Two sources

 Primary Data Capture (first-hand collection)

 Digitizing
 Tablet digitizing
 Heads up digitizing
 Automatic digitizing
 Scanning
 Other point measurements (in text files)
 Census data
 GPS collections (will be taught later)
 Aerial photographs (will be taught later)
 Remote sensing data (will be taught later)

 Secondary Data Capture (from others)

 Published or released data (originally primary data)
 All primary data from others are secondary data for you and
me
 Digitizing
 Often, digital data for a GIS project is not
available, so it must be created from other
existing sources like paper maps
 Digitizing is the process where features on
a map or image are converted into digital
format for use by a GIS.
 Digitizing converts the features on the map
into three basic data types:
 Points – zero dimensional objects
 Lines – one dimensional objects Real World

Polygons – two dimensional objects

600
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
 1 B G
500
Trees
2 B G G
3 B
400
4 BG G Trees
Y-AXIS
5 B G G 300
6 B G BK House
7 B 200
8 B B G River
9 B 100
10 B 100 200 300 400 500 600
X-AXIS
Raster Representation Vector Representation

©Arthur J. Lembo Source: Defense Mapping School

National Imagery and Mapping Agency
Cornell University
Digitizing
 There are three primary methods for
digitizing spatial information:
 Manual Methods include:
 Tablet Digitizing
 Heads-up Digitizing
 An Automated Method includes:
 Scanning and Vectorization

©Arthur J. Lembo
Cornell University
Tablet Digitizing
 Tablet digitizing requires a person to
enter coordinate information through
the use of a digitizing tablet and
digitizing puck
 A digitizing tablet is a hardened
surface with a fine electrical wire grid
under the surface.
 Digitizing tablets are either hardened,
more stationary tables or rollup boards
designed for portability
 A digitizing puck is an electrical
device with cross hairs and multiple
buttons to perform data entry
operations
 An operator then enters the information
using the puck.

©Arthur J. Lembo
Cornell University
 Tablet Digitizing – how it works
 When the user places the digitizing puck
over a location on the tablet, and
presses one of the buttons, the wire
mesh beneath the tablet records the
location of the puck
 Digitizing tablets are very accurate, with
more expensive tablets able to measure
objects to within 0.006 mm. This means
that if you were to press the entry
button on the puck continuously at one
spot, the coordinate value received from
the tablet would only vary by 0.006 mm. x,y
 The coordinate, as referenced by the
tablet is then stored in the computer.

©Arthur J. Lembo
Cornell University
Tablet Digitizing – the problems
 Tablet digitizing is not without its
problems:
 Tablet digitizing is tedious, and “operator fatigue”
is very common. When digitizing for 8 hours a
day, one should take plenty of breaks! As an
operator gets tired, he may also tend to get
careless.
 Due to environmental conditions (such as
humidity), the source materials may actually
change (due to shrinking and expansion). This
may not seem like a big deal, but consider that on
a 1:100,000 scale map, a slight shift in the map on
the tablet (if you accidentally bump or move the
map), or a slight shrinking of the map of only 0.1
inches would equal an 800 foot shift in the real
world. The high accuracy is only achieved with
more expensive digitizing tablets.
 If you notice the person on the right, the actual
map is usually a foot or two away from the
operator. So, small subtitles in the geographic
objects may be missed when you are so far
away ©Arthur J. Lembo
Cornell University
Tablet Digitizing – why bother?
 Digitizing objects on a map (like a river) requires that
every bend and turn be captured using the puck.
Therefore, digitizing is very labor intensive. So, you
would be well within your rights to ask “why bother”?
Here are just two reasons:
 Manual digitizing is quite accurate when performed with care.

 It is also the most common method for entering spatial

information into a GIS.
 We are probably seeing a trend away from tablet
digitizing toward heads-up digitizing or raster to vector
conversion, especially with the reduction in price for
scanners. But for now, tablet digitizing is one of the
most effective methods for entering spatial information.

©Arthur J. Lembo
Cornell University
Digitizing – heads up digitizing

 Heads up digitizing is a combination of scanning and

manual digitizing.
 The main steps in heads up digitizing typically include:
 Scanning the map – a user can scan the map at a high
resolution.
 Registering the map – using the same transformation
methods previously discussed, the user can enter control
points on screen and transform the scanned image to real
world coordinates.
 Digitizing the map – the user can zoom to specific areas
on screen and trace points, lines, or polygons on the map.
Because the maps are already in the correct geographic
coordinate system anything digitized on top of the map will
also be in the correct coordinate system.

