Senior Secondary School History Syllabus

HISTORY DEPARTMENT

AFRICAN HISTORY NOTES

(PAPER ONE - H831)

Page 1 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Senior Secondary School History Syllabus

SCHOOL MAHILL HISTORY DEPARTMENTAL POLICY

“We were taught, sometimes in a very positive way, to despise ourselves

and our ways of life. We were made to believe that we had no past to
speak of, no history to boast of…. It should now be our intention to try and
retrieve what we can of our past…. We must do this for the simple reason
that a nation without a past is a lost nation, and a people without a past is
a people without a soul.”

(Seretse Khama, 1st President of the Republic of Botswana, 19

May 1970)

“Those who wish to create a future may not lose sight of the past.
Therefore look into the past for all that is to be discovered there which is
good and beautiful. Form your ideals accordingly, and try to realize those
ideals in the future.”

(Paul Kruger, President of the Transvaal Republic, 29 June 1904)

Prefaces and Terms of reference

The above quotations from Presidents Seretse Khama and Paul

Kruger of Botswana and the Transvaal respectively, show the

Page 2 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Senior Secondary School History Syllabus

importance of History to our society. History helps us to

understand the world today by studying the events of past
societies. This further makes us understand why things happen
the way they do. Through the study of history we understand
our present and plan better for the future. To ignore such a
subject in the curriculum will be a fatal mistake. The
following are some of the uses of History;
 History shows us what it means to be human- history is
for human self-knowledge…the only clue to what man can do
is what man has done. This teaches us what man has done
and thus what man is.
 History improves judgement- history by apprising people
of the past will enable them to judge the future. It
avails us with the experiences of other times and other
nations; it qualifies us as judges of the actions and
designs of man. History does not tell us the answers to
our questions, but it helps to inform us so that we might
make better decisions in the future.
 History provides instructive examples- historical
examples are essentially powerful models because they
actually existed.
 History makes us better thinkers- history makes us people
who are able to think independently about unfamiliar
problems and who are broad-gauged problem solvers,
critical thinkers, and well-informed.
 History supports common cultural understanding and
dialogue- Once people understand the roots of current
socio-political and economic setup of the world, they can
better understand each other, have tolerance, open-
mindedness and have a common understanding of issues and
live better together.
 History satisfies a need for identity- Closely associated
with the idea of shared cultural understanding is the
concept of identity. The study of history helps us to
have identity. Without identity there is loss of
significance, without identity there is little meaning
and purpose of life. The need for identity applies to
nations as well as individuals.
 History gives pleasure- it gives people pleasure in
learning it. It supplies us endless source of
fascination. To many people, this fascination is not
manifested until after high school, after the acquisition
of greater experience and interest in the larger world.

In short the purpose of the History department is to help

students understand how the world works and how human beings

Page 3 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Senior Secondary School History Syllabus

behave. This will help them understand the realities of life.

So, who can dispute the importance of such a subject in the
school curriculum? This is why History exists and why it
should be kept in the curriculum and as a department we wish
all students could take it as a core subject.
1.0 Vision
The Department shall always strive for excellence in its
teaching endeavors, through customer focus as the driving
force.
2.0 Values
2.1 The History Department embraces the values of:

2.1.1 Botho (courtesy),

2.1.2 Transparency,
2.1.3 Teamwork,
2.1.4 Selflessness,
2.1.5 Mutual respect, and
2.1.6 Discipline.

DEFINITION OF HISTORY
History can simply be defined as the study of the stories
of the past.
It is a systematic analysis of past socio-economic and
political human events over a period of time.
HOW DO WE STUDY HISTORY?
When studying history, we look at three important aspects of
past human events being;
Causation- what caused a historical event to take place?
Historians believe historical events don’t happen by
mistake or by chance. They are a result of some factors
in society.
Course- this is the process or chronology of how things
happened, the narrative of the story. Historians also
follow events and how they happened, the main characters,
and the time when they took place.
Results or effects- Events always leave behind impacts,
effects or results in society. Effects may be either
positive or negative. Every historical event has a way in
which it affected the society.

SOURCES OF HISTORICAL INFORMATION

Historians get information about the past from sources of
history. There are two main types of Sources of Historical
information, being; PRIMARY SOURCES and SECONDARY SOURCE.

Page 4 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Senior Secondary School History Syllabus

Primary sources of history are sources that provide historians

with first hand information about the past and Secondary
sources of history provide the historians with second hand
information, or information sourced from other sources.
PRIMARY SOURCES
Oral Tradition
These are verbal testimonies about the past. They come in the
form of myths, songs, folktales, poems and legends. They are
important to historians because they provide them with
information. However, oral tradition must be used with caution
because they have weaknesses or limitations e.g. lack of
chronology, sometimes the informants do not present their
information in systematic manner also they are exaggerations,
telescopic and distortions.

Eye witness account

This is a person who was present when an event occurred or
took place. It is someone who witnessed the event or too part
in it. The story s/he tells is called an eye witness Account.
This could be elders who lived during the course of certain
events, which they recall and narrate to historians. The
European traders who worked with Batswana during the 19th
century kept some diaries in which they recorded their
experience. The information which is recorded in those diaries
is also called Eye-witness account and it is very important to
professional historians. The main problem with Eye-witness
account is that sometimes it is unreliable, as everyone tell a
story or write their interpretation of the situation, which
might not be the reality on the ground.
Archaeology
This is the digging up of old remains of past societies by
archaeologists. The place where archaeologists dig up remains
is called an excavation site. The remains which are dug out
are known as artifacts. Archaeologists use radio carbon dating
method to date artifacts. Archaeologists have revolutionized
the study of African history. For instance the study has shown
that man originated in Africa and later spread to other
continents. The only problem with archaeology is that it
requires special skills and machinery, and can not be done by
everyone. It is also very expensive.
SECONDARY SOURCES
History text books
They provide historians and history students with information
because they are produced or written through interpretation of
information from other sources. History text books should be
used with caution because sometimes they contain false
Page 5 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Senior Secondary School History Syllabus

information. Some historians are biased which make their

information unreliable. It is therefore, important for history
students to read more than one book, in order to have an
informed decision about a historical event.
Other sources of history are official documents, rock
art, anthropology, linguistics, videos, Audios,
documentaries, etc.
THE IMPORTANCE OF HISTORY
There is no doubt that history is an important subject. It
helps us to understand the origins of humankind. It also helps
us to asses the achievements and failures of our ancestors,
which helps us to choose between the good that we can copy and
the bad we should avoid. It is a museum of human actions, and
through it we can mirror our society. Through the study of
history we learn research skills which can help us in our
daily lives. History also forms a good background for
discipline such as law, political science, politics, public
administration and Journalism.

ORIGINS OF MANKIND
One of the old questions, that has not been answered
satisfactorily by any community, is the question on the
origins of humankind. The question is; Where do we come from?
How did human beings come to existence? These questions have
been asked by many societies since humanity began.
There are three main Explanations about the origins of
humankind.
(i) Traditional/ Cultural explanation
(ii) Religious explanation
(iii) Scientific theory of evolution (Charles Darwin’s theory of
evolution)

TRADITIONAL / CULTURAL EXPLANATIONS

Many societies tried to answer the questions on creation by
coming up with stories or myths from their localities. Such
stories are not supported by any historical facts. The
cultural/ traditional or indigenous groups were influenced by
the biological, geographical and cultural aspects within their
environment.

The Zulu myth

Page 6 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Senior Secondary School History Syllabus

The Zulu myth states that long time ago there were no people
on earth, man was created from a reed by God – Unkulunkulu.
And then made the moon and the sun to be their light so that
they could see. He then created cattle and gave them to man so
that they could provide him with meat and milk. Unkulunkulu
also made water to fall from the sky for plants and animals.

The Tswana myth

The Tswana believe that Matsieng, who was a one-legged giant
came to earth from under ground after hearing a bird calling.
While underground, Matsieng looked up, and saw light coming
in through a hole and came out, where he discovered a very
beautiful world. He was followed by his wife and children,as
well as all animals and plants. This is believed to have taken
place in the modern day kgatleng district of Botswana.
Matsieng is said to have left his footprints on the Rocks
around Rasesa, near Mochudi.

The Herero myth

According to the Herero, in the beginning there was nothing on
earth except the tree of life, the Omumborombonga or Motswere
tree, which was located in what is today called Etosha
Nationa Park , in Namibia. Inside this tree lived all life;
humans, animals and plants. One day, God (Mukuru), created a
hole on the trunk of the tree, and man was the first to come
out, followed by his wife, children, animals and plants. And
they filled the world and multiplied.

The !Kung/Kgalagadi Myth

The Tswana, Herero and Zulu mythologies, presuppose that there

is an existence of a supernatural force or God who is
responsible for the creation of man and other creatures on
earth. According to these myths, People are superior to other
creatures and have power over the resources in the
environment. E.g. they use the other animals and plants as
they wish to satisfy their needs and wants.

Myths however, differ in terms of places of origin. The Tswana

believe that living organisms came from the underground, the
Zulu and the Herero on the other hand state that man and other
forms of life came from plants i.e. a reed and the tree of
life.
Page 7 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Senior Secondary School History Syllabus

RELIGIOUS EXPLANATION
The Christian Theory of creation
Some people have embraced religion to explain the origin of
human beings. The religious theorists attribute the origins of
humankind to God, a supernatural being. It is clear to them
that God created all other living things first (within 5 days)
and created man later (on the 6th day- and rested on the 7th
day- the day of Sabbath. Man was given authority or dominion
to take care of other living things. This theory is reflected
by the Christian book of Genesis 1: 26-27. The scripture says
that God created humanity in his image. The Book continues to
explain that God used mud to create Adam who was the first man
on earth. God later sent Adam in to deep sleep, and from him
removed a rib to create Eve, Adam’s female companion.
Religious explanation can also be regarded as gender biased
because it states that God created male human species and
there after female being Eve who was created from Adam’s rib.
Christianity also explains why there are different nations,
color and languages. This is explained in Acts 17:24-26 that
God determined the bounds of the habitation and gave them
where to live as their place of habitation.

The Islamic Theory of Creation

As revealed to prophet Muhammed at Medina, Muslims believe
that Allah created human beings from 7 different types of
soils. He then created cattle and gave them to human beings as
food, and finally created the sky to provide canopy from which
water falls to make plants grow.

Some people were not satisfied with the Cultural and Religious
explanations, and this made them to come up with some more
attempts to explain the myth of origins. These were scientists
who ended up coming with the Scientific Theory of Evolution.

THE SCIETIFIC THEORY OF EVOLUTION

Evolution refers to the gradual genetic change that occurs in
all living organisms. The change is so slow that it takes
millions of years. Charles Darwin, a biologist or Naturalist
spearheaded the theory of evolution and showed how the
following factors (concepts) interacted together to bring life
on earth:
Environment

Page 8 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Senior Secondary School History Syllabus

Competition
Survival of the fittest
Natural selection
Inheritance (Genes)
Adaptation
Extinction

In 1859 Charles Darwin wrote a book titled “The Origin of

species” in which he explained how the above factors
interacted to bring continuity or extinction in both the
plants and animal kingdoms. He emphasized the importance of
the environment in which the young species are born. They then
compete for survival; some develop good characteristics which
result in them becoming stronger and able to survive
(adaptation and Survival of the fittest), while the weak ones
which fail to adapt, die out or become extinct (Extinction).
Fitness in this case meant the ability to find food, defend
oneself from predators and reproduce. When this happens, it is
said that Natural Selection have taken place. Those that have
survived have adapted (Adaptation) and those that failed to
adapt died out or became extinct (Extinction). The survivors
had to pass on their good characteristics they have developed
to survive to their young ones in their Genes, hence
inheritance and the next generation will be better suited to
survive in that environment. Most importantly natural
selection will happen in every generation.

STAGES/PHASES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Australopithecines (southern ape)
They were the earliest stage of human development. Some were
light and slender and had small teeth (australopithecine
gracilis, Africanus and Aferencis), others were larger and had
heavy and large jaws and teeth (robustus and boisei). However,
all australopithecines walked upright with a forward stoop.
They had small brain capacity of about 400 cubic Centimeters
(cc), similar to apes. They could climb trees using the big
toe-like thumb, and spent time resting and feeding on trees
and to escape from predators. They did not make tools but used
sticks and stones to perform simple tasks. They mainly ate
plants food such as fruits, roots and nuts. They also ate some
left over meat from animals killed by predators like lions.
Homo Habilis (handy man)
A more advanced man called Homo habilis appeared and the
australopithecine died out. It had a large skull and a brain
capacity of 500-600cc in volume and small teeth. They walked
Page 9 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Senior Secondary School History Syllabus

in two legs and could stand upright. They could manipulate

objects with precision and shaped stones into tools, and as
the first toolmaker they were nicknamed the handyman. Their
tools were called the OLDOWAN tools, because they were first
discovered at the Oldovai Gorge in Tanzania. This was the
beginning of a period known as the Early Stone Age. They
hunted small animals but they were also scavengers of bigger
animals killed by other predators.

Homo erectus (upright man)

They had larger brain than the Homo habilis, with the capacity
of 900cc in volume because they had to think hard to develop
new ideas of survival. They walked upright in two limbs and
this enabled them to spot predators from a far distance hence
is called the upright man. The area of the brain that controls
language was well developed and this suggests that they used
language to communicate.

Most of their remains were found in caves, which suggests that

they might have lived in caves. They were also found near
rivers and lakes, which suggests that they lived in open space
near water sources. Burnt bones and charcoals found at their
sites suggest that they used fire for cooking. Thus, eating
cooked food suggest that they was less need for strong and big
teeth. So, the homo habilis deceloped small teeth. Also they
used fire to warm themselves, roast meat, provide light to
scare away predators, and burn down bushes to make open areas.
This proved to be a great discovery and might have influenced
the migrations of Homo Erectus out of Africa to other
continents.

They shaped stone tools better than the Homo habilis. Their
tools were called ACHIULLIAN TOOLS because they were first
discovered at St. Acheuls in France. The Homo erectus hunted
small and big animals, and gathered insects, eggs, fruits,
nuts, leaves and roots. Homo erectus became the first stage to
live outside the African Continent, and this is attested to
the use of fire which enabled them to live in those cold areas
like china and Europe.

Homo sapiens (wise man)

They walked with full upright posture, their brain capacity
was larger than that of the Homo erectus and was between 1100-
1200cc. They had power and precision in making decisions. They
made complex stone tools such as flake tools and hand axe.

Page 10 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Senior Secondary School History Syllabus

They were hunters and gatherers, and lived in caves and could
communicated using language. They used fire for cooking,
heating and protecting themselves from predators. They made
paintings on rocks and cave walls, probably to store
information and record their events, and they also buried
their dead.

Homo Sapiens Sapiens (knowledgeable man)

They had brain capacity of about 1400cc, and appeared after
the Homo Sapiens. These are the direct ancestors of modern
human beings. They were more knowledgeable, made more advanced
tools, and lived an advanced lifestyle. They lived in families
and made more advanced tools like the bow and arrow, and
cooperated in carrying out activities. The Homo Sapiens
Sapiens spread to many parts of the world and started living
different ways of lives depending on the environment. This was
the beginning of the development of different races that we
see in the world today. So, according to the theory of
evolution, all human beings originate from a common ancestor
and the differences we see today between the black, white,
Indians, Chinese etc., are a result and creation of the
different environments.

AFRICA THE CRADLE OF HUMANKIND

Africa is said to be the Cradle or the original home for all
humankind. This is called THE OUT OF AFRICA THEORY and is
supported by archaeological findings/evidence. Africa is the
only continent with evidence of the first 2 stages of human
development, as demonstrated by the archaeological findings of
the fossil skull of a young australopithecine at Taung, South
Africa (The Taung Child). This has put more weight behind the
out of Africa argument (Refer to Tlou & Campbell, page 20).

DNA was also able to prove that Africans are the oldest
population, and therefore, it is logical to argue that other
races such as the Indians, Asians and Europeans descended from
them. Also the earliest human tools, the Oldowan tools were
discovered in Africa, as well as the earliest blade tools of
the middle Stone Age Period. This suggest that people
originated in Africa before they could spread to other
continents.
Homo erectus were the first hominid to move out of the
continent to colonize other continents such as Asia and
Europe. Differences in climatic conditions caused the
Page 11 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Senior Secondary School History Syllabus

development of racial variations, as human beings had to adapt

differently to prevailing climatic conditions in their
continents.

(Comparison between the out of Africa theory an the multi

regional theory is well detailed in Thomas Tlou and Alec
Campbell, page 20.)

THE STONE AGE PERIOD

This was the time when stones were used to make tools, such as
blades flakes and microliths.

The Different Stone Age periods

Early Stone Age period - The tools made during the early Stone
Age period are known as oldowan tools, because they were first
found at a place called Oldovai gorge in Tanzania. They were
used for defensive purposes.

Middle Stone Age Period - Tools which were made during this
time include the hand-axe which was used for slicing, chopping
or digging.

Late Stone Age Period - tools which were made during this
period include microliths, axes, arrow heads, bone harpoon
heads and digging sticks. Arrow heads were used for killing
wild animals.

Technological development in the late Stone Age Period

 Development of the microliths.
 Manufacturing of bows and arrows.
 Manufacturing of animal sinews for sewing.
 Manufacturing of bone tools such as needles and fish
hooks.
 Artistic development (rock paintings and engravings).
 Blades hafted onto wooden shafts to make spears.

THE WAY OF LIFES OF THE LATE STONE AGE PEOPLE

THE SAN - Hunter-Gatherer Communities
The san were the first inhabitants of Southern Africa. The
others who came to settle in Southern Africa found then here.
They had lives In the region for centuries.

