Scope of civil engineering in society:

The main scope of civil engineering or the task of civil engineering is planning,
designing, estimating, supervising construction, managing construction, execution,
and maintenance of structures like building, roads, bridges, dams, etc. ' One who
designs and maintains works of public utility is known as civil engineer.

Role of civil engineers in society:

Civil engineering roles can broadly classified into three categories. They are
Before Construction
During Construction
After construction

Before construction:
Before beginning, Technical feasibility, environmental impact studies should be
conducted on a project.

Surveying includes preparation of site plan, contour maps, measurement of field

dimensions and levels.

Soil investigation includes collecting the data about bearing capacity of the soil.

On the basis of collected data, planning, designing are carried out and drawings are
prepared.

Estimations are prepared to know the cost of completion of work and time.

During construction:

Owner, engineer and contractor are the three pillars of construction team.
Communication between them is essential for speed progress of work.

Execution of work is actual construction carried out on the site with materials and
equipment's by man power under the guidance and supervision of civil engineer.

During the construction engineer has to supervise the work carried out as per the
specification of the quality control.

After Construction:
After the construction, regular maintenance of structures is to be carried out.

Valuation is carried out for the purpose of sale, purchase and many other purposes.
Various disciplines of civil engineering:

Structural engineering
Transportation engineering
Geo-Technical engineering
Hydraulic and water resource engineering
Environmental engineering

Scope of structural engineering:

Structural engineering is the field of engineering that deals with the structural
integrity and strength of a building or structure. Structural engineering is a
specialty of civil engineering that ensures the structures are safe, stable and don’t
collapse under applied loads. It is mainly focused on analysis and design of the
structure.
Analysis of the structure
• Careful analysis of the wind speed that can carry structural loads and the
overall capacity and utility of the building also provides information.
• Analysis of the structure according to the principles of structural engineering
will make sure that the structure depends on all the necessary design codes.
Design of the structure
• Structures have to be designed so that they can withstand their own weight
as well as the loads and pressures that will be placed upon them.
• Structural engineers take steps crucial information about the foundations,
roof types, load types, beams, columns, material quality, retaining walls etc.

Importance of structural engineering:

The following tasks must be performed by a structural engineer:
• Design models of structures using software.
• Assessing the reaction of structures to pressures and stress.
• Finalizing the appropriate concrete materials that would be suitable for the
structure.
• Assessing budget of the project.
• Liaising to ensure that newly erected buildings are structurally sound with
construction contractors.
• Using computers and computer-aided design technology for simulation
purposes.
Quantity Estimation:
A quantity estimate is an estimate which includes complete quantitative details of
the material required to complete the project. It gives quantitative details of all
goods required along with their cost. It is the most important estimating method in
construction.
Cost estimates are calculated by multiplying the dimensions of the project with the
per-unit cost.
It includes
• Estimation of materials
• Estimation of man power
• Estimation of time
• Estimation of cost Required to complete the project.

Execution of projects:
Once the scope of your project has been fully defined, the next step is to develop
the planning and schedule as accurate and realistic as possible. Depending on the
type of civil works structure that is brought, the execution of the civil engineering
structures project can take from a few days to months or years.

In the execution phase, the construction project management plan is put to work.
As a rule, this phase is divided into two main processes: the executing and the
monitoring and controlling. The project team makes sure that the required tasks are
being performed.

Scope of geo technical engineering:

Geotechnical engineering is a branch of civil engineering; however, it involves
using scientific methods and principles to collect and interpret the physical
properties of the ground. Geotechnical engineers are involved in all stages of the
design of structures, from concept to construction. Their work is essential in the
design and planning process as they assess the integrity of soil, clay, silt, sand, and
rock, prior to construction commencing.

Importance of Geo-Technical Engineer:

 • All structures have to finally transfer the load acting on them to soil safely.
Soil property changes from place to place.
• Even in the same place it may not be uniform at different depth and in
different seasons. Hence, a civil engineer has to properly investigate soil and
decide about the safe load that can be spread on the soil.
• This branch of study in civil engineering is known as geotechnical
engineering.
• Apart from finding safe bearing capacity for foundation of buildings,
geotechnical engineering involves various studies required for the design of
pavements, tunnels, earthen dam, canals and earth retaining structures.
• It involves study of ground improvement techniques also.

