THEORIES OF CHILDHOOD :

PIAGET, VYGOTSKY, BRUNER,

MONTESSORI, AND GARDNER

English for Young Learners Material

Development and Instructional Design 6A
Lecturer: Miss Ika Sulistyarini, [Link].

[Link]
Group 1
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Nur’aini Choirunnisa

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Arizky Nora Fitria

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Rassiyani Dwi Yuliana

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Sinta Nur Hayati
Piaget's Theory
Jean Piaget's Cognitive Development
According to Piaget, cognitive development is the progress of logical reasoning from infancy to maturity that occurs in four phas
es ; sensorimotor stage, preoperational stage, concrete operational stage and formal operational stage.

a. Sensorimotor Stage (0 - 2 years) : Cognitive activity is based on sensory and motor components. This stage of cognitive d
evelopment is divided into six substages :
Substage 1: Simple Reflexes : This period lasts from birth until one month. The newborn uses a variety of motion patterns, includi
ng sucking, biting, and grabbing.
Substage 2: First habits and primary circular reactions : This substage occurs between the ages of 1 and 4 months. For example,
may repeat actionsbecause the child finds them intriguing or enjoyable such as sucking their thumbs or flailing their arms and legs
.
Substage 3: Secondary circular reactions : The baby's interest in the surroundings grows in the third substage. This time lasts fro
m 4 to 8 months. Piaget referred to these designs as "secondary circular responses" because the focus of attention shifts away fro
m oneself and onto the external environment. For instance, the toddler may pick up a rattle and continue to shake it.
Substage 4: Coordination of secondary circular reactions : This substage lasts between 8 and 12 months. Example : Child may m
ove one thing out of the way in order to reach for another.
Substage 5: Tertiary circular reactions : This substage begins at 12 months and lasts until the kid is 18 months old. During this per
iod, the newborn conducts tiny experiments to learn about the surroundings. For example, an infant may experiment by dropping a
toy or food from a high chair onto the floor to see what effect it has.
Substage 6: Beginnings of thought : This substage is distinguished by the onset of insight and creativity. This period lasts from 18
months and 2 years. The ability for mental images is the most significant achievement of this period. For example, the child's play
gradually incorporates imagined animals.
b. Pre-operational stage (2 - 7 years) : The child's use of symbolic thinking develops during the pre-
operational period. This stage occurs between the ages of 2 and 7 years. The infant begins to create
mental representations of experiences and concepts throughout this period. They can communicate
through words, gestures, and symbols.

c. Concrete Operational Stage (7 - 11 years) : At this stage, the child is mature enough to use logical
thinking or operations, but only for existing physical objects. In this stage, the child has lost the
tendency towards animism and artificialism. His egocentrism is reduced and his ability in conservation
tasks is getting better. However, without a physical object in front of them, children at the concrete
operational stage still have great difficulty completing logical tasks. (Matt Jarvis, 2011:149- 150).

d. Formal Operational Stage (11 - 15 years) : At the age of 12 years and over, a new operating period
arises. During this period, children can use their concrete operations to form more complex operations.
(Matt Jarvis, 2011:111). Progress in children during this period is that they do not need to think with the
help of concrete objects or events, they have the ability to think abstractly. Children are already able to
understand the form of the argument and are not confused by the sides of the argument and are
therefore called formal operations.
Vygotsky 's Theory
1. Cognitive Development Theory
According to Vygotsky's theory of cognitive development, it focuses on how children develop in the presence of
social interactions with other people. According to him, children's development does not only come from within th
emselves, but is also influenced by the social environment.
Both of these factors have an important role in the cognitive development of children. Vygotsky's theory, justifies
Piaget's theory, on the part of "the stages of child development in the cognitive area occur gradually", but disagree
s on the part of "the child is involved in his own growth". According to him, social and cultural factors cannot be se
parated in the cognitive, mental and affective development of children found in the community.

Vygotsky's thinking is based on three main concepts, this is quoted from the SMA Mathematics Training Module (2
016), the three main concepts include:

a. Intellectuals will develop when individuals find new ideas and have difficulty associating them with things that
happen.
b. Intellectual development will occur when interacting with others.
c. Teachers as facilitators and mediators in student learning.
2. Vygotsky's Learning Theory
According to Vygotsky "humans are not like animals which only react to the environment, humans have the
capacity to change the environment according to their needs". From this thought, social constructivism theory was
created which has a focus on children's cognitive development through social interaction. Vygotsky put forward th
e theory that the acquisition of knowledge and cognitive development of a person is in line with the theory of socio
genesis.