Page 12 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Senior Secondary School History Syllabus

Social Organization
Boys and girls were taught survival skills like hunting,
tracing wild animals, skinning, trapping, and taking care of
their family. Generally, Girls were taught gathering skills
and how to take care of the husbands and children. Boys were
taught hunting skills and how to take care of their wives and
children.
The san lived in small groups called the band. They built
temporary shelters using local available materials like tree
braches which they bended in a special way and thatched with
grass (mogwafatshe).They used skins of animals to make
clothes, after eating the meat and they used bones as tools
for digging and cutting.

They married at a younger age and did not pay bride price but
performed suitors duties for the family of the bride. For
example; the groom had to hunt and used the meat of wild
animals he killed and give as token of appreciation to the
girl’s parents. At marriage, the groom had to perform some
duties for his in-laws to demonstrate his ability to take care
of the wife.

The San believed in the existence of a supernatural being

called Kaggen. They also danced to the full moon and stars
especially after a successful hunting expedition, having
killed big animals like an elephant or Giraffe which they
shared among themselves. They danced to thank their God.

Economic Organization
The San were nomadic hunter-gatherers. They moved from one
place to another, following the availability of wild animals
and fruits. Men and boys were responsible for hunting wild
animals, using bows and poisoned arrows. They got the poison
from snake venom and asparagus. The poison was meant to weaken
the animal and make it easier to kill. They killed animals
like Elephants, Kudu, buffalos, ostrich etc.
Women and girls were responsible for gathering wild fruits,
roots, tubers and berries such as tsamma melons, kgwengwe,
moretlwa, moretologa etc. Those who lived near rivers like the
Vaal, orange, Okavango, Limpopo fished and collected water
lilies. They stored water in ostrich egg shells to used in dry
seasons. They domesticated only the hunting dog.
Political Organization

Page 13 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Senior Secondary School History Syllabus

The san had a simple system of government which was not

central. Their leadership was not hereditary. A man with
special skills like a good hunter, fast runner, a herbalist or
medicine man, or the first man to make fire at the new camp,
could be chosen to be the leader. The San leader had limited
powers; he had powers to distribute food/meat of wild animals
and wild fruits. He had no powers to preside over serious
cases like murder and rape. Those were left to the elders of
the band to handle.

THE KHOIKHOI – late Stone Age Pastoralists

Social organization
The Khoikhoi lived in large groups called the clan, and each
clan was made of people who were closely related. When boys
and girls reached puberty, they were taken to initiation
schools where they were taught survival skills like hunting,
tracing wild animals, skinning, trapping and taking care of
families. Girls were taught gathering skills and how to take
care of their husbands and children. They built their
temporary shelters using local available materials like tree
branches which they bended in a special way. They also used
mats in building (mogwafatshe). The khoikhoi used skins of
animals to make clothes after eating the meat and they used
bones as tools for digging and cutting. They were less
nomadic than the san, because they had a reliable source of
food in livestock, while the san relied on wild animals and
fruits.
The khoikhoi married at a later age and used cattle and sheep
to pay bride price as token of appreciation to the girl’s
parents. They believed in their God called Tsoagoab. They also
worshiped the praying mantis. They danced to the full moon and
stars especially after a successful hunting expedition, when
they had killed a big animal like an elephant which they
shared among themselves. They danced to thank their God for
their successes, and ask for more blessings.
Economic Organization
The khoikhoi were nomadic pastoralists. They moved from one
place to another in search of pastures and water for their
animals. They kept domesticated animals such as cattle, goats
and sheep. Men and boys looked after cattle and drunk cows
milk, while women and girls looked after sheep drunk ewes
milk. The Khoikhoi were also part time hunters-gatherers. The
did hunting and gathering to supplement their pastoralism. Men
and boys were responsible for hunting using the poisoned
arrows from snake venom and asparagus. They killed animals

Page 14 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Senior Secondary School History Syllabus

like kudu, buffalos, ostrich etc. Women and girls were

responsible for gathering wild fruits and berries.

The Khoikhoi were also involved in trade with the Bantu

speakers. In fact some historians believe that, they acquired
livestock from the bantu through trade. Trade was usually in
the form of the barter system. They exchanged goods for other
goods. From the Bantu speakers the khoikhoi acquired iron
tools such as spears and arrows, clay pots etc, and from the
khoikhoi the Bantu speakers acquired animal skin, ostrich
feathers etc.

Political Organization
The Khoikhoi had a more advanced and centralized political
system than the San. Leadership among the khoikhoi was
hereditary. It was passed from father to senior son. The
Khoikhoi leader was the most powerful and rich person, and had
a lot of powers over his people and resources. He could try
serious cases like murder and treason and had the authority to
sentence a human being to death. The Khoikhoi lived in bigger
groups called clans, and normally stretched over large areas
of land.

DIFFERENCES AND SIMILARITIES IN THE SOCIAL WAYS OF LIFE OF

THE KHOIKHOI AND THE SAN
The san and the Khoikhoi are the original inhabitants of
Southern Africa. History doesn’t tell as to when they arrived
in southern Africa, but it stipulates that all the other
ethnicities found them in Southern Africa. Originally, they
were the same people, but later developed some differences due
to their lifestyles. Though they maintained some similarities,
some of their ways of live drew apart.
Similarities
 They both lived nomadic lives. The san moved in search of
wild animals and fruits, while the khoikhoi moved in
search of Pastures and water for their animals.
 They both wore clothes made from animal skin. After
killing animals, domestic for the khoikhoi, and wild for
both, they used their skins as clothes.
 They were both religious. They believed in the existence
of supernatural beings, who control them and the
environment.

Page 15 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Senior Secondary School History Syllabus

 They sometimes lived in caves, and build houses using

local materials.

Differences
 The san were nomadic hunter-gatherers, while the were
nomadic pastoralists.
 The San married at an early age in life while the
Khoikhoi married at a later age.
 The San used meat of wild animal and suitors service to
appreciate their bride, while the Khoikhoi used cattle
and sheep to pay bride price.
 The san lived in small groups called bands, while the
Khoikhoi lived in large groups called clans.
 The San used branches of trees and grass to build their
shelter, while the Khoikhoi used branches of trees and
mats.

DIFFERENCES AND SIMILARITIES IN THE ECONOMIC WAY OF LIFE

OF THE KHOIKHOI AND THE SAN
 The Khoikhoi kept domestic animals like cattle and sheep
while the San kept only the dog.
 The Khoikhoi were both hunter-gatherers and pastoralists,
while the san were purely hunter-gatherers.
 The Khoikhoi stored water in clay pots while the San
stored water in ostrich egg shells.
 The Khoikhoi and the San also had certain similarities;
they sometimes fished when living next to the rivers.
 They both practiced division of labor. Women performed
certain duties, while men did others.

DIFFERENCES AND SIMILARITIES IN THE POLITICAL WAY OF LIFE

OF THE KHOIKHOI AND THE SAN
 The Khoikhoi had centralized leadership while the San did
not. The khoikhoi were led by a chief while the San
selected their leader looking at their abilities. They
could be led by a man with special skills like a good
herbalist, good runner, good hunter, or the first man to
make fire at a new camp.
 Among the Khoikhoi leadership was hereditary while among
the San anyone with special skills, from any family
could be selected to lead.
 Khoikhoi leaders had more powers than San leaders, for
instance, they could sentence a criminal to death, but

Page 16 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Senior Secondary School History Syllabus

San leaders could not. San leaders only had powers to

distribute meat of wild animals and wild fruits.
 The khoikhoi lived in large communities while the San
lived in small communities.

THE ARRIVAL OF THE BANTU SPEAKERS

The Bantu speakers originates from West Africa, around the
Cameroon basin, in the modern states of Togo and Cameroon.
They are made up of the following groups:
 The Sotho-Tswana,
 Nguni-Tsonga,
 Shona,
 South-Central Bantu.

They were Iron smelters and mixed farmers. They practiced both
pastoral and arable farming. Due to the abundance of food and
natural resources in the area in which the lives, as a result
of suitable climatic conditions, there was population growth
among the bantu. There was also increase in the numbers of
livestock. This led to competition over resources and
ultimately conflicts among the people. The large numbers of
animals and continuous cultivation of the soil, led to loss of
soil fertility and land degradation. Later on, the area was
hit by drought, and the people were forced to move to other
areas to find better pastures, water and fertile soils. This
movements came to be known as BANTU MIGRATIONS. The migrations
took many 100s of years, and ultimately some Bantu speaking
communities ended up in Southern Africa, where they found the
Khoisan and interacted with them.
HOW THE ARRIVAL OF THE BANTU SPEAKERS INFLUENCED THE
WAY OF LIFE OF THE KHOISAN
Positive Effects

Early contacts between the Bantu and the Khoisan was peaceful.
They traded with each other and exchanged goods through the
barter system. That is, there was no use of money or any
special medium of exchange, but goods were exchanged for other
goods.
From the Bantu the Khoisan got clay pots for storing water and
milk, iron tools like arrows and spears which made hunting
easier, and livestock to keep, which provided them with meat
and milk. Some Khoisan adopted crop production.

And from the Khoisan the Bantu got meat of wild animals,
skins, ostrich feathers and ivory. The Bantu and Khoisan also

Page 17 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Senior Secondary School History Syllabus

intermarried, which led to the exchange of culture between

them. Some Khoisan people were employed by the Bantu speakers
as herdboys and they were paid with livestock which boosted
their economy.
Negative Effects
The arrival of the Bantu also had some negative effects on the
way of life of the Khoisan. Sometimes the Bantu enslaved the
Khoisan, and treated them badly. Many Khoisan people were
killed in the process. There was also land alienation of the
Khoisan by the Bantu who pushed them from the fertile and
productive lands to the deserts. Wars which broke between the
two also led to the death of the Khoisan.

IRON AGE TECHNOLOGY

Iron Age was the period when iron was discovered and used to
make tools; This era can be described as the period when
people smelted and used iron tools, practiced agriculture
(domesticated animals such as cattle, goats and sheep and they
grew crops such as sorghum, millet, maize, beans etc.),
engaged in trade with other communities and lived in complex
societies or permanent settlements.

Iron Age is divided in to phases;

 Early Iron Age
 Late Iron Age
ORIGINS OF IRON AGE TECHNOLOGY
Iron Age technology begun in the middle East in the Fertile
Crescent of ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt. Through trade, the
technology was spread to Egypt, and, later to the Sudan
and Western African States of Ghana and the Cameroons. The
Bantu speakers adopted the technologies and would later spread
them downwards to southern Africa through their migrations.
How Iron Age Technology helped to improve the lifestyle of the
people
Iron Age people mined iron ore and smelted it to make iron
tools such as knives, axes, spears and hoes. Axes were used to
clear large pieces of land for cultivation of crops. They were
also used for cutting poles to build huts and kraals for
livestock. Hoes on the other hand were used to cultivate large
pieces of land to produce food. This resulted in an improved
crop production which caused population increase. Knives were
used to harvest the crops at the fields and for skinning
animals. Iron tools were also used as trade items to get items

Page 18 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Senior Secondary School History Syllabus

that the people could not produce for themselves. Therefore,

this led people to live in complex societies as they could
manage to feed large populations.

ECONOMIC WAY OF LIFE OF THE IRON AGE PEOPLE

MINING
Mining was an important source of their economy in which
metals like iron and copper were smelted to make tools. Iron
Age people made tools like spears for hunting large animals,
and agricultural tools like hoes for cultivating the land,
axes for clearing land for cultivation and knives for
harvesting and skinning animals.
AGRICULTURE
Their economy was based on Agriculture. They were mostly mixed
farmers as they grew crops like maize, millet, sorghum, beans
and melons, and also reared animals such as cattle, sheep and
goats. The crops improved their diet and trade. The livestock
provided them with meat and milk which improved their diet.
Cattle were also a mode of transport. They also symbolized
wealth and power. They were used in marriage, funerals and
other social activities.
TRADE
Iron Age people were engaged in a network of trade. They
exchanged goods with local groups like the San and with people
from outside Africa, like the Indians, through long distance
trade. Some of the trading commodities were ivory, skins, furs
and agricultural products like grain and livestock. Trade was
very important because it assisted them to acquire goods they
could not produce for themselves as well as link them with the
Europeans and Asians.

HUNTING AND GATHERING

Iron Age people continued to practice the hunting of wild
animals and gathering of wild fruits, on part-time basis, to
supplement their major economic activities. They hunted with
spears, bows and arrows, and traps. Their hunting tools were
mainly made from iron. Animal products apart from providing
meat for food, were also used in trade, and skins were for
making clothes.

POTTERY MAKING
At some iron Age sites, especially the hill tops, are
characterized by remains of clay pots, an indication that the
people were engaged in the making of pottery. These were used

Page 19 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Senior Secondary School History Syllabus

for storing milk, water, cooking and trade. Sometimes they

were used for storing traditional beer.

SOCIAL ORGANISATION OF THE IRON AGE PEOPLE

They built permanent houses with mud mixed with cow dung and
thatched with grass. Their homesteads were built around
livestock kraals to protect them from predators like lions.
They wore clothes made from animal skins and other resources
in the environment. When boys and girls reached puberty stage
they were taken to initiation schools, (bogwera for boys and
bojale for girls). These were important socialization schools
where they underwent training for life as elders. It was also
pre-marital orientation, a transition from childhood to
adulthood and it was where children acquired the history of
their society.
Marriage was another special aspect in the social life of the
Iron Age People. They married after initiation. They practiced
polygamy and paid bride price with cattle. This was a symbol
of respect and token of appreciation to the girl’s parents.
They believed in the existence Of a supernatural being, who
controlled the universe, and they worshipped that being. They
also worshipped the spirits of the ancestor, whom they
believed connected them with God. They made sacrifices to
their ancestors during drought, good harvests, and illness to
ask for any kind of help. They could use the weather to
interpret what the gods were trying to say to them. They
buried their dead with some equipment to use in the next
world.

POLITICAL ORGANISATION OF THE IRON AGE PEOPLE

Iron age people lived in big settlements which were divided in to villages.
They had centralized leadership. At the top was the chief who came from
a royal house, and was assisted by his brothers and uncles. Under the
chief were headmen. Villages were divided in to wards led by the
headmen. The chief had authority over the people, and was believed to be
a representative of God on earth. Therefore, he was believed to posses
religious powers, including rainmaking.
EARLY IRON AGE SITES IN BOTSWANA
1. Toutswemogala
2. Broadhurst
3. Domboshaba
4. Serondela
5. Magagarape

Page 20 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Senior Secondary School History Syllabus

6. Matlapaneng
7. Maunatlala
8. Sung
9. Majojo
10.Tsodilo

TOUTSWEMOGALA
The main village of Toutswemogala was situated on a hilltop
in central Botswana, between Palapye and Serule, on the north
of a settlement called Lechana. The kingdom spread from Serule
to the Shoshong hills. It is estimated to have come into being
around 1026 AD. During this time it was one of the few large
kingdoms south of the Zambezí River. Because of its sprawling
size, Toutswemogala was a very important village. It is not
known what this people called themselves, Historians therefore
refer to them as Toutswe people.
Archaeologists believe that Toutswe people chose to settle at
Toutswemogala because the area was an excellent cattle
country. This view is supported by the available
archaeological evidence which shows that the herds of cattle
of the Toutswe people increased rapidly overtime.
WAY OF LIFE OF THE TOUTSWE PEOPLE
Archaeologists have been able to reconstruct the life of the
Toutswe people by studying their material culture (pottery
remains, glass beads and remains of cow dung).
Stratification of society: Toutswe society was divided into
social classes. The different social classes inhabited
different areas in the village or kingdom. The rich people
lived on the hilltop with their servants. This people were
probably the rulers/chiefs. The people who lived on the
hilltop were very rich with large herds of cattle and goods
acquired through trade. Archaeological excavations at the
hilltop came across cattle kraals with cow dung up to 11
meters deep. This shows that they kept large herds of cattle
for a very long time. Large herds of cattle in African
societies was associated with power and prestige.
The rich might have chosen to live on the hilltop because such
a vintage point allowed them to protect their animals easier
from predators. The hilltop village was also easier to defend
from external attacks.