Different types of soils:

The soil is the part of the earth’s surface, which includes disintegrated rock,
humus, inorganic and organic materials.

Soil is classified into four types:

• Sandy soil.
• Silt Soil.
• Clay Soil.
• Loamy Soil.

Sandy Soil
The first type of soil is sand. It consists of small particles of weathered rock. Sandy
soils are one of the poorest types of soil for growing plants because it has very low
nutrients and poor water holding capacity
Silt Soil
Silt, which is known to have much smaller particles compared to sandy soil and is
made up of rock and other mineral particles, which are smaller than sand and larger
than clay. It is the smooth and fine quality of the soil that holds water better than
sand.

Clay Soil
Clay is the smallest particle among the other two types of soil. The particles in this
soil are tightly packed together with each other with very little or no airspace. This
soil has very good water storage qualities and makes it hard for moisture and air to
penetrate into it. It is very sticky to the touch when wet but smooth when dried.
Loamy Soil
Loam is the fourth type of soil. It is a combination of sand, silt and clay such that
the beneficial properties of each are included

Purpose of providing foundation:

The lowest part of the building which is located below ground level and transmits
the loads of the structure to the ground is known as foundation/ structure.

Purpose:
Foundations provide the structure's stability from the ground: To distribute the
weight of the structure over a large area in order to avoid overloading the
underlying soil.

Foundation provides safety to the structure against floods and wind loads.

Site selection for foundation:

Sites which contains soils of low bearing capacity influence the cost of building
since they require costly foundations. There are some factors which influence the
selection of site are follows:
1. The soil of site should have good bearing capacity. Hard strata should be
available at reasonable depth, around 1.2m to1.5m depth from ground level.
2. The site should be on elevated ground. It should have slope towards front
street to afford good facility of drainage.
3. Sites nearer to ponds ,pools of water, water logged areas must be avoided as
they remain in damp condition .
4. Sites near to high voltage power transmission lines are avoided.
5. Sites very nearer to big shopping complexes , markets, railway station
,airport are avoided.
6. The surrounding of site should be pleasing & calm.
 7. The orientation of site should be such that it receives natural light and air in
plenty.

Types of foundations:
In general, all foundations are divided into two categories, - shallow and deep
foundations.
The terms Shallow and Deep Foundation refer to the depth of the soil at which it is
placed.
Generally, if the width of the foundation is greater than the depth, it is labeled as
the “Shallow Foundation”.
If the width is smaller than the depth of the foundation it is called a “Deep
Foundation.”
Scope of transportation engineering:
Transportation engineering, primarily involves planning, design,
construction, maintenance, and operation of transportation facilities. The
facilities support air, highway, railroad, pipeline, water, and even space
transportation. The design aspects of transportation engineering include the
sizing of transportation facilities (how many lanes or how much capacity the
facility has), determining the materials and thickness used in pavement
designing the geometry (vertical and horizontal alignment) of the roadway
(or track).

Importance of transportation engineering:

• It involves design and construction of base courses, suitable, surface
finishes, cross drainage works, intersections, culverts, bridges and
tunnels etc.
• Railways is another important long-way transport facility.
• Design, construction and maintenance of railway lines are parts of
transportation engineering.
• Globalization has resulted into requirement of airports and harbors.
 • For proper planning of these transport facilities, traffic survey is to be
carried out.
• Carrying out traffic survey and then planning, designing, construction
and maintenance of roads, railways, bridges, tunnels, airports and
harbors is known as transportation engineering.

Roadway/ Highway Engineering:

• Handle the planning, design, construction, and operation of highways,
roads, and other vehicular facilities as well as their related bicycle and
pedestrian realms
• Estimate the transportation needs of the public and then secure the
funding for projects
• Analyze locations of high traffic volumes and high collisions for safety
and capacity
• Use engineering principles to improve the transportation system
Railway Engineering:
• Determine horizontal and vertical alignment of the railways
• Determine station location
• Design functional segments of stations like lines, platforms, etc.
• Estimate construction cost
Railway engineers work to build a cleaner and safer transportation network
by reinvesting and revitalizing the rail system to meet future demands.
Airport engineering:
• Airport engineers design and construct airports.
• Airport engineers must account for the impacts and demands of aircraft
in their design of airport facilities.
• These engineers must use the analysis of predominant wind direction to
determine runway orientation, determine the size of runway border and
safety areas, different wing tip to wing tip clearances for all gates and
must designate the clear zones in the entire port.