©Arthur J. Lembo
Cornell University
Digitizing – how its done

 Although methods vary, the typical steps for

digitizing a paper map require the following:
 Physical Preparation
 Digitizer Set up
 Map preparation
 Digital Preparation
 Map registration
 Digital Collection
 Feature collection
 Feature correction
 Save, save, save…
Digitizing - registration
 The first step in registering a map
requires selecting control points
(locations on the map that have real
world coordinates assigned to them.
You may hear people call these “tic”
marks. Good tic marks may be the
grid tics on a USGS quad sheet, or
you can create your own. But they
should have a “bullseye” shape to it,
and associated real world
coordinates.
 The user will place the puck over the
tic marks, and press the button to
record the tablet coordinates. The
user then enters the real world
© Manifold
coordinates by hand. After control
points are selected, a match between
the tablet coordinates and the real
world coordinates are established and
a mathematical relationship is
formed.
 The tablet coordinates are then
transformed to real world coordinates
through the mathematical
relationship
 Digitizing - transformation
 Transforming paper coordinates to real world
coordinates typically uses a polynomial
transformation that models a rotation, translation,
and scale change.
 That is, the paper coordinates have to be shifted
(translation) both in the x direction and the y
direction. Also, the map may not be oriented
North/South. So, the map will have to be
rotated. Finally, the tablet coordinates are in
mm, and the real world coordinates may be in
meters. So, the entire coordinate system has to
be enlarged (scaling).
 A common transformation is the conformal
coordinate transformation that uses the 4
transformation parameters we just spoke of
(rotation, scale, translation of the x coordinate,
translation of the y coordinate) to “map” the © ESRI
paper coordinates to the real world coordinates.
 After the coordinates are transformed, the
transformed coordinates are compared against
the original coordinates. The differences between
the transformed coordinates and real coordinates
represent the error. Lets look at a mathematical
example
Automated Digitizing
 Tools to automatically convert a raster scan to
vector lines
 Requires a very clean scan
 Scans can be cleaned using raster cleanup tools
 The vector files usually require cleanup after
conversion
 If you start with a clean image it can save a lot of
time
 If you image is not clean manual digitizing may
be faster
Automated Tools
 Gridline
 Command line ArcInfo command
 Need a near prefect image
 Can have a large amount of cleanup after
conversion
 ArcScan Extension in ArcGIS
 New extension since 8.3
 Has clean up tools
 First tools for ArcGIS that work well
Secondary Data
 Large amount of data is now available
 Always check for existing data before
creating it
 Several groups of data exist
 Free data from the government
 Government data available for a fee
 Internet map servers
 Commercial data
 Data from other GIS users
Free Government Data
 Large amounts of data are available from
 USGS
 Census
 NOAA
USGS Data
 DEM = Digital Elevation Model
 NED = National Elevation Dataset
 NHD = National Hydrography Dataset
 DRG = Digital Raster Graphic
 DLG = Digital Line Graph
 DOQQ = Digital Ortho Quarter Quad
 GNIS = Geographic Names Information System
 LULC = Land Use Land Cover
 NLCD = National Land Cover Data
DEM
 Available in Several Resolutions
 3-arc-second
 1:250,000 Intended scale
 Approximately 90m Cell size
 2-arc-second
 35% of US coverage complete
 100% for New Mexico
 1:100,000 intended scale
 Approximately 60m cell size
 30m DEM
 1:24,000 intended scale
 Production stopped in favor of 10m DEMs
 10m DEM
 1:24,000 intended scale
NED
 Created from the 30m and 10m DEMs
 No Gaps, Units are standardized
 100% coverage for the US
NHD http://nhd.usgs.gov
 National Hydrography Data Set
 Contains information about naturally occurring
and constructed bodies of water
 Has links to EPA RC3 river reach files
 Has links to GNIS
 Is setup for network modeling
 Two resolutions are available
 24k In progress
 100k Complete for New Mexico
 Files are being reformatted from Coverages to
Geodatabases
DRG
 Scans of the USGS Topographic Maps
 Scanned at 250 dpi or greater and
resampled back to 250 dpi
 Earlier maps may be at a lower resolution
 Useful as base maps
DLG
 http://edc.usgs.gov/products/map/dlg.ht
ml
Layer Feature Type

Public Land Survey System (PLSS) Township, range, and section lines

Boundaries State, county, city, and other national and State lands such as forests and parks

Transportation Roads and trails, railroads, pipelines and transmission lines

Hydrography Flowing water, standing water, and wetlands

Hypsography Contours and supplementary spot elevations

Non-vegetative features Glacial moraine, lava, sand, and gravel

Survey control and markers Horizontal and vertical monuments (third order or better)

Manmade features Cultural features, such as building, not collected in other data categories

Vegetative surface cover Woods, scrub, orchards, and vineyards

 GNIS http://gnis.usgs.gov
 Geographic Names Information System
About GNIS
The Geographic Names Information System (GNIS), developed by the USGS in
cooperation with the U.S. Board on Geographic Names (BGN), contains
information about almost 2 million physical and cultural geographic features in the
United States and its territories. The Federally recognized name of each feature
described in the data base is identified, and references are made to a feature's
location by State, county, and geographic coordinates. The GNIS is our Nation's
official repository of domestic geographic names information.
The GNIS also contains information on geographic names in Antarctica which are
approved by the BGN for use by the Federal Government.
Information about foreign geographic feature names can be obtained from the
GEOnet Names Server (GNS), developed and maintained by the
National Imagery and Mapping Agency.
LULC
 http://edc.usgs.gov/products/landcover/lulc.html
Product Description
Land Use and Land Cover (LULC) data consists of historical land use and land cover classification
data that was based primarily on the manual interpretation of 1970's and 1980's aerial photography.
Secondary sources included land use maps and surveys. There are 21 possible categories of cover
type. Along with the LULC files, associated maps are included which provide additional information on
political units, hydrologic units, census county subdivisions, and Federal and State land ownership.