Page 21 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Senior Secondary School History Syllabus

On the small hills and valleys immediately below were the

subject people. Some of these people might have been headmen.
They were principally concerned with supervising the servile
populace in the outskirts of the villages.
In the far flung areas were the ordinary people. These were
mostly poor and their duty was to take care of the livestock
of the chiefs. They also cultivated crops on behalf of the
ruling class.
The rich people ate mostly meat from livestock. At the hilltop
most of the bone remains excavated were those of domestic
animals. The poor people in the valleys ate mostly wild
animals. The bone remains found on the valleys were those of
wild animals. This therefore suggests that they might have
been the ancestors of the modern day Khoesan.
Burial practices/ customs
Dead people were buried inside the homes. This means that the
dead were not taken out for burial to areas designated as
cemeteries. Males and females were buried in separate places.
Men and adolescent boys were buried in cattle kraals, while
women and children were buried near the houses.
Toutswe people were also buried with some of their property,
particularly household goods. E.g. Women could be buried with
clay pots. People were also buried with their faces facing a
west direction. This might have symbolized special religious
significance.
Trade
The people of Toutswemogala engaged in trade not only with
their immediate neighbors but also with people from faraway
places. This means that they engaged in some long distance
trade. Toutswe people obtained trade goods from as far as
modern day Mozambique. The items they commonly got from the
coast included sea shells, thin glass beads and spindle whorls
(clay disks used for spinning cotton). The glass beads were
obtained from Asia.
Toutswe people might have exported furs, specularite, ivory
and animal skins. This might have been done by the rich.
Cattle were also an important exchange commodity. People could
exchange their animals to obtain grain in times of need.
Internally Toutswe people traded specularite and other goods.
Specularite seemed important and much sought for, because it

Page 22 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Senior Secondary School History Syllabus

was traded with villages over 100km away from where it was
produced.
Agriculture
Toutswe people were both arable and pastoral farmers. They
mostly produced sorghum, millet, squash and cowpeas. Their
crop fields were prepared using hand-held hoes made from
locally produced iron.
Animal husbandry was also a vital economic activity. Animals
were kept for food; milk and meat. However, livestock meat was
consumed by the rich/chiefs. The large cow dung heaps
excavated at the hilltop site could be an indication that
Toutswe chiefs possessed large herds of livestock.
They also cultivated crops like sorghum, beans and melons.
Grains were stored in two different ways: small supplies were
kept in granaries made from clay near houses and large
supplies were deeply buried under the central kraals. The
buried supplies were used during emergencies, for example,
during drought or warfare.
The chiefs possessed large herds of cattle and the control of
these enormous herds formed the basis of their power. They
loaned out cattle to their supporters as security for their
political support.
Besides symbolizing power, large herds of cattle were also an
important sign of wealth and prestige. In times of drought,
cattle could be exchanged for grains. Whoever controlled
cattle also stood to control grains during drought.
Collapse of Toutswemogala
Between 1250 and I300AD Toutswemogala began to decline and
finally collapsed. Different explanations have been advanced
to explain the collapse. Some are as follows:
Increase in Livestock numbers - The increase in livestock
numbers has been attributed to the fact that the area was
a good cattle country. Because of the increased numbers,
Overgrazing quickly became a problem. There was need for
better grasslands and water sources. Competition over
resources might have led to conflicts, forcing people to
move elsewhere.
Drought: Series of droughts hit the kingdom between 1250
and 1300 AD. These droughts greatly killed numbers of
livestock. The people were therefore forced to abandon

Page 23 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Senior Secondary School History Syllabus

the area to go and look for better pastures for their

livestock.
Diminishing natural resources: Because of increased
agricultural production, the population at Toutswemogala
drastically increased. This increase impacted negatively
on the natural resources of the area: The soil lost its
fertility, wild fruits and grasses became scarce, water
sources began to dry up, leading to the area becoming
less habitable. This led to people moving to better
areas, hence abandoning Toutswemogala.
The rise of other villages/ kingdoms: some historians
believe that the rise of Mapungubwe led to the total
collapse of Toutswemogala. The argument is that
Mapungubwe which was located at the confluence of Shashe
and the Limpopo rivers, might have intercepted the flow
of trade between Toutswemogala and the East Indian Coast.
Toutswe chiefs might have lost their important source of
power, which was trade. And most people might have moved
to the newly established kingdom of Mapungubwe, which
lies about 300 kilometers closer to the Indian coast than
Toutswemogala. Hence the total abandonment of Toutswe.

BROADHURST
The Broadhurst site stretches from Gaborone to Molepolole.
Pottery remains excavated from Broadhurst dates from between
600- 1000 AD. It is generally held that the inhabitants of
Broadhurst were Bantu speakers.
The material culture of Broadhurst included the following;
Indian glass beads, animal bones and granaries. The discovery
of Indian glass beads at Broadhurst shows that the people of
Broadhurst were involved in long distance trade with the
inhabitants of the Indian Ocean coast. The discovery of
granaries indicates that the people were arable farmers and
they therefore used them to store their grains. The animal
bones indicate that the people kept livestock and also hunted
wild animals for meat, ivory and furs and skins. Mixed farming
was a common activity among the Bantu speakers and hence
archaeologists and historians believe that the inhabitants of
Broadhurst were Bantu speakers.
BROEDERSTROOM
This site includes areas around western Johannesburg and
Lobatse. The people of Broederstroom may have come through
Botswana around AD 700.
Page 24 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Senior Secondary School History Syllabus

The people of Broederstroom were pastoralists. They kept

livestock like cattle, goats and sheep. No evidence of arable
farming was discovered at the site. This therefore suggests
that the people of Broederstroom were pastoralists and not
arable farmers.
Broederstroom people were also hunter-gatherers. They hunted
wild animals and gathered wild plants for food. Further to
this, the people engaged in trade. Evidence of seashells
excavated at the site indicates that the people traded with
people from Asia. The sea shells might have been exchanged for
ivory and copper.
Broederstroom people were religious. The people practiced
religious rituals like offering sacrifices to their ancestors.
There were shrines set up for this purpose.
MAPUNGUBWE
This ancient chiefdom was located at the confluence of the
Limpopo and Shashe Rivers. The chiefdom was larger than
Toutswemogala. By AD 1075 Mapungubwe was an important trading
center. The people were pastoral farmers, and the rulers in
particular owned large herds of cattle. Cattle were therefore
important in the society, for they played a role in social,
economic and political activities. They were also a major
commodity in trade.
Trade was an important economic activity in the lives of the
people. Glass beads and sea shells excavated at the site are
an indication that the people engaged in long distance trade.
These items were originally from Asia. Large quantities of
gold have also been found at Mapungubwe, and this might have
been used in trade with people at the coast. In the fullness
of time, ivory, gold, furs and beads replaced cattle as
important items of trade.
Important men in the chiefdom were buried on hilltops. They
were buried with their most personal possessions. This could
have meant a belief in life after death. One of the
excavations at the site revealed a grave containing a golden
statue of a Rhinoceros and this was believed to have been a
burial site of a king.
Mapungubwe society was divided in to social classes. The rich
lived on the main hilltop. The majority of the people lived on
the scattered plains in the chiefdom.

Page 25 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Senior Secondary School History Syllabus

Mapungubwe did not last as a dominant chiefdom. After about

150 years it collapsed, and the surrounding settlements on the
plains were abandoned by 1150 AD. Because of the large
livestock numbers at Mapungubwe, it is tempting to conclude
that the chiefdom was abandoned because of overgrazing and
drought. The collapse of Mapungubwe was immediately followed
by the rise of Great Zimbabwe to the north east.
GREAT ZIMBABWE
Great Zimbabwe was the center/ capital of one of the largest
kingdoms in Southern Africa from the 13th to the 15th Centuries.
This was the Zimbabwe kingdom, founded by the ancestors of the
present day Shona of Zimbabwe, and this explains why Shona was
the major language of the kingdom. The kingdom covered about
60 acres of land, that included some parts of present Botswana
and South Africa.
The capital consisted of two complexes of dry stone buildings.
These buildings have since been named by Europeans the
‘Acropolis’ and the ‘Temple’. The Acropolis is made up of
small buildings and the Temple is made up of large stone
buildings which stand at about 9meters high and 5meters thick
(32 feet high and 17 feet thick).
Between AD 1250 and 1450 Great Zimbabwe grew into a very
powerful political center in the whole of Southern Africa. It
is estimated that about 20 000 people once lived at Great
Zimbabwe. This suggests that the king of Great Zimbabwe was
very powerful and hence he had such a large number of people
under him at once. The rest of the population lived in the
other parts of the Kingdom under Provincial leaders, who
reported directly to the King.

Social Organization
The kingdom was divided into social classes that resided in
different areas. At the top of the social ladder was the king
and he lived alone in the main stone enclosure. The king’s
residence was on the hill. It was surrounded by stone
enclosures. His wives could only enter the main enclosure when
he needed them. Next to the main enclosure were the houses of
his wives and members of the royal family. The king’s servants
lived immediately outside the main stone enclosure. Their main
duties were to fetch water and collect firewood for the king
and his immediate relatives. The king’s messengers also lived
Page 26 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Senior Secondary School History Syllabus

nearby. The main town was situated in the valley on the lower
slopes of a hill. The rest of the ordinary people lived in the
open valleys below.
The king was a religious leader. He was rarely seen by
ordinary people. His orders and messages were passed over to
the subject people, by his messengers through a hanging piece
of cloth. The king was always guarded by about 200 to 300 men
who constantly had to shower him with praise songs all day
long. As a religious leader the king was the only person who
could consult Mwari, God. He consulted Mwari on behalf of his
subjects. He was therefore the mediator between Mwari and the
people.
Economic Organization
An assortment of trade goods were excavated at the Great
Zimbabwe site in 1903. The goods were sourced locally and
internationally. The internationally sourced goods included
Persian bowls, Chinese porcelain, colored glass beads and sea
shells, among others. The locally sourced trade goods included
gold, bronze, copper and iron tools, carved stone soap bowls
and carved stone eagles.
These trade goods show that trade was an important activity at
Great Zimbabwe and depicts the kingdom as an important trade
center. They traded with china, India, and the Middle East. It
also traded with other African kingdoms. The trade network of
this kingdom was very large.
Other economic activities included Weaving which was a domain
of women. Some people even wore locally woven clothes. Mining
was also done on an extensive scale. The kingdom was located
close to gold deposits. The gold was however controlled by the
king. Salt was also an important commodity in the kingdom, for
it extended as far as the makgadikgadi salt pans. The people
mined it for both local use and trade.
Agriculture was yet another important economic activity. The
people of Great Zimbabwe were mixed farmers. They kept
livestock and grew crops. They kept cattle, sheep and goats.
They grew a variety of field crops, like Sorghum, water
Melons, groundnuts and beans.
Political Organization
The King at Great Zimbabwe, whose title was Munhumutapa,
appointed Regional/Provincial leaders to help him effectively

Page 27 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Senior Secondary School History Syllabus

govern his vast kingdom. Under the governors were chiefs and
headmen. The chiefs and the headmen settled domestic disputes
in their provinces/districts, particularly those over land and
cattle. The governors, chiefs and headmen controlled gold
mining in their respective districts.
In exchange for the powers they were given by the king, they
paid tribute. This was in the form of gold, ivory and other
luxurious goodies.
The kingdom also had a strong standing army. Its major
functions were to maintain law and order, protect the
kingdom’s trade interests and to enforce the authority of the
king.
The Collapse of Great Zimbabwe
By AD 1450 Great Zimbabwe collapsed. Its collapse has been
attested to the following factors:
Shortage of natural resources: salt started to be scarce
in Great Zimbabwe and this affected a good number of
activities. Because of this, the people decided to
abandon the kingdom and relocate to other areas. The
exhaustion of agricultural and grazing land and water
sources might have had an impact on forcing the people to
move away from Great Zimbabwe. Because of the large human
and animal population at Great Zimbabwe, the natural
resources of the kingdom could not cope. The people
therefore abandoned the kingdom and this led to its
demise.
Loss of control of trade: there might have been competition
between Great Zimbabwe and other kingdoms such as Ingombe
Ilede for the trade with the coast. Great Zimbabwe might
have failed to compete effectively and hence its
collapse.
Loss of political power: the kingdom of great Zimbabwe had
become too big and as a result, it could not be
controlled easily. Junior chiefs might have taken the
opportunity to rebel against their seniors/ the governors
who were chosen by the king. With subject people
rebelling, the power of the king simply declined. The
king’s political loss of power led to the ultimate
collapse of the Kingdom.

DOMBOSHABA

Page 28 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Senior Secondary School History Syllabus

The Domboshaba ruins lie about 80 km north of Francistown. The

sett1ement was built in about 1407. It was a large village and
was planned like the settlement of Great Zimbabwe. It must
therefore have been an extension of the old Zimbabwe kingdom.
The chief at Domboshaba lived on the hilltop and his wives
immediately at the base. Their houses were surrounded by stone
wall enclosures.
The people of Domboshaba might have practiced mining. This is
so because there are many prehistoric mines near the ruins.
The mines produced gold. Gold ornaments were excavated at the
site in the 1930s. Besides mining, the people of Domboshaba
took an active part in trade. They practiced both local and
long distance trade. Some of the trade goods uncovered at the
site originate from India and China.
Although gold mining and trade were important economic
activities in the village, the majority of the people in
Domboshaba were mixed farmers. They reared livestock and grew
a variety of field crops.
BANTU SPEAKING PEOPLES OF SOUTHERN AFRICA before 1800
 Sotho- Tswana - Batswana
 Nguni-Tsonga
 Shona
 South-Central Bantu
The Bantu speakers moved into Southern Africa about 2000 years
ago. They moved from the Cameroon forests (homeland) because
of population increase, exhaustion of natural resources, which
might have led to competition over the resources and disputes.
The large populations also might have led overgrazing and
drought, which forced people to move. The advent of tsetse fly
in the area might have forced people to move to better areas,
and ultimately reaching southern Africa.

SOCIAL ORGANISATION
SETTLEMENT PATTERN - The Bantu speakers built permanent
structures using cow dung and mud mixture. Their houses were
thatched with grass. Their homesteads were surrounded by
compounds from thorn bushes or rocks.
INITIATION SCHOOLS - This was an important social activity.
Boys and girls underwent initiation before marriage. It was
pre-marital orientation, a transition from childhood to
adulthood and it is where children acquired the history of
their society.

Page 29 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Senior Secondary School History Syllabus

MARRIAGE - This was a special aspect in the social way of

life of the Bantu speaking people. They were ready for
marriage after initiation. They practiced polygamy and paid
bride prize with cattle. Marriages were arranged by parents or
extended family members.
RELIGION - They worshipped ancestors and believed that there
was God who was more powerful than their ancestors. They
contacted their ancestors in times of need, difficulties,
disputes, drought, and wars thunderstorms. They made
sacrifices to their ancestors to keep in touch and to praise
and please them.
ECONOMIC ORGANISATION
AGRICULTURE - Their economy was centered on agriculture. They
kept livestock which provided them with skin, meat and milk.
They supplemented their diet with crops such as sorghum,
millet, beans and melon. The crops were grown and harvested,
some eaten, traded and some grains stored for future use.
TRADE - Trade was important among Bantu people. They traded
with the Khoisan and with the Europeans. They gave out things
like animal skins, ivory, grains and metals in exchange for
ostrich eggshell beads, glass beads, Chinese porcelain, cloth,
bracelets etc.
MINING - They mined metals like iron, copper and gold. The
blacksmiths made tools like hoes and spears. These tools
improved their economic lives like agriculture, hunting and
trade.

Other economic activities include pottery making, hunting and

basketry.

POLITICAL ORGANISATION
Bantu people had permanent leaders. Leadership was hereditary
passed from father to son of the senior wife. The leader
controlled log distance trade. He also had unlimited powers
and could sentence the culprit to death. The society was
divided into class and the ruler was at the top of the
hierarchy.

THE SOTHO TSWANA

The Sotho- Tswana is divided into the following groups:
The Tswana - Bangwato, Bangwaketsi, Bakgatla, Batawana,
Bakwena and Barolong
Northern Sotho - Bafokeng and Batlhaping

Page 30 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Senior Secondary School History Syllabus

Southern Sotho - Venda and Pedi

The Tswana are made up of groups like Bangwato, Bangwaketsi,
Bakgatla, Batawana, Bakwena and Barolong. These people are
found in the south eastern part of Botswana. The Southern
Sotho is made of groups like the Bafokeng and Batlhaping. They
are settled in the areas between the Vaal and orange rivers.
The Northern Sotho includes groups like Venda and Pedi. They
are found around the Transvaal.

SOCIAL ORGANISATION
SETTLEMENT - The Sotho-Tswana built permanent homes. They
made round huts from a mixture of mud and cow dung and
thatched with grass or a lot of leaves. They decorated the
walls of their houses with sand and this varied from one group
to another. With this arrangement the Sotho-Tswana did not
move from one place to another more often.
LAND - The land belonged to the whole society. The chief was
the one who had power over the distribution of the land. The
first person to clear a certain piece of land was regarded as
the owner of that plot.
INITIATION CEREMONY - This played an important role in their
social life. Boys underwent Bogwera and girl underwent Bojale.
Initiation was linked with the son of the chief who was to
lead the initiates.
MARRIAGE - This was another special aspect in the social life
of the Sotho-Tswana. They married after initiation. They
practiced polygamy and paid bride price with cattle. This was
a symbol of respect to the girl’s parents. It was common among
the Sotho-Tswana to marry their relatives i.e. cousins.
Marriage was usually arranged by uncles.
RELIGION - They worshipped God called Modimo. They also
worshipped ancestral spirits. They made sacrifices to their
ancestors during drought, good harvests, Illness and to ask
for any kind of help. They could use the weather to interpret
what the gods were trying to say to them. The Sotho-Tswana had
many beliefs e.g. they believed that a pregnant woman should
always stay away from cattle kraals and furnace because this
would affect cattle and iron production.
ECONOMIC ORGANISATION
AGRICULTURE - Their economy was centered on agriculture. They
kept animals such as cattle, sheep, goats, chicken and dogs.
The crops they grew include; maize, sorghum, beans, melons and
water melon. Animals provided them with milk, meat and skin,
and their crops provided them with food and grains which were
stored for future use.

Page 31 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Senior Secondary School History Syllabus

TRADE - It was important among the Sotho-Tswana; they traded

locally with other groups and externally with Europeans. They
received commodities like cloths and salt.
MINING - The Sotho-Tswana were determined iron workers. They
made metal weapons, tools and jewelry which were used for
protection, economic and social activities.
HUNTING - Men were responsible for this activity. Age-
regiments were sent out on hunting expeditions by the chief.
Killing dangerous animals like leopards and lions was a symbol
of bravery and / or heroism.
There were other economic activities like pottery making,
gathering which were the responsibility of women.

POLITICAL ORGANISATION
They were organized into chiefdoms with permanent leadership.
Chieftainship was hereditary i.e. passed from father to senior
son of the principal wife. They also had regency in which the
paternal uncle could rule on behalf of his nephew if he was
too young to take over his throne. This was done to avoid
succession disputes between brothers. The village was divided
into wards which were under the control of headmen. Headmen
helped the chief by solving minor disputes between members of
their wards. They also had a central place called kgotla in
which the leader could call his people for discussions and to
make decisions concerning the whole society.

DUTIES OF A LEADER
He ruled with the help of advisors, elders and councilors
He settled major disputes and called general meetings
known as dipitso. The chief could be criticized in these
general meetings.
He had the power to sentence people who committed crime
to death
He was the Commander in chief of the army.
He controlled both long and short distance trade.
He distributed land between his people
He had spiritual powers and was judged by the ability to
make rainfall.