Port and Harbour engineering:

Port and harbor engineers handle the design, construction, and operation of
ports, harbors, canals, and other maritime facilities.

Hydraulics and water resource engineering:

Scope and importance:

• The main responsibility of a water resource engineer is to manage

a population’s water use and ensure that the treatment of water is
safe for human consumption.
• The typical day of a water resource engineer may entail charting
out a community’s water needs and frequently analyzing water
resources.
• They are also responsible for designing treatment plants, supply
systems, pipelines and pump systems to effectively manage
wastewater for both private and public consumption.
• Wastewater, if not treated and managed correctly, can have
negative health effects on the environment and a community.
• This requires water resource engineers to work with manufacturing
and industrial corporations to develop systems to effectively deal
with all facets of wastewater operations.

Importance of water resource engineering:

• Water is an important need for all living beings.
• Study of mechanics of water and its flow characteristics is another
important field in civil engineering and it is known as hydraulics.
• Requirement of water in cities for domestic purpose and for
industries is continuously increasing.
• Rural areas need water for agricultural field also.
• Hence civil engineers have to look for new water resources and for
storing them. This branch of civil engineering is known as water
resources engineering.
• Water stored in reservoirs by building bunds and dams should be
brought to agricultural fields through canals and distributories.
Study connected with this aspect is known as irrigation
engineering.

Hydro-electric power plant components:

The hydropower plant or hydroelectric power plant is used to convert the
kinetic energy of water into electrical energy. The kinetic energy
developed in the water flow due to the gravity of falling water from
higher to lower head.

The major components of the hydroelectric power plant are listed below.
• Forebay
• Intake structure
• Penstock
• Surge tank
• Turbines
• Powerhouse
• Draft tube
• Tailrace
Forebay
The forebay is used to store water temporarily before passes to the
intake structure. The forebay is an optional component of a hydroelectric
power plant.

Intake Structure
The intake structure is a chain between the penstock and forebay. It
collects water from the forebay and passes to the penstock.
Penstock
Penstocks are used to increase the velocity of the water. It is large pipes
laid on the slope. It carries water from the reservoir or intake structure to
the turbine.
Surge tank
A surge tank is a cylindrical tank or chamber placed near the
powerhouse and it is connected with the penstock. The surge tank is also
known as the surge chamber. It is used to control the pressure of water in
the penstock.
Turbine
The turbine is used to convert the kinetic energy of water into
mechanical energy. When the high-pressure water coming from the
penstock strikes the turbine blade, the turbine starts rotating.
Powerhouse
The powerhouse is used to provide support and housing to the hydraulic
and electrical equipment.
Draft tube
A draft tube connects the turbine outlet (turbine discharge) to the
tailrace. To decrease the velocity of water, the width of the draft tube is
gradually increased.
Tailrace
The tailrace is a flow of water from the draft tube or turbine outlet. The
powerhouse must be located near to the stream.

Need for irrigation:

(i) India is a big country and stands next to China when we talk about
population and so irrigation facilities are needed to grow more food to feed
our teaming millions.

(ii) The distribution in rainfall is uneven and uncertain which either causes
famines or drought. By means of irrigation we can check both the problems.
(iii) Different water requirements of different crops can only be met through
irrigation facilities.

(iv) India, being a tropical country the temperature is high and evaporation
more rapid, so, artificial irrigation is necessary for ample supply of water and
also to prevent water scarcity in the long dry winter season.

