenitor would provide useful constraints on
supernova models. As of 2006, the search for such a progenitor had been ongoing for longer
than a century.[41] Observation of the supernova SN 2011fe has provided useful constraints.
Previous observations with the Hubble Space Telescope did not show a star at the position of
the event, thereby excluding a red giant as the source. The expanding plasma from the
explosion was found to contain carbon and oxygen, making it likely the progenitor was a
white dwarf primarily composed of these elements.[42] Similarly, observations of the nearby
SN PTF 11kx,[43] discovered January 16, 2011 (UT) by the Palomar Transient Factory (PTF), lead
to the conclusion that this explosion arises from single-degenerate progenitor, with a red
giant companion, thus suggesting there is no single progenitor path to SN Ia. Direct
observations of the progenitor of PTF 11kx were reported in the August 24 edition of Science
and support this conclusion, and also show that the progenitor star experienced periodic
nova eruptions before the supernova – another surprising discovery. [43][44] However, later
analysis revealed that the circumstellar material is too massive for the single-degenerate
scenario, and fits better the core-degenerate scenario.[45]
In May 2015, NASA reported that the Kepler space observatory observed KSN 2011b, a Type Ia
supernova in the process of exploding. Details of the pre-nova moments may help scientists
better judge the quality of Type Ia supernovae as standard candles, which is an important link
in the argument for dark energy.[46]

In September 2021, astronomers reported that the Hubble Space Telescope had taken three
images of a Type Ia supernova through a gravitational lens. This supernova appeared at three
different times in the evolution of its brightness due to the differing path length of the light
in the three images; at −24, 92, and 107 days from peak luminosity. A fourth image will appear
in 2037 allowing observation of the entire luminosity cycle of the supernova.[47]

Light curve

This plot of luminosity (relative to

the Sun, L0) versus time shows the
characteristic light curve for a
Type Ia supernova. The peak is
primarily due to the decay of nickel
(Ni), while the later stage is
powered by cobalt (Co).

Light curve for type Ia SN 2018gv

Type Ia supernovae have a characteristic light curve, their graph of luminosity as a function
of time after the explosion. Near the time of maximal luminosity, the spectrum contains
lines of intermediate-mass elements from oxygen to calcium; these are the main
constituents of the outer layers of the star. Months after the explosion, when the outer
layers have expanded to the point of transparency, the spectrum is dominated by light
emitted by material near the core of the star, heavy elements synthesized during the
explosion; most prominently isotopes close to the mass of iron (iron-peak elements). The
radioactive decay of nickel-56 through cobalt-56 to iron-56 produces high-energy photons,
which dominate the energy output of the ejecta at intermediate to late times.[13]

The use of Type Ia supernovae to measure precise distances was pioneered by a collaboration
of Chilean and US astronomers, the Calán/Tololo Supernova Survey.[48] In a series of papers
in the 1990s the survey showed that while Type Ia supernovae do not all reach the same peak
luminosity, a single parameter measured from the light curve can be used to correct
unreddened Type Ia supernovae to standard candle values. The original correction to
standard candle value is known as the Phillips relationship[49] and was shown by this group to
be able to measure relative distances to 7% accuracy.[50] The cause of this uniformity in peak
brightness is related to the amount of nickel-56 produced in white dwarfs presumably
exploding near the Chandrasekhar limit.[51]

The similarity in the absolute luminosity profiles of nearly all known Type Ia supernovae has
led to their use as a secondary standard candle in extragalactic astronomy.[52] Improved
calibrations of the Cepheid variable distance scale[53] and direct geometric distance
measurements to NGC 4258 from the dynamics of maser emission[54] when combined with the
Hubble diagram of the Type Ia supernova distances have led to an improved value of the
Hubble constant.

In 1998, observations of distant Type Ia supernovae indicated the unexpected result that the
universe seems to undergo an accelerating expansion.[55][56] Three members from two teams
were subsequently awarded Nobel Prizes for this discovery.[57]

Subtypes

Supernova remnant SNR 0454-67.2

is likely the result of a Type Ia
supernova explosion.[58]
There is significant diversity within the class of Type Ia supernovae. Reflecting this, a
plethora of sub-classes have been identified. Two prominent and well-studied examples
include 1991T-likes, an overluminous subclass that exhibits particularly
strong iron absorption lines and abnormally small silicon features,[59] and 1991bg-likes, an
exceptionally dim subclass characterized by strong early titanium
absorption features and rapid photometric and spectral evolution.[60] Despite their
abnormal luminosities, members of both peculiar groups can be standardized by use of the
Phillips relation to determine distance.[61]

See also

Carbon detonation

Cosmic distance ladder

History of supernova observation

List of supernova remnants

Near-Earth supernova

Supernova remnant

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External links

List of all known Type Ia supernovae ([Link] Archived (http

s://[Link]/web/20220202231856/[Link] 2022-02-
02 at the Wayback Machine at The Open Supernova Catalog ([Link] Archived (h
ttps://[Link]/web/20160303230459/[Link] 2016-03-03 at the
Wayback Machine.

Falck, Bridget (2006). "Type Ia Supernova Cosmology with ADEPT" ([Link]

g/web/20071030233615/[Link] . Johns
Hopkins University. Archived from the original ([Link]
[Link]) on 2007-10-30. Retrieved 2007-05-20.
"Sloan Supernova Survey" ([Link] . Sloan
Digital Sky Survey. February 27, 2007. Retrieved 2007-05-25.

"Novae and Supernovae" ([Link]

[Link]/Astronomy/[Link]) . [Link]. Archived from the original (htt
p://[Link]/Astronomy/[Link]) on 2007-08-15. Retrieved
2007-05-25.

"Source for major type of supernova" ([Link]

pernova/) . Pole Star Publications Ltd. August 6, 2003. Retrieved 2007-11-25. (A Type Ia
progenitor found)
"Novae and Supernovae explosions found" ([Link]
[Link] . [Link]. Archived
from the original ([Link] on 2007-08-15.
Retrieved 2007-05-25.

SNFactory Shows Type Ia ‘Standard Candles’ Have Many Masses ([Link]

eb/20140316164637/[Link]
standard-candles%E2%80%99-have-many-masses/) (March 4, 2014)

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