THE SHONA
They are made up of groups of the Kalanga, Karanga,
Korekore/Poripori, and Zezuru. They were found in the areas
between the Zambezi and the Limpopo rivers.

Page 32 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Senior Secondary School History Syllabus

SOCIAL ORGANISATION
SETTLEMENT - The Shona built permanent structure. They built
their houses with poles, and a mixture of cow dung and clay
surrounded by large stone walls (enclosures) which they called
dzimba dza mabwe which means houses of stone. The Zimbabwe
ruins were official residents for Kings. At times they were
called dzimba hoye which means the venerated houses as they
were also burial places for kings. Ordinary people lived at
the bottom of the hill in large population.

INITIATION AND MARRIAGE - Like other Bantu groups the Shona

underwent initiation and pre-marital orientation. They were
also polygamous and paid bride prize with cattle as a symbol
of respect. Marriage was arranged by parents. It was not
common for the Shona to marry their relatives or descents.

RELIGION - The Shona worshipped their God called Mwali/Mwari.

Mwali was believed to be powerful and his word was absolute.
The people believed that he lived in the sky and controlled
their lives, the world and the weather. He could only be
approached by the spirit of the dead who could persuade him to
bring rain, make the land fertile and keep misfortunes away.

They also believed in family ancestral spirits called Vadzimu

Ve Misha. These ancestral spirits were responsible for happy
families and marriages. They were approached through spirit
mediams during family crises or disputes.
Chiefs and Kings became the most powerful ancestors. They were
approached during clan and succession disputes by the King
and/or spirit mediums. These ancestral spirits were called
Mhondoro. They were also consulted when the kingdom or clan
was at war with any other group. The people paid tribute to
the king in order to keep Mhondoro happy and more powerful
throughout the clan. The Shona religion also unified them as
they had to ask for rain and wealth from Mwali and their
ancestors through their king.

ECONOMIC ORGANISATION
AGRICULTURE - Arable and pastoral farming were the centre of
the Shona economy. The majority of ordinary people owned
cattle and those who did not own them were loaned cattle by
others through a system called Kurunzera. Deaths/births of
these loaned cattle had to be reported to the owner. Cattle
were used to pay bride prize and symbolized wealth. They grew

Page 33 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Senior Secondary School History Syllabus

crops such as sorghum, millet, Melon and maize which were

acquired through trade from the Portuguese. These crops
provided them with food. Surplus were stored for future use as
grain and were also traded to other groups.
MINING - The Shona mined metals like iron, copper and gold.
They made tools like hoes and spears which improved
agriculture and hunting respectively. Gold was of importance
and sacred to them because the mining and trading of it was
controlled by the Shona leaders.
TRADE - The Shona were engaged in both short and long distance
trade. They acquired items like ostrich eggshell beads, animal
skin, fur from other local groups and luxurious items like the
Chinese porcelain, glass beads, maize, cloth and bracelets
from Europeans. Trade with Arabs, Indians, and Portuguese was
controlled by Shona kings who gave Europeans commodities such
as ivory, gold, grain and animal products.

Pottery making, blacksmithing, weaving, basketry and hunting

also formed and important part of their economic organization.
The top of the hill is characterized by pot sheds an
indication that the Shona people were engaged in the making of
clay pots. These were used for storing milk, trade, cooking
and fetching water. Sometimes they were used for storing
traditional beer.

POLITICAL ORGANISATION
The Shona were a centralized state. The King was at the Centre
of the admin and was assisted by people from different
departments. These people include the counselor, court
chamberlain, head door keeper, chief cook, head drummer, the
queen and the King’s sister. The kingdom was divided into
provinces/districts each headed by a chief known as Pfumo who
was answerable to the king. They also collected tribute from
their people to the king. The king was responsible for the
happiness, wealth, good harvests, rainfall and unification of
his people by contacting the ancestral spirits on their
behalf. He also controlled long distance trade.

-
South Central Bantu include Ovaherero, Ovambanderu, Wayei,
BaSubiya and Hambukushu. They are found in the North Western
and South Eastern part of the present day Botswana. Oral
History of this group suggests that they belonged to the
Western stream. During the 15th Century they lived around the
Zambezi in Kaitimamolilo. The Hambukushu and the BaSubiya

Page 34 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Senior Secondary School History Syllabus

moved South wards and finally settled in Kasane. The Wayei

moved to Okavango River and the Ovaherero and Ovambanderu
moved South wards and later settled in the lands of Khoisan
speaking pastoralist around Ghanzi.

THE RIVER PEOPLE

These include BaSubiya, Wayei and Hambukushu.
ECONOMIC ORGANISATION
PASTORALISM - These groups kept livestock such as cattle,
sheep and goats. They provided them with milk, meat and skins.
The Subiya and Wayei were more into pastoralism and arable
farming.
ARABLE FARMING - They hoed on the wide flood plains. They
used crops such as melons, millet and sweet reeds. Hambukushu
also grew canes, pumpkins and a variety of roots. Arable
farming supplemented and improved their diet.
FISHING - They were expert fishermen. They fished in shallow
water with their canoes. They used various methods for
fishing. The Subiya used bone harpoons and nets for fishing,
Wayei used fishing baskets and a long fence made of very thin
sticks tied together and reaching the bottom of the water
(Nteta) and the Hambukushu used nets and baskets to trap fish.
Fish was their staple food especially during drought.
HUNTING - They were all hunters. They chased animals into the
river and steer their canoes close to the swimming animals
then stab them with spears. These people gained respect by
killing large and dangerous animals e.g. the Wayei took pride
in killing hippos which was regarded as the lord of the river.
The hippo was hunted and killed by one or two men, with a
large weighted spear hanged on a tree pointing down to be
released on a passing hippo stabbing it deeply in the back.
The Hambukushu people gained prestige in killing elephants.
They took the blade of a spear and fixed it to a heavy piece
of wood. They dug holes on paths used by elephants and set the
hood with the spear facing upwards. If the elephants step on
this blade it would prevent from walking hence the hunters
would be able to slash or axe its tendons before the actual
spearing of the animal.

They were also pottery makers and the pots were used for
storing water, grains and food they were also used for
cooking. e g made metals tools like hoes and hoes and spears.
Fruits were gathered like water lilies, papyrus stems by
women.

Page 35 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Senior Secondary School History Syllabus

SOCIAL ORGANISATION
SETTLEMENT - The Subiya made permanent settlements while
Wayei and Hambukushu made temporary settlements. Huts were
made from few poles dug into the grounds and the spaces were
filled with reeds. The roof consisted of a number of woven
reeds laid over bent sticks and tight to the walls.
RELIGION - They worshipped the ancestors and offered
sacrifices to them to please them. Hambukushu were powerful
rainmakers.
POLITICAL ORGANISATION - They had permanent leaders. The
Subiya were a centralized state. Their leaders were helped by
a group of councilors and the army to make decision and to
control its people. These made them strong hence were able to
conquer other groups like the Wayei and the Hambukushu. Wayei
and Hambukushu had no central control because of their nomadic
life.

THE HERERO
They are found in the North Western part of the present day
Botswana. The dry and hot climates of the Kalahari influenced
the way they lived.

ECONOMIC ORGANISATION
PASTORALISM - They kept animals like cattle, sheep and goats.
Men took care of animals during the day and women were
responsible for milking cows and for the preparation for sour
milk called MAERE. This formed an important part of their
diet.
ARABLE FARMING - The Herero did a little bit of arable
farming to supplement their diet. They grew sorghum, cowpeas
and melon. This was done mostly by those who did not have
enough cattle to support their lives. Those who had enough
cattle preferred to buy grain from other groups for times of
need.
HUNTING AND GATHERING - Men hunted large game with spears
and heavy bows and arrows. They used traps for small game.
Their spears were made of wood because they did not have iron
except what they could get through trade from Tswana speakers.
Women gathered wild fruits and vegetables e.g wild berries,
spinach and nuts.

SOCIAL ORGANISATION
SETTLEMENT - The Ovaherero and Ovambanderu lived a semi-
normadic life that depended on the availability and lack of
grass and water for their animals. They were organized in to
Page 36 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Senior Secondary School History Syllabus

Ejanda(sig.) or Omaanda (plural), which are social groups

which defined people according to their motherlines, and Oruzo
(singular) Otuzo (plural), which are social groups according
to fathersline. All the social arrangements were done along
these social groups.

The Ovaherero and Ovambanderu practiced cross-cousin marriage.

These marriages were organized by the parents and children had
no say on who to marry. They paid bride price in cattle and
sheep.
They made permanent shelters. Their houses were made of large
branches with thick ends buried into the ground and the thin
ends were tied. Other branches were put around these. The
structure was then coated with a mixture of clay and cow dung.
The village huts were placed in a circular form surrounding
kraals of calves, lambs and kids. The herd was kraaled next to
the village at night.

The Ovaherero and Ovambanderu had a strong believe in the

image of God, Ndjambi, the Giver, and the Ancestral Spirits.
They believed in a strong connection between cattle and the
ancestral world.

POLITICAL ORGANISATION
The Ovaherero and ovambanderu had no centralized leadership.
Each Oruzo had the most male senior member of that Oruzo as
the leader. This member also coupled as a Chief Priest of the
family, and held the Holy Fire (Okuruuo) where every
traditional activity from marriage to healing was done. The
leader of the Oruzo had the powers to the lives of the members
of the family. He could kill or save lives.

EARLY EUROPEAN COLONIZATION OF SOUTHERN AFRICA

Definition of Terms:
 Colonize – To bring a country under the control of another
politically, economically and socially.
 Colony – A country under the political, economic and
cultural control of another, normally more powerful than it
is.
 Colonization – the process of settling among and
establishing control over indigenous people of an area.

Page 37 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Senior Secondary School History Syllabus

 Colonialism – the policy or practice of acquiring full or

partial control over another country, occupying it with
settlers, and exploiting it economically.
REASONS FOR EUROPEAN COLONISATION OF SOUTHERN AFRICA
 The search for Raw Materials
 The search for land to settle the growing European
population.
 The search for Labor/ Slaves.
 The search for an alternative sea route to India.
 The spread of Christianity.

THE PORTUGUESE IN KONGO

Early Portuguese-Kongolese Alliance
The kingdom of Kongo was a federation of provinces being
Sonyo, Mbamba, Mbata, Mpemba and Mpangu. For many years before
the arrival of the Portuguese, tribute was paid to the rulers
of Kongo. They were paid with slaves, ivory, palm cloth and
hides. The Bakongo also mined minerals such as copper. They
practiced pastoral farming and they kept cattle, sheep and
pigs .They also practiced arable farming. The kingdom of Kongo
was wealthy and therefore this economic stability attracted
the Portuguese to the area in the fifteenth century.
The Portuguese first arrived in Kongo in 1482 following the
rumors that Kongo was a rich and powerful state. On their
expedition to find an alternative sea route to the east
Indies, the Portuguese led by Diago Cao came across the kongo
and wanted to find out more about the state. This led to the
capturing of the four Portuguese by the king of the Kongo
state Nzinga Kuwu who was given the title Mani Kongo. Kuwu
learned more about Portugal from these four captives. Diago
Cao in turn captured four Bakongo, took them to Portugal where
they became special guests to the King of Portugal. They were
treated we, converted to Christianity and the Portuguese
learned more about Kongo from these captives.
As a result, diplomatic relations were established between the
two states following the return of the four Bakongo in 1484.In
1490 the Portuguese skilled personnel as well as missionaries
arrived in the Kongo capital Mbanza and the work of converting
Bakongo into Christianity started. Many were converted to
Christianity including Mani Kongo Nzinga Kuwu who was baptized
with his close relatives in 1491.The same year the Bakongo
helped the Portuguese to defeat their enemies around Stanley

Page 38 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Senior Secondary School History Syllabus

Pool. In return for their services the portuguese were paid in

Slaves, silver and ivory.
The presence of the Portuguese in Kongo led to disputes and
divisions amongst the Bakongo as some were in favor of foreign
contracts while some were against. Two factions emerged being
the pro-Portuguese (mainly Christian converts) and anti-
Portuguese (mainly traditionalists) and the Kongo Kingdom was
no longer united. Initially the Portuguese seemed to be
interested in the spread of Christianity but this changed
later as they usually supported one faction which is the pro-
Portuguese. This encouraged more divisions and differences
amongst the Bakongo. As a result of these activities of the
Portuguese and pressure from the traditionalists, the Mani
Kongo Kuwu denounced Christianity and went back to his
traditional way of life. However, a group led by his son
Alfonso remained devoted Catholics in favor of the Portuguese
presence in the state.
AFFONSO’S ATTEMPT TO WESTERNIZE THE KONGO KINGDOM
The death of Nzinga Kuwu in 1506 was followed by a civil war
between his two sons being Affonso who was a Christian convert
and Mpanza-A-Kitima who was a traditionalist. Affonso who had
support of all Portuguese in Kongo assassinated his brother
and took over power as King Affonso I. He wanted the
Portuguese to help him modernize the Kongo state leading to
negotiations between Affonso and King Manuel I of Portugal.
King Manuel accepted to assist in the westernization f the
Kongo on grounds that Affonso was to pay in copper, ivory and
slaves. Affonso depended on the Portuguese in order to expand
his state through conquering other groups. The wars of
conquest provided more captives to be sold as slaves (trade he
wanted to monopolize) in exchange for priests and goods. Slave
trade intensified during the attempt of “modernization” and
this led to the king’s authority being undermined. There was
widespread kidnapping and enslavement of many Bakongo and the
Portuguese traded directly with ordinary Bakongo. Despite all
this Affonso remained a Christian and asked for more
missionaries to come and work with his people. With more
Portuguese coming, slavery and slave trade intensified and
this weakened the once powerful state.

FAILURE OF WESTERNIZATION IN KONGO

The westernization of Kongo was not a success due to the
following reasons;
 The Portuguese who had settled in Kongo neglected their
duties of teaching the Bakongo and converting them
Page 39 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Senior Secondary School History Syllabus

instead they were involved in the destructive slave

trade.
 They did not recognize Affonso’s authority and as such
Alfonso could not control them.
 As a result, Affonso asked Manuel to send him a
representative of the Portuguese government to control
the Portuguese in Kongo.
 Manuel sent the ambassador Simao Da Silva who came with
the REGTMENTO. The regimento was a document that
contained instructions on how the whole process of
modernization was to be carried out in Kongo.

THE REGIMENTO
The Regiment was a document given to Simao da Silva containing
instructions on how to westernize the Kongo.
Contents of The Regimento
 The two Catholic Kings of Portugal and Kongo were
brothers.
 The Portuguese king would assist his African brother to
establish catholic faith throughout the Kongo Kingdom
 Simao da Silva was to be Portugal’s ambassador to the
Kongo, and also advise Affonso on military matters.
 Trade between the Kongo and Portugal was to be done
according to the ways acceptable to Portugal.
 Da Silva was to be judge of all the Portuguese living in
the Kongo.
 Da Silva was given authority to expel any Portuguese who
brings the name of Portugal into disrepute.
 Da Silva was instructed to collect information about the
Kongo’s Geography and politics.
 Da Sila was specially instructed to explore Rio Zaire
[The Kong River]

To some extent the regimento also contributed to the failure

of westernization in the state because;

Factor that led to the failure of the Regimento

 Da Silva died before he could help in the implementation
of the regimento and he was succeeded by Alvare Lopez,
who was more interested in slave trade than develop the
Kongo.
 The Regimento was too ambitious and Not everything in
the regimento was acceptable to Affonso and his
officials. The projects were not clear in how change was
to be achieved in Kongo. NB; Affonso was very much
interested in construction of schools, churches, palaces etc. The
unacceptable content of the document included Manuel’s

Page 40 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Senior Secondary School History Syllabus

laws and plans which he found unacceptable and were

either altered or completely rejected.
 Portuguese in the Kongo were not cooperative. They
neglected their duties and cooperated with the slave
traders of Sao Tome.
 The Portuguese looked down upon the Kongolese whom they
were suppose to develop. This led to bad blood between
them.
 The attitude of the Bakongo also led to failure of
westernization as most of them did not support it as
they were suspicious of their king’s relationship with
that of the king of Portugal.
 The Portuguese in the island of Sao Tome also frustrated
the efforts to westernize the Kongo kingdom. This was
because they realized that if cooperation between Kongo
and Portugal continued, they would loose monopoly in
slave trade which they had always enjoyed with the Kongo
state.
 Westernization also failed because Manuel’s successor
John III of Portugal did not support Affonso. As a
result it was more difficult to control the Portuguese
in the state without John’s support.
 The new king of Portugal John III had little interest in
the Kongo Kingdom, therefore the Regimento lacked
fundamental suport from Portugal leading to its failure

COLLAPSE OF THE KONGO STATE

 Succession Disputes - The death of Alfonso in 1543 was
followed by civil war between his son Pedro and his
nephew Diogo. As usual the Portuguese interfered in the
conflict and succeeded in making Diogo king, Diogo was
also in favor of westernization but his efforts to
continue with Affonso‘s plans failed because the
Portuguese in the area undermined his authority as such
his control over the state declined. This together with
other factors such as civil wars that followed the death
of every king in Kongo, activities of the Portuguese
especially slavery and slave trade and the Jaga invasion
eventually led to the disintegration of the Kongo
kingdom.
 Slave trade - Note that, the missionaries who settled in
Kongo took part in slave trade. Slave trade and
hostilities of the Portuguese in Kongo posed a threat to
the king’s authority and the stability of the state. As a
result of slave trade, thousands of Bakongo were taken to
different parts of the world especially to Sao Tome and
later to the Portuguese colony of Brazil. Some were
Page 41 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Senior Secondary School History Syllabus

killed in the process. Succession disputes and wars

encouraged by the Portuguese further weakened the state.
The 1556 war between Kongo (under Diogo) and Ndongo
further weakened the state as the latter were assisted by
the Portuguese who had relocated to Ndongo and were
operating slave trade with Ndongo rulers.
 Portuguese invasion of 1665 – the Portuguese invaded the
Kongo in 1665 killing Mani Kongo Anonio I and many of his
noble Chiefs at the battle of Mbwila. This led to
political instability inKongo , opening ways for save
trade and eventually leading to its ultimate collapse.
 The Jaga invasion (1570) - The Jaga invasion also
contributed to the collapse of the Kongo state. The Jaga
ethnic group invaded Kongo under the leadership of Alvare
(Diogo’s successor). Through the use of their powerful
weapons as fierce fighters the Jaga completely destroyed
the capital Mbanza forcing the king and few Portuguese to
seek refuge in islands of lower Kongo River. Although the
Jaga were driven out of the state by the Portuguese in
1571, the king had to rebuild his state as the Portuguese
reduced it to a vassal state.
 Declining Economic power– Kongo kingdom was mainly a
confederation of six provinces of chiefdoms such as;
Memba, Nsundi, Mbamba, Soyo, Mpangu, Mbata as well as
Ndongo. These chiefdoms paid tribute to Mani Kongo,
however at the height of the illegal slave trade, these
provincial chiefs traded in slaves directly with the
Portuguese of Sao Tome island, accumulating wealth in the
process, and asserting themselves as independent from the
Mani Kongo. They stopped paying tribute to the Mani Kongo
leading to decline of both political and economic power
of the Mani Kongo. The Portuguese were also no longer
interested in Kongo after the death of Da Silva and
discovery of the more lucrative slave trade in Angola.
Kongo eventually collapsed due to the declining economic
power of the Mani Kongo who could no longer hold the
kingdom together.