Vygotsky's learning theory is divided into 3, namely:

a. Genetic law, namely when a person's abilities will grow through two backgrounds, such as the social and
psychological environment (self-image and own natural abilities).

b. The zone of proximal development is also divided into two levels, the first is the actual development that can
be seen from the ability to complete tasks or solve problems on their own. Second, potential development can
be seen from the child's ability to complete tasks or solve problems on their own with the help of others.

c. Mediation divided into cognitive and metacognitive mediation : Cognitive mediation is the use of cognitive tools
to solve problems related to knowledge. Meanwhile, metacognitive mediation is a semiotic tool used for self-re
gulation, such as planning, monitoring, checking, and self-evaluation.
3. Vygotsky's Theory of Proximal Development
Reporting from the [Link] page, Vygotsky put forward the concept of the zone of proximal
development (Zone of Proximal Development), meaning the distance between actual
development and potential development. A person's ability to complete tasks and solve problems
independently will appear at the level of actual development. Meanwhile, the level of potential dev
elopment can be seen from a person's ability to complete tasks and solve problems when under a
dult guidance or it could also be when collaborating with more competent [Link] proximal zon
e is characterized by functions or abilities that are immature and are still in the process of maturati
on.

4. Scaffolding
Scaffolding is also a theory from Vygotsky, which is the effort of the teacher and can be practiced
by parents, then given to students to achieve success. This scaffolding is a big help at the beginn
ing of learning given to children. Then the assistance will be reduced, in order to train children to
be responsible for problems and solve their own problems.
5. Language and Mind
According to Vygotsky, humans use language to plan, guide, and monitor their behavior. Not only for social
communication, but language is also used to help complete tasks. Vygotsky's opinion regarding the concepts of
language and thought is divided into two kinds, namely private speech and inner speech.
Selfconversation (private speech) is the child's habit of speaking loudly to himself without the intention of talking
to other people. This is normal for children aged 3-5 years. Meanwhile, Inner speech is a situation in which a chi
ld uses his own speaking ability, applied in communicating or interacting with people around him, to plan and co
ntrol his behavior.

6. Practical Examples of Vygotsky's Theory in Teaching and Learning

According to Vygotsky, learning is a process that involves two important elements. First, learning is a biologic
al process as a basic process. Second, the process is psychologically as a higher process and is essentially
related to the sociocultural environment.
Examples of the implementation of Vygotsky's cognitive development theory in the teaching-learning process are as
follows:

a. Create cooperative classroom settings.

b. Teachers and peers are very influential on cognitive development in children.
c. The idea of a creative work group is extended to private peer teaching.
d. Children who are involved in active learning must still be accompanied by the teacher in every activity carried out.
Brunner's Theory
Brunner's theory is the result of the thoughts of Jerome Bruner, Jerome Bruner is a developmental psychologist and cognitive
learning psychologist. Bruner was also a psychology professor at Harvard University from 1952-1972 and at Oxford University from
1972-1980.
Bruner's basic idea is the opinion of Piaget who states that children must play an active role in learning in the classroom, so that
Brunner's Theory of the Learning Process has a perspective that involves three processes that occur at almost the same time. The
three processes are:

1. The information stage, which is the initial stage of acquiring new knowledge or experience where in each lesson a certain
amount of information is obtained which functions as adding to old knowledge, expanding, deepening and possibly new
information contradicting old information.

2. The transformation stage, namely the stage of understanding, digesting and analyzing new knowledge and transforming it
into a new form that may be useful for other things, namely information must be analyzed and transformed into a more
abstract or conceptual form so that it can be used in more wide.

3. Evaluation stage, namely to find out whether the results of the transformation in the second stage are correct or not. The
evaluation is then assessed so that any knowledge obtained is known and the transformation can be used to understand
other phenomena.
According to Bruner, cognitive development also goes through three stages determined by how to see the
environment, namely enactive (0-2 years), iconic (2-4 years), and symbolic (5-7 years).
1. The enactive stage (0-2 years), a person carries out activities in an effort to understand the surrounding
environment. This means that in understanding the world around him, children use motor knowledge. For
example through bites, touches, grips and so on.