Environmental engineering:
Importance of environmental engineering:
• The goal of environmental engineering is to ensure that societal
development and the use of water, land and air resources are sustainable.
This goal is achieved by managing these resources so that environmental
pollution and degradation is minimized.
• Environmental engineers study water, soil and air pollution problems, and
develop technical solutions needed to solve, attenuate or control these
problems in a manner that is compatible with legislative, economic, social
and political concerns.
• Civil engineers are particularly involved in such activities as water supply
and sewerage, management of surface water and groundwater quality,
remediation of contaminated sites and solid waste management.
• The activities of such engineers include, but are not limited to, the planning,
design, construction and operation of water and wastewater treatment
facilities in municipalities and industries, modelling and analysis of surface
water and groundwater quality, design of soil and remediation systems,
planning for the disposal and reuse of wastewaters and sludges, and the
collection, transport, processing, recovery and disposal of solid wastes
according to accepted engineering practices.
Major areas of applicability:

Three major areas of applicability of the Environmental Engineering are

• Management of natural resources,
• Conservation of ecosystem and biodiversity, and
• Prevention and control of pollution.
Types of Buildings:

• Residential Buildings
→Used for normal residential purpose which are provided with
accommodation for living people.
Ex: Houses, dormitories, Apartments, Hotels.
• Educational Buildings
→ Any school, college or day-learning center building used for educational
purpose for more than 8 hours a week.
• Institutional Buildings
➔ Include buildings used for purposes like medical, other treatment persons
suffering from physical and mental illness.
Ex: Hospitals, clinics, old age homes and prisons.
• Assembly Buildings
➔ Buildings like theaters, assembly halls, restaurants, worship places, dance
halls, clubs and terminals etc. where the group of people gathers for
social, religious and other purposes.
• Business Buildings
➔ Buildings used for transaction of business for keeping of accounts and
records.
Banks, offices, laboratories and Data processing centers.
• Industrial Buildings
➔ Buildings in which products or materials of all kinds and properties are
fabricated, assembled and processed are called industrial buildings.
Ex: cloth manufacturing, food manufacturing units
• Storage Buildings
➔ Buildings primarily used for the storage and sheltering of goods, wares
and other things.
Ex: cold storages, garages and marine terminals
• Hazardous Buildings
➔ Buildings used for storage, handling and manufacturing or processing of
highly combustible or explosive materials which are highly toxic.
Ex: Factories, power generation plants.
• Mercantile buildings:
→ building or a part of it is used for housing shops, stores or showrooms
where display and sale of wholesale goods, retail goods or merchandise is
carried out.
Components of a residential building:
1. Roof:
The roof forms the topmost component of a building structure. It covers the top
face of the building. Roofs can be either flat or sloped based on the location and
weather conditions of the area.
2. Parapet walls:
Parapets are short walls extended above the roof slab. Parapets are installed for flat
roofs. It acts as a safety wall for people using the roof.
3. Lintels:
Lintels are constructed above the wall openings like doors, windows, etc. These
structures support the weight of the wall coming over the opening.
A window frame should not be directly placed over masonry. It is placed over 50
mm to 75 mm thick plain concrete course provided over the masonry. This course
is called as sill.
Chejja is the projection given outside the wall to protect doors and windows from
the rain. They are usually made with R.C.C.

4. Beams and slabs:

Beams and slabs form the horizontal members in a building. For a single storey
building, the top slab forms the roof. In case of a multi-storey building, the beam
transfers the load coming from the floor above the slab which is in turn transferred
to the columns. Beams and slabs are constructed by reinforced cement concrete
(R.C.C).
5. Columns:
Columns are vertical members constructed above the ground level. Columns can
be of two types: Architectural columns and structural columns. Architectural
columns are constructed to improve the building's aesthetics while a structural
column takes the load coming from the slab above and transfers safely to the
foundation.
6. Walls:
Walls are vertical elements which support the roof. It can be made from stones,
bricks, concrete blocks, etc. Walls provide an enclosure and protect against wind,
sunshine, rain etc. Openings are provided in the walls for ventilation and access to
the building.
7. Flooring:
The floor is the surface laid on the plinth level. Flooring can be done by a variety
of materials like tiles, granites, marbles, concrete, etc. Before flooring, the ground
has to be properly compacted and leveled.
8. Stairs:
A stair is a sequence of steps that connects different floors in a building structure.
The space occupied by a stair is called as the stairway. There are different types of
stairs like a wooden stair, R.C.C stair etc.
9. Finishing:
Bottom portion of slab (ceiling), walls and top of floor need smooth finishing with
plaster. Then they are provided with white wash, distemper or paints or tiles. The
function of finishing work is: (a) Give protective cover (b) Improve aesthetic view
10. Plinth:
Plinth beam is a beam structure constructed either at or above the ground level to
take up the load of the wall coming over it. The portion of the wall between the
ground level and the ground floor level is called plinth. It is usually of stone
masonry.
Basic Requirements of a building:

• Strength and stability

• Dimensional stability
• Resistance to dampness
• Resistance to fire
• Heat insulation
• Sound insulation
• Protection against termite attack
• Durability
• Security against burglary
• Lighting and ventilation
• Comforts and convenience
• Economy

Principles of Building Planning:

All buildings should be properly planned, keeping in view the various requirements of a
good building. Except strength requirement, all other requirements of good buildings are
taken care at the stage of planning.

Principles of planning of buildings may be grouped into:

• Orientation
• Energy efficiency
• Utility
• Other requirements of the building

Orientation of Building:
• Orientation means setting out the plan of the building with respect to north -south
and east-west directions to provide an opportunity to user to enjoy sun -shine and
breeze when required and to avoid the same whenever not required.
• This is also known as planning the aspect of a building.
• Aspect means arrangement of doors, windows in the external wall to make good
use of nature.
(a) Kitchen–eastern aspect.
(b) Dining room–southern aspect to enjoy winter sun.
(c) Drawing and living room–southern or south-eastern aspect to enjoy winter sun.
(d) Bed rooms–western or south-western aspect to enjoy breez in summer.
(e) Reading room, class room, stairs, northern aspect to enjoy diffused light
Aspect diagram:

Energy Efficiency:
• A building should be planned in such a manner that it gives maximum day lighting,
ventilation and heat insulation. If these requirements are fulfilled, requirement of
electric energy comes down.
Light: Natural light provides hygenic atmosphere. Light should not be glaring but it
should be uniformly distributed. Providing windows and ventilators of appropriate size at
suitable positions contributes a lot for natural lighting.
Ventilation: Ventilation is the circulation of the air in the building. Natural ventilation
can be achieved by selecting and positioning of doors, windows and ventilators at
suitable places. Always cross ventilations should be planned suitably. Provision of
ventilators at roof level helps in driving out hot airs.
Heat Insulation: Thicker exterior walls provide insulation against heat. Proper
ventilation also helps in achieving heat insulation. Sun shades provided to doors,
windows and ventilators help in achieving heat insulation.

Planning for Suitable utility:

• Roominess: It refers to suitable proportioning of length, width and height of rooms
in the building to get maximum benefit from the minimum dimensions.
 • Furniture Requirements: In planning residential, office, laboratory, hospital
buildings positions of required furniture should be drawn and then room
dimensions, positions of doors, windows planned.
• Grouping: Grouping means disposition of various rooms in the building for the
convenience of users and their utility. For example, a dining room should be close
to the kitchen.
• Circulation: Circulation means the space to be provided for movement from room
to room or floor to floor. Passages, lobbies, halls provided serve horizontal
circulation while stairs and lifts serve vertical circulation.
Other Requirements:
• Prospects
• Elegance
• Flexibility
• Privacy
• Resistance to fire
• Sound insulation
• Economy
• Provisions for future alterations

Construction Materials:
Construction Materials:
A construction building material is any substance used in building a structure. There are
various kinds of materials used for building in the construction.
They are Cement, stones, sand, Bricks and steel.