THE PORTUGUESE COLONISATION OF ANGOLA

The Contents of the Donatario
 Paulo Dias De Novaes was to colonize Angola at his
own expense.
 De Novaes was to have the Southern part of Angola as
his personal property
 He was to be governor of Angola for his Life time.

Page 42 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Senior Secondary School History Syllabus

 He was to take with him 400 soldiers

 He was to take with him 100 families to assist him
in his colonization process.
The Early Portuguese Contact with Ndongo
Portuguese arrived in the island of Luanda in February 1575.
They prepared for war by building forts around Angola. The
death of the Ngola in 1575 followed by succession disputes and
wars. This benefitted the Portuguese process of colonization.
While the Angolans were pre-occupied with their internal
politics, they were unable to fight the Portuguese. This gave
the Portuguese time to Prepare for war with Angola. The
Portuguese started advancing.
In 1579 the Ngola killed all Portuguese residing at Kabasa,
However, , the Ngola did not follow up their win by sending
more soldier to other Portuguese settlements, and the
Portuguese continued to benefit from the wars as the got more
slave. More Portuguese reinforcement were brought in from
Portugal and in 1583, the Portuguese won serious battles
against the Ngola. However, this did not mark the end of the
conflict or the defeat of the Angolans. The wars of resistance
continued. De Norvaes died in 1589 and was succeeded by Luis
Serrao, who continued with his predecessor's plans of
colonisation. Luis Serrao suffered defeat at the hands of the
Ngola forces in 1590. However, the ultimate winner in all this
conflict was the Slave Trader. Many captives were taken from
Angola and exported through Luanda; 1575-1587=2500 slave per
year were exported, 1587- 1591= 7500 slaves per year were
exported. Many Angolans were killed in these wars. Many
Portuguese also suffered. By 1591 nearly 2000 men had been
lost, only 300 remained. Portuguese were also forced to rely
heavily on African auxiliary forces, who could not be always
trusted completely as they could turn to the Ngola's side. The
prospects of a new colony were very bleak. Neither the
Portuguese nor missionaries carried out their work. The only
significant economic activity was the slave trade.
Politically, Portuguese colonial rule had not yet been
established on any regular or permanent basis.

ESTABLISHMENT OF PORTUGUESE COLONIAL RULE

As the situation became tough for the Portuguese in Angola, it

was clear that the Portuguese government had to take control

Page 43 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Senior Secondary School History Syllabus

of the situation in order to avert Angola from becoming an

expensive failure. This was vigorously rejected by Dias'
settlers, soldiers and missionaries who already possessed land
and other forms of property.
When the first governor-general , Francisco d'Almeida, revoked
all the land grants in 1592, there was outright revolt among
the settlers the governor-general was expelled from the colony
due to demands by the settlers, missionaries and traders.
Remember some of this were descendants of the first 400
soldiers and 100 families who had come with Paulo Dias de
Norvaes who felt they had sacrificed for the land and property
they owned. His successor brought with him re-enforcement and
succeeded in establishing colonial rule in Angola. Within a
short time, he had moved to the side of the settlers and was
opposed to control from Portugal.

The Angolans continued with their resistance against the

Portuguese. The war speed to many areas of the Kingdom and the
Jaga joined in the resistance. That is, on the side of the
Angolans. In 1603, General Manuel Cerveira Pereira, a ruthless
and greedy man, was appointed interim governor-general. In
1604, Pereira managed to occupy Cambambe but was very
disappointed to find no silver there. The Ngola asked for
peace and an agreement was signed. Later that year, a new
governor-general, arrived and arrested Pereira, charging him
for conspiracy with the enemy. The wars continued and it
became more cruel and destructive. Slave traders followed the
troops since the commander, Bento Banha Cardoso invited them
to do so. In 1615, Pereira who was sent back to Portugal in
1604, was sent back to Angola once again to act as interim
governor-general. He was instructed to conquer what was called
the kingdom of Benguela. In 1616, he defeated the Ngola's
forces and built a fort at Ambaca on the Lukala river. From
there he sailed to Benguela in 1617, the same year the Ngola
died.

In 1619, there was a terrible battle in which the Angolans

suffered great humiliation, because the Jaga helped the
Portuguese this time around. The Ngola was forced to flee his
capital to an island, while 100 of his chiefs were killed in
cold blood. Many people were killed and property destroyed.
Meanwhile, the slave traders were following. The Catholic Pope
intervened and Pereira was called back to Portugal. His
successor was given instructions to make peace.

Page 44 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Senior Secondary School History Syllabus

 In 1622, a peace agreement was signed in which the

Ngola was allowed to return to Kabasa. The agreement
also required him to free all prisoners of war. The
negotiator of this peace treaty was the Ngola's
sister Nzinga Nbandi, known as Annah Nzinga. The
signing of this treaty, was a major personal
diplomatic victory for her. Most of the agreement
terms were not immediately implemented and for this
reason, the relationship between Mbundu and the
Portuguese remained unsatisfactory.

THE CARRER OF QUEEN ANNAH NZINGA OF ANGOLA

The Ngola died mysteriously in 1623, and her sister Nzinga

Nbande was rumored to have poisoned him. This rumor was
supported by the fact that the two had had conflicting
views on the Portuguese's presence in Angola. Anna Nzinga
favored a tough line in government relations to the
Portuguese, while the Ngola had a more soft approach.
Nzinga Nbandi succeeded her brother and became Queen Annah
Nzinga of Angola. She immediately got in to the process of
fighting Portuguese colonisation of Angola. She warned the
Portuguese that if they did not honor their side of the
1622 agreement with her brother, she will go to war with
them.

HOW ANNAH NZINGA RESISTED PORTUGUESE COLONISATION

1. She formed alliances with other African leaders like the

Jaga of Kasanje, Imbangala and Ovimbundu to fight the
Portuguese.
2. Feed the Kimbares (African soldiers in the Portuguese
forces) with propaganda to rebel against their masters and
join his side.
3. She admitted in to her protection any slaves running
away from their Portuguese masters.
4. Chiefs in the areas held by the Portuguese were also
encouraged to rebel and join Ndongo in the war against the
Portuguese.
5. She trained young boys to fight for her and even
participated in the war herself to encourage her fighters.
6. She banned missionaries and Portuguese traders in her

Page 45 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Senior Secondary School History Syllabus

state of Matamba.

WHY NZINGA FAILED TO STOP PORTUGUESE COLONISATION

1. Portuguese used divide and rule by inciting some African

chiefs like Aidi Kimanji to rebel against Nzinga. Aidi was
a chief related to the late Ngola.
2. The Portuguese proclaimed Aidi the successor to the
Ndongo throne and helped him with an army to fight Nzinga.
3. Betrayal by the Jaga ruler of Kasanje who cooperated
with the Portuguese and became a vassal ruler.
4. Facing this betrayal, Annah Nzinga ended up Surrendering
to the Portuguese and was baptized in to Catholicism.

HOW SLAVES WERE OBTAINED

 Slaves were obtained in several ways from Angola;
o Vassal Rulers who caught them- some leaders
agreed with the Portuguese to sell them slaves.
These leaders raided other tribes to get captives
as slaves.
o Poimberos or special trading agents- some traders
specialized in trading in slaves only because it
was such a lucrative business.
o KUATA! KUATAS! - Organized raiding parties
called kuata! kuata were also used to get slaves.
People were raided in farms, herding livestock or
at their hunting expeditions and taken as slaves.
This raiding parties were organized by the
Portuguese and their middlemen.
o SOBABAS- populated areas given to the soldiers,
priests and government official known as SOBABAS
were also sources of slaves. The land owners
sourced to be paid in slaves by those who lived in
their land.
o WARS- Wars which were deliberately provoked by the
Portuguese. Eg. Civil wars resulting from
succession dispute and wars of resistance
persecuted were used as great opportunities to
take captives and sold as slaves.

 HOW SLAVES WERE TREATED

o A slave was property of the slave owner, and could
be sold away just like livestock.

Page 46 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Senior Secondary School History Syllabus

o Slaves were caught by force, some were received

from those who sold them away by force, which
means people became slaves against their will.
They were tied up together to avoid running.
o Slaves were made to walk long distances from the
interior where they were caught, to the coast.
Those who got tired and could not walk were beaten
up and sometimes beaten to death.
o To avoid conspiracy against the slave owners,
families were separated by being sold away from
one another.
o As property, they were used for any duty including
fighting to provide entertainment for their
master.

RESULTS/EFFECTS OF PORTUGUESE COLONIZATION OF ANGOLA AND

KONGO

NEGATIVE EFFECTS
 Slavery and Slave Trade
The Portuguese took part in the destructive slave trade in
the two states. Many Africans in the two states were taken
out of their mother countries and this brought devastating
effects like depopulation.
 Effects on economy
The economies of these states were also affected as able
bodied population was taken away and these people could
have contributed in boosting the economies of their
countries for example in agriculture.
 Destruction of African system of government
The Portuguese imposed their own administration on the two
states. Rulers lost their powers since they could not made
any decision without the Portuguese. They became the
Portuguese puppets while to their people they appeared like
dictators.

 Exploitation of Africans and abuse of African women

Page 47 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Senior Secondary School History Syllabus

The Portuguese looked down upon Africans in the two states.

They oppressed and exploited them by forcing them to work
in the farms and houses forever. They were also abused
physically. African women underwent sexual abuse by the
masters and priests. This led to the emergence of MULATTO
(coloreds) population in the two stars.
 Loss of identity
Africans abandoned their traditional customs and practices
for example, religion and they upheld those of the
Portuguese as some became Christian converts and were
given Portuguese names like Nzinga Kuwu became John III of
Kongo while Queen.
Nzinga was called Anna de Soussa. Those who were taken out
of the two states lost touch with their African life and
started to associate themselves with the masters in other
parts of the world.
POSITIVE EFFECTS
 The Portuguese brought formal education to the two states
as some learnt how to read and write.
 They also acquired new agricultural skills which improved
the economic status especially those who worked in
Portuguese farms.
 The obtained some important goods like guns which they
used for protective purposes wherever necessary.

Page 48 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

DUTCH COLONISATION OF THE CAPE:

Introduction:
• Portugal was the first European nation to discover the route
to the Far East. For instance, in 1497 Vasco da Gama a
Portuguese explorer sailed right round the Cape and went as
far as present day Natal and thence to India.
• European interest in the Far East was due to the trade in such
commodities as gold, ivory, spices and later slaves, that
was going on along the eastern coast of Africa between the
Arabs, Indians and the Africans (along the Indian Ocean).
Europeans wanted to take part in and even dominate or
control that trade and find a way of reaching the source of
the spices in the islands of Indonesia or the Ear East.
• Other European nations began to get involved in the voyages
to the Far East towards the end of the 1500s and in the
1600s, and among these new Europeans were the Dutch
(through the DUTCH EAST INDIA COMPANY) and the British
(through the ENGLISH EAST INDIA COMPANY).
• The Dutch were interested in the Islands of Indonesia, while
the British/English were interested in India. However, the
journey from Europe to these areas was extremely long,
tiresome and full of hazards/dangers and could not be made
without stops to take on fresh water and vegetables.
• At first both the Dutch and the English/British used ST.
Helena as a calling or half-way station, but still this
left a long voyage round the Cape to the trading centers in
the East, thus the obvious half-way station was the Cape.
• The event that eventually led to the establishment of a half-
way station at the Cape, by the Dutch, was the wrecking of
the Dutch ship called the "HAARLEM" in Table Bay around the
Cape in 1647. Most of its crew struggled ashore and lived
in TABLE BAY for six months in which they survived by
growing vegetables and bartered for meat with the Khoikhoi.
When they were rescued after six months they gave a report
that recommended that TABLE BAY OR THE CAPE was suitable
for the establishment of a half-way station, because it had
favorable climate and fertile land.

Page 49 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

• The Dutch government acted upon the recommendations made by

the crew of the "HAARLEM" and eventually sent out JAN
VAN RIEBEECK to establish a half-way station at the Cape
and he arrived there in 1652.
Reasons for the Dutch Colonization:
• There were a number of reasons which led to the colonization
of the Cape by the Dutch in 1652. Some of these reasons
included the following;
1. The Strategic Position of the Cape between Europe and
the far East:- The Cape is halfway between Europe and
the East Indies. It was a suitable or a convenient
place for the establishment of a half-way station or a
refueling or refilling Centre for picking up fresh
supplies of vegetables, fruits and meat to reduce
scurvy. A service Centre/point for ships to and from
Europe could be established there. It could also serve
as a Centre for the exchange of messages or as a
communication Centre for sailors to and from Europe.
The strategic position of the Cape allowed for; the
building of a fort for the defense of the defense of
the half-way station, a hospital for the treatment of
the sick, vegetable gardens and gardens for the
provision or supply of vegetables and fruits, and they
could barter for cattle with the indigenous people,
especially with the Khoikhoi to supply sailors with
fresh meat.
2. Climatic conditions of the Cape:- The Cape's winter was
suitable for grape and cereal production. Its climatic
conditions also favored European settlement.
3. Fertile Soils:- The Cape had good, fertile soils which
were good for crop cultivation.
4. Weak resistance from the indigenous people, especially
the Khoikhoi:- The Khoikhoi were seen as a weak enemy
who the settlers would manage to control or defeat if
war erupted. They were easily forced out of their land
or areas of occupation to pave way for the Dutch.
5. Availability of livestock for meat from the Khoikhoi – the
Dutch needed meat to supply the passing ships as well
as for their own consumption. The availability of
Khoikhoi livestock was part of the reasons that made
them to settle at the Cape.
Page 50 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

Instructions Given to Jan Van Riebeeck

Jan Van Riebeeck came equipped with a document called the

'Remonstrantie', drawn up in the Netherlands in 1649, which
was a recommendation on the suitability of the Cape for the
Halfway Station. The following were some of the instructions
in the document;
1. Establish gardens or orchards to produce fruits and vegetables.
2. Build a hospital to treat the sick.
3. Build a garage and refill station for passing ships.
4. Build a fort to protect the station from both the indigenous people and
other Europeans.
5. Establish trade relations with the Khoikhoi for acquisition of animals for
meat.
Problems Encountered During Early Dutch Settlement:
1. There was an OUTBREAK OF DROUGHT which killed many
livestock and this resulted in the short supply of meat for
the passing ships. This drought caused or forced the
Khoikhoi to move away from the Cape looking for better
grazing areas.
2. OUTBREAK OF DISEASES like malnutrition and scurvy killed
many Dutch or White settlers and resulted in SHORTAGE OF
MANPOWER.
3. POOR LIVING CONDITIONS: - The living conditions for the
company servants were very poor and caused discomforts
among the servants. They grew some crops like barley and
oats, but they could not meet or satisfy the required
quantities for the passing ships.
Attempts to Settle/ resolve the Problems:
i. Introduction of Freeburghers; - In order to ensure
that food production increased, it was decided to
allow a few company servants to settle as free
citizens or farmers at the Cape, having farms of
their own. These farmers were to be given land with
credit to buy seeds and tools. In 1657 NINE of the
company servants were released to establish small
farms as free farmers or Freeburghers. The
settlement of these NINE free farmers on permanent

Page 51 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

farms marked the beginning of the Dutch colonization

of the Cape.
ii. Slave Labour; - With the establishment of the
freeburgher system, there was need for labour to
work in the farms. The labour provided by the
Khoikhoi for farming activities was not good enough,
as a result it became necessary to introduce slave
labour. In 1657 slaves were imported from the Java
Islands, Madagascar, Angola, and some East African
countries, as well as from West Africa. Jan Van
Riebeeck avoided the Khoikhoi at this time because
such an action would jeopardize their friendly
relationships and could result in the Khoikhoi
refusing to sell their livestock to the company. It
was the Dutch farmers dislike for manual labour
which caused the introduction of slave labour in
Southern Africa. These developments created the
basis for racial discrimination because whites’
farmers looked down or despised manual labour and
felt it was good for Africans or Non Whites.
iii. White immigrants; - gradually the number of
Freeburghers increased as more whites were invited
to come and settle at the Cape. During the term or
office of Simon Van der Stel between 1679 and 1700,
there was a deliberate policy of increasing the
population at the Cape. As a result more Dutch men
came and a party of French Huguenots (Protestants or
refugees fleeing religious persecutions in France)
were also settled at the Cape. The Huguenots
enriched the Cape with their efficient methods of
trade and farming. The Cape started to grow (in
terms of territorial boundaries) as more land was
curved out as farms for these new, skilled farmers.
White immigration policy were aimed at bringing in
more white settlers who could eventually turn the
Cape into a colony. The result of white immigration
to the Cape was the establishment of new white
settlements beyond the original Cape borders at
STELLENBOSCH in 1680 and DE PEARL in 1687. The
French Huguenots contributed to the development of
the Cape because they were skilled in wheat and Wine
production/farming. For them there was no homeland

Page 52 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

to return to and they saw the Cape as their home.