2. Iconic stage (2-4 years), a person understands objects or the world through pictures and verbal visualization.
That is, in understanding the world around them, children learn through parables (appearance) and
comparisons (comparison).

3. Symbolic stage (5-7 years), children already have ideas and ideas that are strongly influenced by their
language and logic skills. By understanding the world around them, children learn through symbols such as
language, logic and mathematics. Communication takes place using several symbol systems. The more
mature a person is in his thinking process, the more dominant his symbol system is.
Montessori’s Theory
The Montessori method was developed by Maria Montessori (1870-1952), an Italian woman. From childhood, Montessori was known
for being intelligent and strong-willed. He was a medical academic in Italy and eventually succeeded in becoming a doctor.
Maria Montessori used her scientific abilities, experience and his insights to develop an educational method that goes against patterns
conventional education. Montessori then perfected his method so that it can also be applied to children in general. In January 1907, he
founded his own preschool called "Casa dei Bambini" (meaning, children's house).

The concept in the Montessori method is the theory of the sensitive period. The sensitive period is a time when children are open, intere
sted, motivated and able to learn developmental areas with motivation from within themselves. This inner motivation for learning will be
seen from the child's persistence in doing something without stopping, without getting tired, repeatedly for a long time, such as playing
with water or writing on a blackboard or paper, until he is proficient at it.

According to Montessori, there are 4 (four) phases of child development and each phase has special characteristics which are called s
ensitive periods.
Developmental phase I (age 0-6 years). This phase is referred to as the absorbent mind phase, consisting of a subconscious or uncons
cious absorption stage at the age of 0-3 years, and a conscious or conscious absorption stage at the age of 3-6 years. The motto in this
phase is "help me to do it myself".
Sensitive periods in this phase include:

• Interest in order (1-5 years old)

• Interest in moving (age 0 to before 4 years)
• Interest in exploring (age 2 to 3.5 years)
• Interest and develop the five senses (age 3.5 to 6 years)
• Interest in small objects (age 1.5 to about 4 years)
• Interest in meaningful activities (2.5 to 5 years old)
• Interest in language (early a few months after birth until around 6 years)
• Interest in music (2-6 years old)
• Interest in mathematics (4-6 years old)
• Interest in space or spatial relationships (age 4-8 years)
• Interest in ethics and manners (2.5 to 6 years old)

The task of the Montessori practicing parent is to be sensitive to the cues of a child's sensitive period. For example, at the age
of 0-6 years, children like concrete things and are interested in small objects, so parents provide something that is made
according to the child's sensitive period, using props (manipulatives) that stimulate the child's five senses.
Homeschooler parents who want to apply this method must practice being an objective and careful observer, so they can
respond to cues from their children creatively and flexibly. For example, if you see that your child likes music, parents need to
support him by preparing an environment that helps children explore music, for example introducing musical instruments,
playing musical instruments, singing, making their own musical instruments, etc. This does not have to be expensive, as long
as parents can use objects or materials in the surrounding environment.

So it can be concluded that with this Montessori method, parents must be sensitive to the cues of the child's sensitive period
and support it, because if the sensitive period has already passed but the child is not stimulated properly, later it can be too late
in the sense that developing it will require greater effort. On the other hand, if the parents are sensitive and support the child in
their sensitive period, the development of the child's skills does not require much effort. Children will search and do it
repeatedly and try until they are proficient.
Gardner Theory
The concept of intelligence put forward by Howard Gardner, the inventor of the concept of Multiple Intelligences, is able to eliminate the view o
f "smart and unintelligent children" because according to Gardner all children are inherently intelligent and unique. Gardner suggests that ever
yone has 9 types of intelligence but each has different levels. All children are unique, this idea which is firmly held by Gardner in his theory, he
believes that there is no child who is not equipped with an intelligence, through what many people think is not an intelligence Gardner tries to r
eveal from another perspective, this theory of multiple intelligences / multiple intelligences offers a model for action in accordance with the beli
ef that all children have advantages (Gardner, 2008). In his book The frames of minds first edition in 1983 defines intelligence as the ability to s
olve a problem and create a product that is of value in a culture.

By getting to know Howard Gardner's theory of Multiple Intelligences, educators should be able to understand better in seeing the differences i
n each individual/student so that a teacher/instructor can determine teaching methods and the right type of evaluation for each student. This re
ally needs to be done so that students feel more accepted and facilitated in developing their potential.