Cement:
 Cement is a commonly used binding material in the construction. The cement is
obtained by burning a mixture of calcarious (calcium) and argillaceous (clay)
material at a very high temperature.
 It used to bind the coarse and fine aggregates in a stiff position by mixing it with
water.
Types of cement:
1. Ordinary Portland Cement:
 Ordinary Portland cement is the most widely used type of cement
manufactured and used worldwide. OPC is suitable for most general concrete
constructions.
2. Portland pozzolona Cement:
 Manufacturers create Portland pozzolana cement by grinding pozzolanic
clinker, sometimes with additives of gypsum or calcium sulfate, with
ordinary Portland cement.
 Compared to OPC, it has a higher resistance to various chemical reactions
within concrete. PPC is often used for projects like bridges, piers, dams,
marine structures, water drainage.
3. Rapid Hardening cement:
 Contractors or construction teams may choose rapid-hardening cement for its high
strength in the early stages of the hardening process.
 Its strength in three days is comparable to OPC strength at seven days with the
same water-to-cement ratio.
 Rapid-hardening cement may have an increased lime content and used where we
have to remove formwork in early times.
4. Quick setting cement:
 This concrete type may set and become stronger even quicker than OPC and rapid-
hardening cement.
 Its grain and strength rate are similar to OPC, but it hardens faster.
 Quick-setting cement may be beneficial for time-sensitive projects or projects in
running water.
5. Low heat cement:
 Manufacturers produce low-heat cement by monitoring the percentage of
tricalcium aluminate in the mixture.
  This helps maintain low heat during the hydration process, making this cement
type more resistant to sulfates and less reactive than other types of cement.
 It may be suitable for mass concrete construction or projects to help prevent
cracking due to heat.
6. Sulphate resisting cement:
 Sulfate-resisting cement helps reduce the risk of sulfate side effects on concrete.
 Its most common use is for constructing foundations in soil with high sulfate
content.
7. High-Alumina cement:
 High-alumina cement is a type of rapid-hardening [Link] has high compressive
strength and may be more flexible and workable than OPC.
 Suitable for projects where cement is subject to extreme weather like high
temperatures or frost.
8. White- cement:
 White cement is a type of OPC that's white instead of gray.
 It's prepared from raw materials that don't include iron oxide and may be more
expensive.
 It's often useful in architectural projects and interior and exterior decorative
works.
9. Air- Entrainig cement:
 Air-entraining cement is more workable with a smaller water-cement ratio than
OPC and other types of cement.
 Manufacturers add air-entraining agents like glues, sodium salts and resins to the
clinker to resist frost action.
10. Expansive Cement:
 Expansive cement can grow slightly over time without shrinking during the
hardening process.
 It may be beneficial for projects like grouting anchor bolts or concrete ducts.

Composition of cement:
 Cement is manufactured through a closely controlled chemical combination of
calcium, silicon, aluminum, iron and other ingredients.
 Common materials used to manufacture cement include limestone, shells, and
chalk or marl combined with shale, clay, slate, blast furnace slag, silica sand, and
iron ore.
 These ingredients, when heated at high temperatures form a rock-like substance
that is ground into the fine powder that we commonly think of as cement .
Setting Time of Cement:
 The setting time of cement includes the initial setting time and the final setting time.
 The initial time refers to the time that cement turns into paste by mixing with water
and begins to lose its plasticity.
 And the time that cement completely loses its plasticity by mixing with water and
begins to have a certain structural strength is known as the final setting time.
 The national standards prescribe that the initial setting time of Portland
cement should not be earlier than 45 min and the final setting time should not be
later than 6.5 h.
 The initial setting time should not be too fast in order to ensure that there is enough
time to complete every process, such as casting, before the initial setting time.
 The final setting time should not be too late in order to enable the cement to
complete its setting and hardening as soon as possible.
Sand:
 Sand is an important building material.
 It abundantly occurs in nature and is formed by the
decomposition of rocks. Sand particles consist of small grains of
silica (SiO2).
 Sand is commonly used in construction, often providing bulk,
strength, and stability to other materials such as asphalt,
concrete, mortar, render, cement.

Sand also used for other purposes like making glass, sand papers and
cultivation of special crops.

Sources of sand:
Sand is formed by the weathering of rocks. Based on the natural
sources from which sand is obtained, it is classified as follows:
1. Pit sand
2. River sand
3. Sea sand

Pit sand:
This sand is found as deposits in soil and it is obtained by forming
pits into soils. It is excavated from a depth of about 1 m to 2 m from
ground level. The pit sand consists of sharp angular grains which are
free from salts and it proves to be excellent material for mortar or
concrete work.