Girls were recruited from Orphanages in Amsterdam to
become wives to the immigrants.
Factors which led to the expansion of the Cape Colony up to 1800:

1. Role Of Jan Van Riebeeck And The Freeburghers: - The

free famers policy of Jan Van Riebeeck led to a steady
increase in the number of new farmers and the result
was that new farms and settlements were established
beyond the original Cape settlement which was
established in 1652, hence the expansion of the Cape.
By releasing the free farmers or burghers, Jan V.
Riebeeck directly contributed to the expansion of the
Cape Colony.
The free burghers were given extensive grazing rights
over the surrounding areas, more especially under the
leadership of Simon Van der Stel, a policy which led
to more Europeans pouring into the Cape and thus
colonizing more land leading to the expansion of the
Cape borders.
2. Role Of The Trek Boers: - Trek Boers were offshoots of
the freeburghers who failed to make it in arable
farming and they turned to stock rearing instead. They
lived partly from the products of their livestock and
partly from hunting and trade. Trek Boers were often
on the move in search of new "unoccupied" land to
colonize. They had very large families and each son
regarded it his birth right to go out and claim land
for himself. The Trek Boers were rapidly expanding
into the interior and the Cape Government kept on
extending the official boundaries of the Cape to try
and keep pace with the expansion of the Trek Boers
activities in the interior, and by so doing
contributing to the expansion of the Cape. The new
farms they acquired were known as the "Loan farms".
3. Introduction Of Slave Labour: - The introduction of
slave labour meant that labour was in abundance and
farms were expanded with more land being grabbed.
Slave labour also led to population expansion and this
expanded the boundaries of the cape.
4. The Emergence Of The Cape Coloured Community: - Some
Dutch or white settlers married the Khoisan and

Page 53 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

produced the coloured population which is commonly

known as the Cape Coloured community. This became a
separate community which needed land to settle, and
more was curved from the cape colony by expanding its
borders, hence playing a role in its expansion.
Effects of the Dutch Colonisation of The Cape on The KHOISAN:

1. Loss of Land - more land was needed. Territorial expansion

by the white settlers (farmers) resulted in Khoisan land
being taken away from them. This led to a series of wars
between the Khoisan and the Whites. The use of guns by the
white colonists crushed the weak and disorganized
resistance of the Khoisan. Most of the San communities were
driven to dry desert areas. This meant that the San lost
their hunting grounds which were turned into farms by the
white settlers.
2. Loss of Livestock - The Khoikhoi lost their cattle through
the barter system with the Dutch settlers in exchange for
European exotic goods like brandy, whisky and ornaments.
3. Loss of Culture - the cultural system of the Khoisan was
destroyed. They could no longer come as group together as
they used to do before.
4. Loss of Life and Population reduction - Khoisan populations
was greatly reduced by the wars with the Dutch or white
settlers as well as, by the epidemics of small pox and
leprosy which were brought by the Europeans.
5. Poverty and Social Ills - Some Khoisan groups resorted to
cattle stealing and most of them were killed if caught.
6. Exploitation - Most of the Khoikhoi were forced to join the
labour market. That is, selling their labour cheaply to the
White farmers and they were highly exploited. Once they
were in the employ of the white farmers they were forced to
learn Afrikaans and abandon their languages.
7. Emergence of the Cape Coloured Community: - Some of the
Dutch or white settlers married the Khoisan and produced
the coloured population which came to be commonly known as
The Cape Coloured community.
8. Acquisition of Trade and Farming Skills: - some of the Khoisan
adopted the ways of life of the White settlers and acquired
skills like agricultural and trade.
Effects of the Dutch Colonization of The Cape on The BANTU,

Page 54 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

1. Just like the Khoisan, the Bantu did not escape the evil
inflicted by the Dutch colonization. Fearful clashes broke out
in the Zuurveld between the Dutch or white settlers and the
Xhosa over land grabbing and cattle stealing. Both the whites
and the Xhosa had similar interests, they were interested in
land and cattle, and it was the attempt to control these
commodities which led to conflict between them. This resulted in
a series of wars from 1770 to about 1803 when the British came
into the picture. The Xhosa proved to be too strong for the
Dutch, than the san. But the ultimate results were the defeat of
the Xhosa leading to them the experience a similar fate to that
of the san;
a. Loss of life
b. Loss of cattle
c. Loss of land
d. Destruction of their communities etc.
e. Loss of culture
f. Exploitation and enslavement.

Decline of the Dutch East India Company:

• The Dutch East India Company which did very well from 1652
when Jan Van Riebeeck arrived at the Cape later declined as
a result of the following reasons;
(a) The financial concentration of the Western world
shifted from Holland to England. The British or the
English had become very wealthy with many successful
companies which looked for places where they could
invest their money.
(b) As the French and the English East India Companies
expanded along the Indian Ocean trade, they competed
with the Dutch East India Company.
(c) To worsen the situation the Dutch East India Company
became bankrupt.
(d) The Dutch East India Company contributed to its
downfall because its officials were paid very low
salaries. As a result they became corrupt and started
to take bribes and even cheated the company.

Page 55 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

(e) The British navy became powerful and dominated the

main shipping routes. The British had many ships
sailing on the oceans than the Dutch.
(f) As a result of these factors, the company employees
and officials were not happy and kept complaining
about the Dutch East India Company. It was easy for
the British to take over control of the Cape Colony
from the Dutch in 1795 and again in 1806.

BRITISH COLONISATION OF THE CAPE UP TO 1835:

Introduction:
 British interest at the Cape goes as far back as 1620,
when Captain Shilling of the English East India
Company claimed it for King James I, but the king did
not take it.
 The British occupation of the Cape was made possible
by the outbreak of wars of revolution in Europe. These
wars started in France, and in 1793 the French invaded
the Netherlands (Holland). King William V of Holland
fled to Britain and asked Britain to protect the Dutch
colonies. Britain which had a huge overseas empire,
with colonies in India, and the West Indies, saw this
as an opportunity to occupy the Cape and protect the
sea route to the east. The Cape was of strategic
importance to the British as an Imperial Power,

Page 56 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

because it lay about half-way on the long sea route to

the East.
 The occupation of the Cape by the British was meant to
protect the Cape from falling into the hands of
France, which had already invaded and defeated the
Dutch in the Netherlands and could possibly raid and
takeover the Cape. This would threaten the important
British trade route to her vast Indian territories.
 The first British occupation of the Cape took place in
1795 and lasted until 1803. During this period the
British promised to make some changes that would
please the Burgher community at the Cape. For
instance, they promised that;
1. Those that respected or paid allegiance to the
king of England were allowed to keep their
positions.
2. Paper money changed to hard coins.
3. Taxes were abolished.
4. Burgher senate was created to replace the
commission of the high court.
5. Trade restrictions were abolished
 These promises were never fulfilled because the
British brought with them the philanthropic ideas,
which were repugnant of the Boers.
 In 1802 war ended in Europe and the Peace of Amiens
was signed between the British and the Dutch to end
British rule at the Cape. In February 1803 the new
government in Holland called the Batavian Republic
took over control of the Cape.

THE CAPE UNDER BATAVIAN REPUBLIC (1803-1806):

After the fall of King William V, as a result of the wars of
revolution, Batavian Republic, Holland became a republic and was
under Batavian rule. The Batavian government administered the
Cape for only three years. New reforms were introduced. For
instance;

o When the first Commissioner General arrived at the

Cape, he found the Cape in anarchy mainly because of
the "Boer confrontation with the natives, especially
Page 57 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

with the Xhosa of Ndlambe. The wars between the Xhosa

and the Boers were commonly known as the Frontier
Wars. The first task of the Commissioner General was
to re-organize the administration of the Cape Colony
by:
o developing the local government and extending the
boarders of the Cape Colony, and divided it into
administrative areas each headed by a Landdrost,
who represented the government and administered
justice.
o Each district was divided into six wards each
headed by a Field Kornet, who maintained law and
order and even linked people with the government.
Other reforms included the following;
o Senior posts were given to the Batavians or the
Dutch while the subordinate posts in the civil
service were given to the English settlers.
o The High court was made independent of the
Executive.
o Restrictions were removed on trade so that the Cape
could trade with the other Batavian territories.
o New agriculture projects were started and this led
to the importation of Merino sheep from Spain.
o The Khoikhoi were given land and the Batavian
administrators encouraged good treatment of the non-
white workers.
o Slave labour was discouraged.
o Freedom of worship was extended to all religious
organizations.
The Second British Occupation of the Cape in 1806:
By 1806, the Napoleonic wars became worse in Europe. Again the
Cape fell under the threat of the French troops. To prevent the
French from interfering with her valuable sea trade route to
India via the Cape, the British once more sent troops to the
Cape to take control of it and protect it from the enemy. The
British troops landed at the Cape in 1806 and they occupied it
permanently since then.
Reasons for the 1806 British occupation of the Cape:

Page 58 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

The need to control and safeguard the sea route to India; in

order to ensure the safety of their shipping route to India the
British decided to turn the Cape a British Colony. This was
because the Cape was of strategic importance to them.
i. The Industrial Revolution in Europe and the need for overseas
market; As an Industrialized power, Britain was producing
more and more manufactured goods, which called for the
presence of the a ready and larger market. As a result the
British felt that the Cape could become a prosperous market
for British manufactured goods, Furthermore, as a result of
industrial revolution many people were laid off their jobs
machines started doing their jobs. And they needed places
where they can settle and start a new life. The cape became
such a place.
ii. The End of the wars of revolution or Napoleonic Wars in
Europe; At the end of these wars many soldiers who used to
serve in the army were left jobless and had to be found a
place to emigrate to, a place where they could find
something to do for themselves. The Cape was seen as such a
place. As a result of all these reasons the British seized
control of the Cape again in 1806, following the British
victory over the Trench navy in 1805. This time, British
authority at the Cape had come to stay.
Legal and administrative changes introduced by the British at the Cape:

After their second occupation of the Cape in 1806, the British

were able to introduce their own laws and system of government:
1. The Pass Ordinance (1809): - Slavery had been brought to an
end in England in 1772. It became illegal at the Cape
Colony. This made the Khoikhoi to wander over the
countryside. The Boers began to complain that the Khoikhoi
were raiding their homes and were vagrants. In response,
the Governor, Caledon in 1809 introduced the Pass Ordinance
(sometimes known as the Hottentots Ordinance/Code). Under
this law the Khoikhoi were to have a fixed home and address
and registered with the Landdrost (District Magistrate).
They also had to have a pass (a written permission) from
their employers if they leave the farm. If they leave the
district they were to get the pass from the Landdrost. This
law restricted the movement of the Khoikhoi. It made

Page 59 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

Khoikhoi work for the White farmers and stopped them from
wandering about without homes.
2. The Apprenticeship Ordinance (1811): - This law required
that all Khoikhoi children who had been born and had lived
on the farms of their parents' employers for eight years to
serve such employers as apprentices for ten years, before
they can find alternative employment. This was to prolong
the stay of their parents on the farms.
Effects of these two laws on the Khoikhoi (Non-Whites):
o The Khoikhoi were effectively enslaved to the White
farmers.
o They were forced to provide cheap labour for the White
farmers.
o Their movements were strictly controlled.
Effects of these two laws on the Whites:
o These laws solved the problem of labour and vagrancy
at the Cape.
o On the other hand, the White farmers were pleased and
they liked the British administration.
3. The Circuit Courts (1811): - In order to carry out the
Khoikhoi laws effectively, and ensure that the Khoikhoi
were not cheated, as well as to address Africans
grievances, the British set up the Circuit Courts. The
Circuit Courts were mobile courts set up to move around the
Cape Colony to hear the complaints of Africans,
particularly the Khoikhoi in White farmer's service. These
courts were set up to administer justice in the colony as a
whole. The Khoikhoi were allowed to take their white
masters to court if they ill-treated or cheated them, or if
they were underpaid or their wages were withheld by their
masters.
The introduction of these courts meant that the Boers
were required by law to treat their servants more
humanely. All races were treated equally in the eyes
of the law.
Effects of the Circuit Courts on the Khoikhoi/Non — Whites:
o These courts allowed the Khoikhoi or the non-whites to
report any form of ill-treatment by their White

Page 60 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

masters. As a result they protected the Khoikhoi from

certain forms of abuse by their masters.
o It brought equality of races before the law.
Effects of the Circuit Courts on the White Farmers (Boers):
o The White farmers hated or resented the Circuit Courts. They
were not used to being challenged by their servants in open
courts. They felt that the British wanted to make whites and
Blacks equal since a black servant could take his white
master to court. 'They did not believe in the principle of
equality of all races. They believed that a servant had no
right to take his master to court because they viewed that
as an act of insubordination. The Boers hated these courts
because they believed that they were a superior race to the
non-whites.
o The Boers also felt that the Circuit Courts were biased
towards the Non-whites especially towards the Khoikhoi. This
feeling became worse in 1812 when a missionary by the name
James Read, brought fifty-eight cases of assault (of the
Khoikhoi servants by their masters) before the court at
Vitenhage. The Boers were accused of ill-treating their
Khoikhoi servants and to them it was mockery and
embarrassment. They viewed these courts with contempt and
said that the courts honoured or favoured the blacks over
the whites. As a result they called them black Circuits, The
Boers also hated the missionaries as they advocated for
equality before the law.
o In 1813 a Boer called Frederick Bezuidenhout refused to
appear before the court at GraafReinet. He had despised a
court of law for two years, by refusing to attend a case in
which he was accused of ill-treating his servant. In 1815
the police were sent to fetch him. Bezuidenhout fired at
them and was shot and killed resisting arrest. His fellow
Boers attempted to rebel against the British, to avenge his
death. However, the British crushed the rebellion. The
ringleaders of the rebellion were arrested and punished
severely. Five of them were hanged in public at Slagters Nek
while others were expelled from the area. This incident came
to be known as the Slagters Nek incident. The massacre of
Slagters Nek in 1815 worsened the anti-British feelings
among the Boers. Many Boers were displeased by this incident

Page 61 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

and accused the British of brutality. The Boers were so

angry that they began to think of leaving the Cape Colony.
4. The 50th Ordinance (1828): - The 50th Ordinance cancelled the
harsh and unfair Khoikhoi laws of 1809 and 1811 that is the
Pass Ordinance and the Apprenticeship Ordinance
respectively. It restored civil liberties or rights to the
Non-whites or the Khoikhoi. It recognized equality of all
people before the law. By this new law the Khoikhoi could
move freely in the Cape Colony without being asked to
produce a pass. They could go anywhere to find masters of
their own choice and could no longer be forced to work on
Boer farms against their will.
Effects of the 50th Ordinance on the Khoikhoi/Non-Whites
o It gave back the Khoikhoi some legal rights.
o They had freedom of movement and could choose their
masters and even leave the cruel masters as they wished.
They could no longer be forced to work as the labour
contracts were reduced to one year and this allowed them
to withdraw from a harsh master after one year. Also,
Khoikhoi children could no longer work for any white
farmer without the consent of the parent.
o Africans were given the right to buy and own land
(Unfortunately many non-whites were too poor to enjoy
this right).
o Khoikhoi could no longer be paid with tobacco and
liquor.
Effects of the 50th Ordinance on the Boers: -
o The 50th Ordinance caused a serious shortage of labour on
the Boer farms, as servants, could leave their masters any
time. It robbed the Boers of the source of cheap labour.
Khoikhoi labour now became expensive, and the white
masters now had to treat their servants with kindness for
fear of losing them to other farmers.
o The white farmers complained that the Khoikhoi would not
work but would wander about and destroy their property.
o As a result the Boers decided to migrate into the interior
of Southern Africa, where a servant would be kept in his
place. The Boers wanted to perpetuate slavery without
government interference.

Page 62 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

o Judicial reforms: - After 1828, the Supreme Court was set

up, and judges were to be appointed by the British Crown.
Judges were supposed to be independent. The Governor could
no longer dismiss them. As a result the judiciary became
more reliable and just.
o The English Criminal law (which was less harsh) was
introduced to replace the old harsh Roman - Dutch
Criminal Law. However, civil cases continued to be
based on the Roman - Dutch law. The Boers were not
happy about these changes.