The following is a brief description of 9 multiple intelligences / 9 Multiple Intelligences according to Howard Gardner:
1. Verbal-Linguistic Intelligence
Verbal-linguistic intelligence is demonstrated through well-developed verbal skills and good sensitivity to the sound, meaning and rhythm of wo
rds. Someone with verbal-linguistic intelligence shows an effective attitude in communicating orally/in writing, making up stories, discussing/de
bating, learning languages, remembering quotes, making jokes and poetry, and has a rich vocabulary.

2. Logical-Mathematical Intelligence
Mathematical logic intelligence is shown through skills in processing numbers and using logic. Someone with logical- mathematical intelligence
has the ability to think conceptually and has the capacity to dissect numerical and logical patterns, for example calculating, predicting, finding p
atterns, thinking and using abstract symbols and using algorithms.
3. Spatial/Visual Intelligence
Visual-spatial intelligence is shown through the ability to accurately capture color, direction and space and change the capture into other forms such as decoration,
architecture, painting and sculpture. Someone with spatial-visual intelligence has the ability to think in pictures and photographs, to visualize their thoughts in an
abstract and accurate manner and is effective in terms of color coordination, making and reading maps and imagining objects in detail.

4. Motion-Kinesthetic Intelligence
Movement-kinesthetic intelligence is shown through skill in using the movement of the whole body to express ideas and feelings. Someone with kinesthetic
intelligence tends to be effective in athletics, uses body language, learns by "doing", coordinates between hands and eyes, and is strong and skilled in fine motor
skills.

5. Musical Intelligence
Musical intelligence is shown through the ability to perceive sounds, distinguish, compose, and express oneself through pitched and rhythmic sounds or voices.
Someone with musical intelligence is able to recognize and play musical instruments well, understand musical structures, and learn and remember rhythms/lyrics.

6. Intrapersonal Intelligence
Intrapersonal intelligence is related to internal aspects of a person, such as feelings of life, range of emotions, the ability to distinguish between various emotions,
mark them, and use them to understand and guide one's own behavior. Someone with intrapersonal intelligence likes and is effective in controlling feelings,
developing different beliefs and opinions, knowing strengths and weaknesses and knowing and managing emotional interests.

7. Interpersonal Intelligence
Interpersonal intelligence involves the ability to understand and work with others, empathize, organize groups, make friends, and socialize. Someone with
interpersonal intelligence tends to like and be effective in nurturing and educating others, communicating, being sensitive to the interests and motives of other
people and being able to work in teams.
8. Naturalist intelligence
Naturalist intelligence is related to skills in recognizing and classifying flora and fauna, as well as being sensitive to natur
e and the environment. Someone with naturalist intelligence tends to like and be effective in analyzing similarities and dif
ferences, collecting flora and fauna, understanding environmental dependencies and training and taming animals.

9. Existential intelligence
Existential intelligence relates to a person's ability to place oneself within the scope of the cosmos, to make sense of life
, to make sense of death, to understand the fate of the physical and psychological world, and to make sense of deep e
xperiences such as love or art. People with existential intelligence have the sensitivity and capacity to deal with life's de
ep questions, such as "What is the meaning of life? Why do we die? Why do we exist?"

These nine types of intelligence can be observed in a child's daily behavior. Through observing everyday attitudes,
parents or teachers will find it easy to find a particular way a child likes to show his intellectual abilities. Differences in the
dominance of intelligence of each child/student need to be facilitated to help optimize their development considering that
the development and realization of all types of intelligence is important for a person in overcoming life's problems and in
obtaining life itself.
 Advantages of Learning Childhood Theory

There are numerous advantages to understanding the theory of cognitive

development of children, including: knowing the best learning methods for students,
understanding the cognitive development of students so that we can provide
instruction based on their abilities, and accompanying children as they explore their
abilities based on their developmental age.
Conclusion
1. Every kid is endowed with cognitive talents.
The cognitive development of children can be
classified based on their developmental age.

2. Piaget, Vygotsky, Bruner, Montessori, and

Gardner discuss theories concerning
children's cognitive development and age-
appropriate learning.

3. The study of children's cognitive development

assists instructors in determining the best
ways for educating kids based on their
developmental age.
Thank you