River sand:
This sand is obtained from banks or beds of rivers. The river sand
consists of fine rounded grains probably due to mutual attrition under
the action of water current. The colour of river sand is almost white.
As river sand is usually available in clean condition, it is widely used
for all purposes.

Sea sand:
This sand is obtained from sea shores. The sea sand, like river sand,
consists of fine rounded grains. The colour of sea sand is light brown.
The sea sand contains salts, causes damage and disintegration of
work.
Due to all such reasons, it is the general rule to avoid the use of sea
sand for engineering purposes except for filling of basement, etc.

Classification of sand:
Very coarse sand
Coarse sand
Medium sand
Fine sand

Very coarse sand:

Sand which is passed through 4.75 mm and larger in particle size is
called very coarse sand.
Used for concrete mix.

Coarse sand:
Sand which is the size between 4.75 mm to 2.36 mm is coarse sand
Used for all concrete mix.

Medium sand:
Sand which is passes through 2.36mm sieve, it is called Medium sand
or moderate sand.
Used for some types of plastering works.

Fine sand:
All the sand particles should pass through 1.18 mm, it is fine sand.
Used for plastering works.
Stones
Monday, October 09, 2023 9:17 AM

Stones:

Uses of stones in construction:

• Stones are used in the construction of foundations, walls, lintels, columns, arches, dams, retaining walls,
harbours, light houses, barrages, piers and abutments of bridges.
• The stones are used as flooring material, damp proof course and roofing material.
• Stones with good appearance are used for the ornamental and architectural works in the buildings. Polished
marbles and granite are commonly used for face works.
• For paving of roads, footpaths and open spaces around the buildings, stones are used.

Properties of stones required:

Density: Denser stones are stronger. Light weight stones are weak.

Appearance: stone with attractive color is suitable, when grains are compact. Ex: Marble, Granite have good
appearance when polished.

Strength : Strength is an important property to be looked into before selecting stone as building stone. Indian
standard code recommends, a minimum crushing strength of 3.5 N/mm2 for any building stone.

Hardness: It is an important property to be considered when stone is used for flooring and pavement which is
related to durability.

Weathering: Rain and wind cause loss of good appearance of stones. Hence stones with good weather resistance
should be used for face works.

Toughness: : The resistance to impact is called toughness. It is determined by impact test.

Resistance to fire: Sand stones resist fire better. Argillaceous materials, though poor in strength, are good in
resisting fire.

Porosity: All stones have pores and hence absorb water. The reaction of water with material of stone cause
damage. Water absorption should be low as possible.

Tests on stones:
Crushing test
Impact test
Abrasion test
Water absorption test
Acid test.
Bricks
Tuesday, October 10, 2023 8:59 AM

Composition of a Brick:

Silica – 50 to 60 %
Alumina – 20 to 30%
Lime – About 10%
Magnesia – Less than 1%
Oxide of Iron < 7%

Silica : It is presented in clay. It provides uniform shape to the bricks and brick depends upon presence of
silica.

Alumina: This impacts the plasticity and helps in Moulding of clay.

Lime: Small quantity of lime in fine powder state is required to prevent cracks and shrinkage of raw bricks.

Magnesia: small quantity of magnesia in brick earth prevents shrinkage of bricks.

Iron oxide: Small quantity of iron oxide helps in providing red color to the brick.

Qualities of a good brick:

The following are the required properties of a good brick.

(i) Colour: Colour should be uniform and bright.

(ii) Shape: Bricks should have plane faces. They should have sharp and true right angled corners.

(iii) Size: Bricks should be of standard sizes as prescribed by codes.

(iv)Texture: They should possess fine, dense and uniform texture. They should not possess fissures, cavities,
loose grit and unburnt lime.

(v) Soundness: When struck with hammer or with another brick, it should produce metallic sound.

(vi) Hardness: Finger scratching should not produce any impression on the brick.

(vii) Strength: Crushing strength of brick should not be less than 3.5 N/mm2. A field test for strength is that
when dropped from a height of 0.9 m to 1.0 m on a hard ground, the brick should not break into pieces.