LULC data is available for the conterminous U.S. and Hawaii, but coverage is not complete for all
areas. The data is based on 1:100,000- and 1:250,000-scale USGS topographic quadrangles.

All LULC files are cast to the Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) projection, and referenced to the
North American Datum of 1983 (NAD83). The files are available in GIRAS (Geographic Information
Retrieval and Analysis System) or CTG (Composite Theme Grid) format.

The spatial resolution for all LULC files will depend on the format and feature type. Files in GIRAS
format will have a minimum polygon area of 10 acres (4 hectares) with a minimum width of 660 feet
(200 meters) for manmade features. Non-urban or natural features have a minimum polygon area of
40 acres (16 hectares) with a minimum width of 1320 feet (400 meters). Files in CTG format will have
a resolution of 30 meters.

All LULC data is available via FTP download only. LULC data in ArcInfo export format is also available
from the EPA (1:250,000 scale only).
NLCD
 http://landcover.usgs.gov/prodescription.asp
Product Description:
Derived from the early to mid-1990s Landsat Thematic Mapper satellite data, the National
Land Cover Data (NLCD) is a 21-class land cover classification scheme applied consistently
over the United States. The spatial resolution of the data is 30 meters and mapped in the
Albers Conic Equal Area projection, NAD 83. The NLCD are provided on a state-by-state
basis. The state data sets were cut out from larger "regional" data sets that are mosaics of
Landsat TM scenes. At this time, all of the NLCD state files are available for free download
as 8-bit binary files and some states are also available on CD-ROM as a Geo-TIFF.

The TM multi-band mosaics were processed using an unsupervised clustering algorithm.

Both leaves-off and leaves-on data sets were analyzed. The resulting clusters were then
labeled using aerial photography and ground observations. Clusters that represented more
than one land cover category were also identified and, using various ancillary data sets,
models developed to split the confused clusters into the correct land cover categories.
Click here for a more detailed discussion of the mapping and classification procedures.
A hierarchical land cover classification scheme of 21 classes was developed and applied in
a consistent manner across the entire United States. The classification scheme follows:

21-Class National Land Cover Data Key:

NOTE - All Classes May NOT Be Represented in a specific state data set. The class number
represents the digital value of the class in the data set (for a detailed description of each
class, see any state "readme" file).
TIGER
 Topologically Integrated Geographic Encoding
and Referencing
 http://www.census.gov/geo/www/tiger/overview.htm
 is the name for the system and digital database developed at the U.S.
Census Bureau to support its mapping needs for the Decennial Census and
other Bureau programs.
 The design of the TIGER® database adapts the theories of topology, graph
theory, and associated fields of mathematics to provide a disciplined,
mathematical description for the geographic structure of the United States
and its territories. The topological structure of the TIGER® data base
defines the location and relationship of streets, rivers, railroads, and other
features to each other and to the numerous geographic entities for which
the Census Bureau tabulates data from its censuses and sample surveys.
It is designed to assure no duplication of these features or areas.
NOAA
 Shoreline Data
 http://www.csc.noaa.gov/shoreline/data.html
 Estuarine Bathymetry
 http://sposerver.nos.noaa.gov/bathy/
 NCDC = National Climatic Data Center
 NCDC is the world's largest active archive
of weather data
 http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/ncdc.html
NCDC
 NCDC archives 99 percent of all NOAA data,
including over 320 million paper records; 2.5
million microfiche records; over 1.2 petabytes of
digital data residing in a mass storage
environment. NCDC has satellite weather images
back to 1960. NCDC annually publishes over 1.2
million copies of climate publications that are sent
to individual users and 33,000 subscribers. NCDC
maintains over 500 digital data sets, receives
almost 2,000,000 requests each year, and
records over 100 million hits per year on the
website.
Remote sensing data
 NASA (USGS) EOS datagate way
 http://edcimswww.cr.usgs.gov/pub/imswelcome/
 NASA lunar and planetary science data
 http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/planets/mars
 ESA (European Space Agency) Planetary
Science Archive
 http://www.rssd.esa.int/index.php?project=PSA
Other Important GIS Data Websites
 http://seamless.usgs.gov/viewer.htm
 http://gisdata.usgs.gov
 http://edcsns17.cr.usgs.gov/EarthExplorer/
 http://data.geocomm.com/
 http://www.texasview.org/
 http://www.tnris.state.tx.us/