5. Anglicization of Cape: - The British Governor at the Cape,

Ford Charles Somerset introduced the British system of
education in which English was made the medium of
instruction in schools except in Religious Education, which
was taught in Dutch and Latin. The headmaster was also a
British. The Boers viewed this education with contempt
because of its British nature. The Boers did not want black
people to be taught how to read and write because that put
them of equal footing with them. In 1828 English was made an
official language at the Cape to replace Dutch.
The English currency was also introduced to replace the old
Rix - Dollar. Magistrate replaced the Dutch system of
Landdrost. This extremely offended the Boers because the
viewed their judicial system as their cultural heritage. The
whole issue of Anglicization offended the Boers and became
one of the causes of the Great Trek.
a. Reforms in the Civil Service: - All civil servants were
required to have knowledge of English language. This
made the civil service to be occupied by more British
than Boers. High salaries were used as incentives to
attract more English - speaking people to
administrative posts.
b. The Press: - The newspapers or the press was given
greater freedom than before and a number of papers
were written in both English and Dutch. The laws
governing the printing of newspapers were reformed to
enable the printers to do their work without
difficulty.
c. Reforms in the economy:
Page 63 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

o The government the number public schemes and the

amount of money spent on them.
o Financial assistance which was being given to some
immigrants to the Cape Colony was stopped.
o There was also a reduction in official salaries.
o All these changes annoyed the Boers or the white
farmers at the Cape.
d. Religious Reforms: - The church's position improved and
freedom of worship was extended to all denominations.
The Dutch Reformed Church was given some degree of
freedom, while the priests of the Roman Catholic
Church were paid by the government. Missionaries were
recruited from Scotland and some became ministers in
the Dutch Reformed Church. By 1837 half of Dutch
Reformed Church synod consisted of Scots. The Boers
were not happy because they hated the Roman Catholic
Church. They were further embittered when Christian
slaves were allowed to attend Sunday Church services.
e. Land Reforms: - The land tenure system changed. The
Boers were used to owning large chunks of land and
settling wherever they wished. The land tenure
(ownership) came under firm control of the British
government. The land was loaned to the Boers and they
had to pay loan fees (quitting rent). Land was
surveyed, boundaries defined and title deeds issued.
This was another cause of resentment of the Boers to
the British government.
f. Abolition of Slavery (1834): - Slaves were set free in
Britain in 1833, and this was extended to all of land
under British influence or colonization in the
following years. Slaves in the Cape colony were set
free in 1834 and Slave Owners were compensated for the
loss of their slave labour. The white farmers at the
Cape complained that compensation was not enough
compared to the amount of money they spent when buying
the slaves. In some cases compensation had to be
collected in London and the white farmers had to spend
more money hiring agents to go to London and collect
compensation on their behalf. This made them very
unhappy.

Page 64 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

Conclusion: - The result of the changes made by the British at

the Cape was that the white farmers or the Boers were
displeased. They felt that the British presence in the
colony was a great threat to them. So they started what was
a great event in Southern African history known as the Boer
(Great Trek), as they left the Cape and moved into the
interior of Southern Africa, where they founded new states
of their own such as Natal, Transvaal and the Orange Free
State. In the interior as the travelled out of the cape,
they clashed with many native groups of people of Bantu.

THE BOER TREK

Definition:
• The Great Boer can be defined as the mass exodus or movement
of the Dutch settlers or Boers away from the Cape colony
into the interior of Southern Africa in the 1830s.
Causes of the Boer Trek:
• The Boer Trek was the culmination of numerous / many and long
— standing grievances and misunderstandings, some of them
real but others imaginary. The causes of the Boer Trek can
be divided into Long-term and Short-term causes:
Long— term causes:

Page 65 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

1. Availability of land; - The availability of large areas of

land encouraged the colonists or the Dutch settlers to
acquire huge farms, as well as, to move about more
extensively. The vastness of the country and the small
number of the Dutch settlers made the Boers migratory in
character. As a result, by about 1835, when the Boers
decided to move away from the Cape, they were long used to
trekking / migrating.
2. Pastoralism; - Most of the Boers were pastoralists and more
nomadic than sedentary. This mode of livelihood forced them
to move about frequently in search of new pastures to
replace the poorer old pastures.
NOTE THAT: The combination of pastoral farming, the vastness of
the country and the resulting migratory character of the
Boers paved the way for the Boer Trek.
Short-term causes:
3. Racial prejudice;
• The Boers believed that they were God's 'chosen race' and that
they had a duty to God and mankind to preserve their
traditions and culture. They had to preserve the purity of
their race by avoiding mixing with the other races,
especially the Non-white races. As a result they regarded
their movement away from the Cape as a move which would
allow them to preserve their purity and culture. It would
allow them to set up a new home in a new country under
their own control.
• Many Boers joined the trek as a result of this belief. As a
way of fulfilling a divine mission, of keeping God's chosen
race from contamination through interactions with the
“inferior” races. This belief caused the Boers to resent
and oppose any attempts by the British administration to
extend more liberty or freedom and human rights to the
Khoikhoi and the other Non-white races.
• The Boers strongly believed in the superiority of some races
over the others. So when the British made some changes like
the introduction of the Circuit Courts and 50th Ordinance,
which were meant to equate whites with non-whites, or to
make them equal before the law, the Boers were displeased.
To them it was unthinkable for the whites to share the same
Page 66 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

rights and privileges with the races that supplied slaves.

They saw the non-whites as servants of the 'chosen' race.
They were even angrier over the emancipation of slaves.
This was intolerable to them and they decided to move away
from the Cape.
4. Anglicization of the Cape;
 The process of Anglicization started about 1822 after
the arrival of the first English settlers at the Cape.
The arrival of these first English settlers was viewed
with horror, fear and strong resentment by the Boers.
It meant that the Cape colony ceased / stopped to be a
colony of Boers, and now was ruled by the British, but
it now had British settlers whose interests had to be
protected. It marked an increase in British influence
at the Cape which eventually led to the introduction
of new changes in the Colony's economy, Judicial and
administrative systems fashioned along British lines.
This brought about changes like;
 Adoption of the English currency to replace the old
Rix dollar.
 Legal changes which introduced the English system of
magistrates to replace the Old Dutch system of
Landdrosts.
 Introduction of English as the official language to
replace Dutch.
 Changes in the practice of land ownership which stated
that land should be bought, fenced and legal documents
be issued / provided to prove ownership. Under this
new practice farmers could no longer abandon their
land to move to new fertile areas, if they did, the
land would be sold by auction. This angered the Boers.
 The Boers were opposed to all forms of alien/ foreign
culture and influence; they preferred their own
customs and civilization. As a result, they hated the
introduction of the English system of magistrates
because it was foreign and it replaced what was part
of their cultural heritage, the Dutch system of
Landdrosts.
 They were also indignant over the introduction of
English to replace Dutch, because it made it difficult
for the old people and rural populations to carry out
their official transactions in English. Also, they
Page 67 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

needed more time to learn this new official language,

yet they hated the very idea of communicating in that
language because it was foreign.
 The replacement of the familiar and native Dutch/ Boer
system with the unfamiliar alien English practices
greatly dissatisfied and angered the Boers and forced
them to move away from the Cape.
5. Conflict with the missionaries over the non-whites;
 The Boers were not happy about the fact that official
government policy and the missionaries were opposed to the
Boer views on the treatment of non-whites. For example, the
missionaries preached the gospel of brotherly love, the
equality of all men, and the need to protect the rights of
all men, while the Boers believed in the superiority of the
white race over the other races.
 The Boers were not happy about the teachings and activities
of the missionaries because they felt that any attempt to
remove restrictions from the slaves and the khoikhoi would
create a dangerous situation for them. They argued that the
passing of 50th Ordinance destroyed the master-servant
relationship between the whites and the non-whites.
According to them this would make the non-whites
insubordinate and even regard themselves as equals with the
whites. The supply of labour would be affected. They argued
that lawlessness, vagrancy, scarcity of labour and the
weakening of the authority and prestige of the master race
(whites) would be the result. Instead of living under such
conditions, many Boers chose to move elsewhere, where they
could be free to perpetuate (continue) the enslavement of
the non-whites, hence the Boer Trek.
6. Emancipation of slaves;
 The emancipation of slaves became one of the most important
sources of friction between the Boers and the British
administration. The Boers did not see why the slaves should
be freed from what was their natural and lawful station in
life.
 According to them, the emancipation of slaves would lead to
anarchy, vagrancy and shortage of labour. Farmers would
have to pay higher wages where in the past they had paid
none in many cases.
 The emancipation of slaves implied an official recognition
of the principle of equality of all races and would

Page 68 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

undermine the very foundation of the kind of society the

Boers wanted to create and preserve, a society which was to
be based upon the policy of racial inequality and
segregation.
 The emancipation of slaves also implied that the whites
would have to compete for jobs with the ex-slaves and other
non-whites. It might encourage the mixing of races and even
intermarriages. Emancipation of slaves was an enormous
financial loss to the Boers. This angered them and made
them to move away from the Cape.
7. Reversal of the annexation of Queen Adelaide Province (1835);
 The most immediate single cause of the Boer Trek was the
British government's decision to cancel Governor D'Urban's
annexation of the Province of Queen Adelaide and Natal.
 This was so because the Boers had helped or supported the
government under D'Urban in the 1834 Kaffir war (Eastern
Frontier war). In this war Boers lost each valuable
property and many were killed in the fighting. They
expected some compensation from the British authorities,
which was to be in the form of allowing them to settle in
this newly acquired territory. However, this never happened
because Britain's Secretary of State, Lord Glenelg
nullified all proposals made by D'Urban on territorial
adjustments and land annexation. The British government
reversed the Governor's plan and decided not to annex the
province of Queen Adelaide. As a result many Boers felt
betrayed and felt that the British government deliberately
let them down. They were now convinced that the British
administration did not consider them and that neither their
interests, lives nor property mattered to the government.
Many unhappy Boers began to emigrate.
8. Rumors;
 Amongst the rumors that were prevalent in about 1835
were that;
o All the land would be given to the Khoikhoi.
o A policy of mixed marriages was eminent.
o Compulsory military service would soon be
introduced.
o Boers would be forced to abandon their Dutch
Reformed Church and become Roman Catholics.

Page 69 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

All these rumours increased the degree of misunderstandings

between the Boers and the British administration at the
Cape.
Conclusion;
o As a result of all the above reasons, the Boers who
were not happy decided to take action. They had three
options before them;
 To give in and accept British rule.
 To rebel against the British.
 To leave the Cape colony altogether.
o However, the Boers could neither fight the British,
nor stand the British control and reforms. They
decided to leave the Cape colony altogether, and the
Trek started about 1835 and lasted many years.
o One of the major aims of the trekkers as outlined by
their leader Piet Retief was to establish communities
organized on traditional Afrikaaner or Dutch lines and
free from British interference.
o It is important to note that the Boers did not find
things easy in the interior, because the land they
were going to occupy was already occupied by the Bantu
farmers, mainly the Nguni-Tsonga and the Sotho-Tswana
who arrived there long before the Boers.
o The first trekkers moved towards Natal, the second
group entered the Orange Free State and the third
group headed northwards to settle in Southern
Transvaal.
The Course of the Boer Trek
The Boer Trek was an organized movement of Boers away from the
Cape Colony and it began in 1835. However, it must be noted
that at first groups of families moved away at different
times and directions. It was only later on that there was
an exodus of many Boers families at once, out of the Cape.
The Voertrekkers eventually settled In the Natal area, the
Transvaal and the Orange Free State. Leadership was
provided by individuals Iike;
i. Louis Trigardt,
ii. Hendrik Potgieter,
iii. Jan Van Rensburg,

Page 70 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School
iv. Sael Cilliers,
v. Gerritz Maritz,
vi. Andries Pretorious
vii. Piet Retief.

Louis Trigardt’s trek

Louis Trigardt was one of the first Boertrekkers to move away from
the Cape. Along with his followers, they faced many disasters and as
a result most of the travelling party died. Early in his trek
Trigardt was joined by Van Ransburg’s party. However, Van Ransburg’s
group soon decided to separate and head towards the Portuguese
territory at Delagoa Bay.
Trigardt’s trek was very slow, it traveled a mere 8 kilometers a day.
Despite this the party was able to ultimately cross the Caledon River
towards the Vaal River. As the party was travelling, it had to ensure
that it did not lose its culture. This could only be achieved by
educating the young children. Classes were provided both in the
morning and evening for the children. In between the classes, the
children had to look after livestock.
Trigardt’s party settled at the Zoutpansberg in the Transvaal.
Although their stay there lasted for a year, the trekkers set up a
school for the children. This showed their determination to preserve
their culture. Life was at first good but things took a turn for the
worst in the fullness of time. Boertrekkers contracted fever, their
livestock fell sick and there was a serious shortage of consumer
goods and food. Over and above this, gunpowder was in short supply.
Trigardt was desperate to replenish his group's supplies. Messages
were sent to the Portuguese at Lourenco Marques and these were not
successful. Lucky for Trigardt's party, however, the Governor of
Lourenco Marques sent askaris to lead them to the coast. Only 27
people out of 100 made it to the coast.
Hendrick Potgieter’s trek
He led his group across the Vaal to the east. On their trek to the
east the party encountered the Ndebele of Mzilikazi. The land on
which the party had settled on was Ndebele land. The Ndebele
considered Potgieter's party as intruders on their land and therefore
needed to use force to drive them out and away. All this happened in
1836 in the battle of Vegkop.
The Boers chained their 50 wagons together in a circle (laager) which
the Ndebele were unable to penetrate. Although the Ndebele were
unable to destroy the Boer, they nonetheless drove off with all of
their livestock.
Page 71 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

After Potgieter enlisted the help of one Boertrekker by the name of

Maritz, revenge was taken on the Ndebele. Indeed a surprise attack
was carried out on the Ndebele, and about 7000 Ndebele cattle were
captured during the surprise attack. Another attack by the Boers
forced the Ndebele northwards and this left the Orange Free State
open for Boer occupation.

Piet Retief's Trek

Although he never really enjoyed a lot of support from the other
Voertrekkers, Retief was nevertheless an enthusiastic leader. Retief
journey into the interior led him into Zulu territory. His encounter
with the Zulu under Dingaane was a hostile and fierce one. The Natal
area in which he wanted to settle was a Zulu territory.
Retief negotiated for land with Dingaane. Dingaane for one did not
trust the sincerity of Retief during the negotiations. This made him
conclude that Retief intended to take away Zululand. To avoid this,
Dingaane decided to kill Retief and his party. Retief and his men
were invited to an annual ceremony at the Zulu capital where they
were eventually killed after Dingaane had sent word out that the
"wizards' must be killed.
Other Boers were determined to carry out revenge on behalf of Retief
and hence in 1838 a bitter war took place at the Encome River between
the Zulu and the trekboers. This came to be known as the Battle of
the Blood River. The Boers this time around were led by Andries
Pretorius. Zulu warriors were completely defeated during the Battle of
the Blood River. Dingaane was as a result forced to cede a large part
of Natal to the Boertrekkers.

Results of the Boer Trek:

The following can be considered to be the results of the Great Trek;
i. South Africa was split or divided into two areas ruled by
two different groups of whites that is, the British over
the Cape colony and the Boers over the areas in the
interior of Southern Africa. This made it difficult for
the British and the Boers to merge or join together and
form a united white South Africa against the black
threat.

Page 72 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

ii. The Boers fulfilled their dream of attaining

independence. Upon arrival in the interior, they
established the Boer republics of the Transvaal (through
the 1852 Sand River Convention) and the Orange Free State
(through the Bloemfontein Convention of 1854). By the two
conventions the British gave up responsibility of blacks
and the blacks were now at the mercy of the Boers. The
two Boer republics set up their own constitutions and
democratic rights in these republics were for whites
only. Africans were therefore denied political rights and
were not allowed to vote. Therefore the Boer Trek laid
the foundation for apartheid.
iii. The Boer Trek resulted in a series of military clashes
between the Boers and the local African kingdoms in the
interior. For example, the Basotho of Moshoeshoe, the
Zulu of Dingaane, the Ndebele of Mzilikazi. As a result
African communities lost a great deal of their land to
the Boers. They also lost their lives and property.
African belief of common ownership of land was destroyed
by the Boers, who believed in the land grabbing policy.
Examples of such conflicts are as follows;
 Boers and the Ndebele: Mzilikazi's kingdom built in
the Transvaal was destroyed by the Boers after they
had defeated him in 1837. He later fled across the
Limpopo into Matebeleland in modem Zimbabwe.
 Boers and the Basotho: These two groups fought a
number of battles, for example, in 1858 and 1868.
The Sotho lost a great deal of land resulting in the
shrinking of Lesotho to its present mountainous
land. Basotho finally appealed for British
protection.
 Boers and the Tswana Communities; Tswana lands were
taken by the Boers who both wanted more land and
also feared the creation of a strong Tswana nation
right in the neighborhood.
 Boers and the Zulu: The Zulu of Dingaane lost areas
of land after they were defeated at the battle of
Blood River in 1838. Later Britain annexed Natal and
brought the Zulu under British colonial rule and
this ended the Zulu independence.
iv. The Boers disposed the Africans or the indigenous
people of their land. The local people became landless

Page 73 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

and homeless. Finally the Boers claimed a lot of land

by right of conquest. Having lost their land, the
indigenous people were forced to take up employment on
Boer farms. That is, the indigenous people became a
large source of labour for the Boer farmers and later
in the mining industry. They were often paid low wages
or nothing.
v. British policy of trying to keep the Boers and the
Blacks apart was effectively ended.
vi. In the interior the Boers were able to preserve their
culture, purity and natural identity, since they were
very far away from British control or interference,
but they were also isolated from the rest of the world
and foreign influences and thus they became narrow
minded.
vii. Rise of Afrikaner Nationalism; Above all the Boer Trek
stimulated the rise of Afrikaner nationalism. Boers
regarded the Boer Trek as a spiritual, cultural and
political event which gave birth to the Afrikaner
nation. Such nationalism led to conflict and rivalry
with the British who saw it as a threat to British
supremacy in the region. This culminated in two wars;
First Anglo-Boer War of 1880 -1881 and the Second
Anglo-Boer War of 1899 — 1902.
viii. Generally the Boer trek led to a great increase
in the area of Southern Africa under White rule.
ix. The Boer Trek divided South Africa into 4 White Owned
States;
a. The Transvaal – Boers
b. Orange Free State – Boers
c. Cape Colony – British
d. Natal - British

Page 74 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

THE MFECANE/DIFAQANE
Definition:
 The Mfecane/Difaqane was the process of political change
and the accompanying wars and migrations which began in
the area between the Tugela River and Delagoa Bay during
the later part of the Eighteenth Century and the early
Nineteenth Century.
The term The Mfecane/Defaqane can also be defined as follows by
different historians:
 The Mfecane/Defaqane was a series of disturbances which
started among the Northern Nguni people and characterized
Southern Africa in the early Nineteenth Century.
 The Mfecane/Defaqane was a series of inter-tribal wars
that started among the northern Nguni peoples of Southern
Africa during the early Nineteenth Century.
Introduction

Page 75 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

 By the 1820s the late 1790s, a group of kingdoms under

powerful leaders had emerged, dominating all others in
the Southern African region. There were four most
powerful leaders in Northern Nguniland;
o The Ndwandwe of Zwide
o The Mthethwa of Dingiswayo
o The Ngwane of Matiwane
o The Ngwane of Sobhudza
 The emergence of these kingdoms led to a series of
conflicts.
 During the 1820s and 1830s armies and refugees from these
wars spread warfare and destruction over large areas of
southern, Central and even Eastern Africa
 Among the Nguni this period is called Mfecane which means
the “crushing” and among the Sotho-Tswana it is called
Difaqane which means “the scattering”.
CAUSES OF THE MFECANE/DEFAQANE
Historians differ on the Causes of the Mfecane. There have
emerged two schools of thought on the causes of the
Mfecane. The old school of thought led by Professor J.D
Omer-Cooper and the New School of thought led by
Professor Julian Cobbing.