(viii) Water Absorption: After immersing the brick in water for 24 hours, water absorption should not be
more than 20 per cent by weight. For class-I works this limit is 15 per cent.
(vii) Strength: Crushing strength of brick should not be less than 3.5 N/mm2. A field test for strength is that
when dropped from a height of 0.9 m to 1.0 m on a hard ground, the brick should not break into pieces.

(viii) Water Absorption: After immersing the brick in water for 24 hours, water absorption should not be
more than 20 per cent by weight. For class-I works this limit is 15 per cent.
Concrete
Tuesday, October 10, 2023 9:40 AM

Ingredients in concrete:

Major ingredients of concrete are:

1. Binding material (like cement, lime, polymer)
2. Fine aggregate (sand)
3. Coarse aggregates (crushed stone, jelly)
4. Water.

Functions of each ingredient:

Cement:
• Cement is the binding material. After addition of water it hydrates and binds aggregates and the
surrounding surfaces like stone and bricks.
• use of cement as a binder in concrete provides numerous benefits, including strength, durability, and
ease of use.
• It makes the hard concrete layer by positioning all the materials in a solid state.

Coarse Aggregates:
• It makes a solid & hard mass of concrete with cement and sand.
• It provides bulk(Highest Volume) to the concrete.
• It increases the crushing strength of concrete.
• It reduces the cost of concrete by using cheaper materials.

Fine Aggregates:
• It fills the voids existing in the coarse aggregate. Thus, it helps in increasing the density of concrete.
• It helps in the hardening of cement by allowing the penetration of water through its voids.
• Used to make convenient cement paste for Plastering and other works
• It prevents the development of a crack in the concrete.

Water:
• As water is added to cement it creates a paste that glues all of the aggregates together.
• The cement paste then undergoes a chemical process known as hydration, this chemical reaction is what
allows the concrete to harden and become strong and solid.
Steel 2
Wednesday, October 11, 2023 4:36 PM

Types of steel sections:

Uses of steel in construction

• Steel can be used as a structural frame in skyscrapers and other tall buildings or as a load-bearing beam in
bridges.
• Provides tensional property to the concrete improves the durability and stability.
• Structural steel is tensile, ductile, flexible, and cost-effective.

Types of RCC steel sections:

(a) Mild steel
(b) High carbon steel
(c) High tensile steel.

Mild steel:
(i) It is malleable and ductile
(ii) It is more elastic
(iii) It can be magnetized permanently
(iv) It can be welded easily.
(v) It is equally strong in tension and in compression.

High carbon steel:

(i) It is more tough and elastic compared to mild steel.
(ii) Welding is difficult.
(iii) It can be magnetized permanently.
(iv) It is stronger in compression than in tension.
(v) It withstands shocks and vibrations better

High Tensile steel:

(I) The strength of this steel is quite high.
(ii) High tensile steel wires are used in prestressed concrete works.

Types of structural steel sections:

• Angles
• I sections
• Bearing Piles
• Channels
• Hollow Structural Sections (HSSs)
• Plates
Introduction to Prefabricated construction Techniques
Tuesday, October 10, 2023 2:24 PM

Prefabricated construction:
This strategy uses components made off-site in a factory, which are then transported put together on-site to
create a structure.

Advantages of prefabricated construction:

Modern Construction Solution

In prefabricated construction, each of the building units can be easily disassembled and transported to a
different site. This significantly reduces the demand for new materials, the expended energy, and overall
construction time.

High speed construction

Prefabricated construction takes significantly less time to complete the project than the traditional on-site
construction method.

Consistent quality
Since prefabricated construction takes place in a controlled manufacturing environment, each assembly
unit is built following specified standards. This means the structure of the construction unit will be of
uniform quality.

Safety and security

With prefabricated construction, a significant part of the construction is done in a controlled factory
setting, which significantly reduces the risk of accidents.

Environmental Friendly:
Prefabricated construction is one of the most energy-efficient and environment-friendly construction
methods. The traditional construction methods often required extra material, which increases the risk of
wastage.

Limitations of Prefabricated Techniques.

• Leakage occurs in joints in prefabricated parts.
• For huge prefabricated parts, transportation costs can be high.
• Initial costs for construction are higher.
• The initial production of designs is time-consuming.
• Local employment can be lost, as skilled labour is needed.