THE OLD SCHOOL OF THOUGHT

 According to the old school of thought, a number of
factors combined and caused the Mfecane wars, amongst
them are the following;

1. Population Explosion was caused by supportive conditions

like good rainfall, fertile soils for maize and other
crops production, good pastures for livestock, abundant
herds of wild animals to hunt for meat and above all,
healthy environment ensuring longevity of life. These
supportive factors made food and life abundant among the
peoples of northern Nguniland. However the negative
result of this was overpopulation, which caused
overcrowding, competition for resources and uneasiness,
making war unavoidable to create room for survival.
Page 76 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

2. Overpopulation put pressure on the land through

overgrazing resulting from overstocking. Also over
cultivation of crops mainly maize, which was adopted from
the Portuguese caused shortage of farm lands as
overgrazing caused shortage of pastures. This shortage of
good land created a situation for competition in the form
of survival of the fittest in the overcrowded northern
Nguniland.
3. Political Development and Rise of Kingdoms - The bitter
competition for good land caused political development
when clans united into tribes or ethnic groups and these
groups later on developed into chiefdoms and the
emergence of powerful leaders who then formed kingdoms.
These political developments resulted in the emergence of
the “big three kingdoms”, that is, the Ngwane kingdom
under king sobhuza I, the Mthethwa kingdom under king
Dingiswayo, and the Ndwandwe kingdom under king Zwide.
Later Shaka’s Zulu kingdom emerged and all these kingdoms
raised formidable armies through the age regiment system.
The possession of these armies encouraged these kingdoms
to go to war, thus war became unavoidable and inevitable.
4. The desire by these rival kingdoms to control the trade
routes to Delagoa Bay to trade with the Portuguese became
a source of conflict. In addition the desire to control
the hunting grounds in order to obtain hides and ivory
for Delagoa Bay trade cause conflict between the kingdoms
of northern Nguniland, thus making war between them
unavoidable this was because the kingdom that controlled
the trade routes, like Dingwiswayo’s Mthethwa did, that
was able to enrich itself with blankets, beads, iron
tools and other commodities.
5. The Madlathule drought: when the Madlathule drought/
famine broke out the tense situation was made worse with
famine and raids for cattle, food and other resources. As
a result the Pongola fertile agriculture valley lying
between the Ngwane and the Ndwandwe kingdoms became a
source of conflict between these kingdoms. As the
Ndwandwe felt the pangs of hunger in order to seize the
Pongola Valley for food production, thus the Mfecane
started.
Some major events of the Mfecane

Page 77 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

 The Mfecane started with the Ndwandwe- Ngwane war fought

over the ownership of the rich agriculture valley of the
Pongola River. The Ndwandwe under King Zwide declared war
on and Ngwane under King Sobhuza I and forced to flee
northwards into the hills of present day Swaziland.
 Zwide then came face to face with Dingiswayo of the
Mthethwa Kingdom Dingiswayo had reformed his army and
came up with a well-organized national army. Zwide and
Dingiswayo clashed and the later was defeated. As a
result he was captured and later execute by Zwide.
 With the fall of Dingiswayo the Mthethwa army fell apart.
However the fallen Kingdom was quickly re-organized by
Shaka, the Chief of the Zulu Chiefdom, who had grown up
as a general in the Mthethwa Kingdom, his mother’s
people. He combined it with the Zulu and built a
formidable Zulu Kingdom later to the displeasure of Zwide
the most powerful Nguni King of Northern Nguniland that
far.
 Zwide would not allow Shaka to develop into a strong
opponent in the region. As a result, Zwide dispatched
some warriors under his son to punish Shaka, but Shaka
defeated them. Zwide then threw the whole power of the
Ndwandwe army against Shaka.
 Realizing he could not defeat the Ndwandwe of Zwide in
one decisive battle, Shaka adopted a tactical retreat
strategy and scorched earth policy. He pretended to flee
and in the process destroyed anything that could be of
ssistance to the enemy. They destroyed fields and
poisoned water sources. These drastic measures finally
weakened the pursuing Ndwandwe warriors who were then
defeated by the Zulu on Mhlatuze River (Battle of
Mhlatuze River). Zwide did not stop in his flight until
he landed in the hands of his enemy, Sobhuza I, who
quickly put him to death. The remnants of Zwide’s army
took refuge in the upper Nkomati River. Two generals of
Zwide who refused to submit to Shaka fled Zululand
altogether, they were Soshangane and Zwangendaba.
Soshangane set up the Gaza Empire in Mozambique and
Malawi, whereas Zwangendaba set up the Ngoni Kingdom in
Tanzania.
 With the fall of Zwide and capturing of all his
territories, Shaka now ruled over an area that stretched

Page 78 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

from the Tugela River in the south, to the Pongola River

in the north, and from the sea to the buffalo River. This
area became known as”kwa -Zulu” or ‘the land of the Zulu”
or “Zululand”. Shaka dominated and terrorized northern
Nguniland and the surrounding areas.
 This caused terrified groups to cross over the
Drakensberg Mountains, causing “scattering” among the
peace loving Sotho-Tswana tribes or ethnic groups. For
example, in 1822/3 Mzilikazi of the Khumalo chiefdom
(later Ndebele Kingdom) defied Shaka and fled with his
people into the high veld and finally landed in
Mashonaland in modern Zimbabwe. The Hlubi of Mpangazita
and the Ngwane of Matiwane fled from Zululand across the
Drakensberg mountains and caused a chain reaction amongst
the peace-loving Sotho-Tswana peoples.

JULIAN COBBING’S EXPLANATION OF THE CAUSES OF THE

MFECANNE/ DIFAQANE (New School of Thought)

Julian Cobbing advances alternative causes of the Mfecane,

compared to those by the old school of thought, for
example;
1. Capitalist penetration:
The Europeans were in short supply of labor on their farms.
This shortage was worsened by emancipation (abolition) of
slaves; therefore, they produced or obtained slaves to
work on their sugar plantations in Brazil and Caribbean
Islands. The Portuguese used Africans as middlemen to
subjugate others. As a result African Kingdoms attacked
each other to take slaves to the Portuguese, hence the
Mfecane.
2. Trade at Delagoa Bay:
The Ndwandwe and the Mthethwa were greatly affected by trade at
Delagoa Bay they therefore subjugated weaker ethnic groups
between 1815 and 1830 more than 2000 slaves were exported
through Delagoa Bay.
3. Slave labor at the cape:
There is abundant evidence for slaves needed at the cape farms
particularly by the British, Boers and the Griqua. These
groups raided the Tswana groups of the Bafokeng and
Batlhaping for slaves. In 1820 there was arrival of British

Page 79 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

settlers at the cape, who went to the Northern Cape to

procure slaves.
Further explanation of the causes of the Mfecane by Cobbing:
 In his explanation of the causes of the Mfecane/
Difaqane, Cobbing relies on the works of people like
Harries on the Slave Trade at Delagoa Bay.
 Cobbing argued that there was a sharp escalation of
violence resulting from a massive increase in the Slave
trade at Delagoa Bay. Increase in slave trade resulted in
aggressive raiding for slaves, especially by Zwide’s
Ndwandwe which then drove the Ngwane of Sobhuza south
into northern Natal and the Hlubi over the Drakensberg
Mountains. Increase in slave trade also resulted in the
Ndwandwe – Mthethwa conflict, and after the Zulu kingdom
under Shaka as essentially defensive reaction against
slave raiding and trade.
 According to Cobbing, the emergence of the Zulu kingdom
did not start the process of state building and the
series of wars and the migrations out of the area between
Delagoa and the Tugela River (Nguniland). That is Cobbing
does not believe that the rise of the Zulu kingdom caused
the Mfecane/ Difaqane because to him, the Zulu kingdom
was merely the product of what was happening at the time.
 Cobbing argued that it was the emergence of the Ndwandwe
and the Mthethwa which encouraged the birth of other
kingdoms or chiefdoms like the Qwabe and the Cele, which
also started to build similarly enlarged political units.
It was during this period that southward migrations into
and through Natal were first set in motion.
 According to Cobbing, it was the power rivalry between
Zwide and Dingiswayo which started the series of wars and
disturbances in Southern Africa which later came to known
as the Mfecane/ Difaqane. It was the power rivalry
between these two leaders which also drove the Ngwane and
the Hlubi from their original homes. For instance, it was
the Ndwandwe of Zwide who drove Sobhuza’s Ngwane into
modern Swazi area. The Ndwandwe’s involvement in slave
raiding and slave trade caused political and demographic
changes in Nguniland. When the Ndwandwe defeated the
Mthethwa and the Zulu emerged to challenge them, it was
not Shaka’s victory over Zwide’s forces which resulted

Page 80 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

in the breakup of the Ndwandwe kingdom and the northward

migrations that followed, rather it was tensions within
that enlarged kingdom and possibly the pressures and
opportunities resulting from slave trade which led to its
disintegration (downfall).
 On the question of the migration of the Khumalo/ Ndebele
of Mzilikazi from Zululand about 1822, Cobbing argued
that Mzilikazi’s migration was not a result of rebellion
against Shaka as the old school of thought suggest, but
because of conflict with the slave raiding and trading
Ndwandwe. He pointed out that Mzilikazi’s Khumalo/
Ndebele left Zululand because of the Griqua and later
Boer attacks from the South who were raiding chiefdoms
for slaves.
 On the issue of the disruption of the community life and
dislocation of population resulting from the upheavals of
the period and who caused them, cobbing pointed out that
the role of Zulu kingdom is disturbing the pattern of
life and settlement in the Natal region has been
significantly exaggerated and that the main cause of this
was the southward migrations of the different chiefdoms.
He maintained that the Natal region was never anything
like a wholly depopulated area, and that at least some
regiments of some communities that had been living in
this region survived within it throughout the period of
the upheavals.
 Cobbing also argued that it was the slave raiding
activities of the Griqua rather than Zulu and the Ndebele
who drove Matiwane and his people from the Caledon
Valley, to meet their fate at the hands of the British
troops at Mbholompo. In addition to raiding for cattle to
supply markets in the cape Colony, the Griqua were also
involved in extensive slave trade to satisfy the cape
farming economy’s insatiable (uncontrollable) appetite
for cheap labor. According to Cobbing it was these
group’s slave raiding and trading activities which led to
the disruption of community life and dislocation of
population in southern Africa. He further maintained that
not only the Griqua were involved in these raids for
slaves, but even the Boers and the British were raiding
the African kingdoms for slaves (labor) and cattle from
the Cape Colony. He pointed out that the battle of

Page 81 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

Ditlhakong was an example of an organized slave raid by

Europeans in southern Africa, especially by the British,
in which Africans were rounded up and captured to be sold
as slaves at the Cape. These raids had devastating
effects on the populations of Africans in Southern
Africa. Therefore, to Cobbing, the concept of
Mfecane/Difaqane, as developed by Walker in 1928, was
essentially an alibi (an excuse), created by white
settlers, officials and missionaries to conceal or to
cover up the slave raiding and trading activities in
which they were implicated.
Effect of the Mfecane
Depopulation
 There was widespread warfare during the Mfecane. These
wars forced thousands of people to flee from their
homes. The most important thing to note is that
thousands of people lost their lives during this
period. The great losses in life led to depopulation.
The demography of Nguniland was adversely affected by
the Mfecane.
Distruction of kingdoms
 When the Mfecane ended, some kingdoms no longer
existed. They have been subjugated by others. Examples
are; the Mthethwa of Dingiswayo and the Ndwandwe of
Zwide.
Collapse of agriculture
 The horrific Mfecane wars negatively affected
agriculture. Thousands of people were constantly
running away from their attackers. Some were forced to
lead predatory lives. This state of warfare made it
impossible for the people to carry out agricultural
activities. Cultivation in some areas stopped
altogether. Some people lost their livestock to the
cattle raiders.
Creation of new kingdoms
 One of the most obvious effects of the Mfecane was the
emergence of larger and more powerful states such as:

Page 82 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

 The Zulu state/kingdom. it was able to change the

political landscape of Nguniland.
 On the Southern Highveld was the Sotho state of
Moshoeshoe. Though the Sotho were not as strong and
aggressive as Zulu, they were never the less power
people. Their neighbours paid them tribute. Moshoeshoe
also commanded respect among his neighbours.
 The northern Highveld was dominated by the strong
Ndebele state under Mzilikazi. The Ndebele were known
for the strong army which constantly attacked and
raided their neighbours for cattle.
 It must be noted by that these new powerful states
had very capable military leaders as their kings, for
example. Shaka of the Zulu, Mzilikazi of the Ndebele,
etc. The new states took the place of the old states
such as the Mthethwa, Ndwandwe and Ngwane. This means
therefore that the Mfecane led to the collapse of old
kingdoms.
Re-distribution of people
 The Mfecane re-distributed the people of Southern
Africa. The Ndebele who originate in Nguniland
migrated and settled in modem day Zimbabwe. The
Bakololo who originated in South Africa migrated to
modem day Zambia. The Shangaane ended up in
Mozambique, Malawi and Tanzania.
Results Of The Mfecane/Difaqane (South of the Limpopo)
The Mfecane had both negative and positive results. For
positive results of the Mfecane up to 1854 one could
consider the following;
1. The Sotho, Bapedi and the Ngwane used mountain tops to
organize defensive nation building for survival. This
political development was the brain child of resourceful
leaders like King Moshoeshoe I of the BaSotho, King
Sobhuza I of the Ngwane and the Kings of Bapedi in
eastern Transvaal. These intelligent and daring leaders
were products of the Mfecane/ Difaqane.
2. Powerful leaders like Shaka type emerged and incorporated
weaker groups into their chiefdoms and kingdoms to create
lasting multi-tribal units. In fact, Shaka ended the
incessant wars in northern Nguniland and unified the
Page 83 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

previously warring Nguni ethnic groups and gave them

common leadership and identity in the Zulu kingdom,
Moshoeshoe I and others did likewise in their respective
areas.
3. Shaka perfected the military reforms which Dingiswayo
introduced. This resulted in the introduction of new
warfare and weapons used for conquest and defense. The
Ngoni and Ndebele copied these and used them in their
nation building.
The following could be considered under the negative effects of the Mfecane/
Difaqane;
1. The economy of many ethnic groups was destroyed by the
incessant wars. For example; crop farming came to a
standstill and a lot of livestock destroyed or captured
as a result of instability. As a result famine became
rife and out of depression a few people like the Makwati
(the lean ones) of the Maluti Mountains resorted to
cannibalism; they killed and ate other people, for
example, Peete Moshoeshoe I’s grandfather.
2. Forcible incorporation of the defeated groups resulted in
detribalization. Shaka’s policy of assimilation had the
effect of destroying ethnic identity as the defeated
groups were assimilated into the Zulu culture.
3. Depopulation caused by killing and displacement caused by
migrations created empty spaces in the interior of
Southern Africa. Natal, for instance, was heavily
depopulated by Zulu warriors in order to create a secure
southern buffer zone for the safety of the Zulu nation.
The scouts of the Trek Boers discovered these empty
spaces in which the Trek Boers moved and eventually
established Transvaal in 1852 and the Orange Free State
in 1854.
Effects of the Mfecane/ Difaqane beyond the Limpopo (north)
 Beyond (or north) of the Limpopo, Zwangendaba’s invasion
of parts of central Africa both negative and positive
effects of the Mfecane just as those of Mzilikazi and
Sebetwane did in the same region.
 The Mfecane migrants established new kingdoms by
conquest, for example, Mzilikazi set up the Ndebele
kingdom in Mashonaland by destroying the Rozvi Empire.
Page 84 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

 The Ngoni under Zwangendaba established a multi- tribal

kingdom on the Fipa plateau in Tanzania. After his death
the Kingdom split into five different kingdoms which were
situated in Zambia, Malawi and Tanzania.
 Sebetwane set up a huge kingdom or state that fused the
Lozi and the Kololo into one nation.
 Soshangane set up a huge kingdom, the Gaza kingdom in
Mozambique.
 Though the Ngoni and the Ndebele invasions caused havoc
they eventually led to the establishment of viable
kingdoms that spread Nguni warfare and nation building in
Central Africa.
 The attacks by the Bakololo of Sebetwane and Amandebele
of Mzilikazi made the Batswana to seek the service of
Guns for future attacks from outsiders, which would later
assist them in defense against the Boers.
Debate motion;
 The Mfecane did more harm than good to Southern,
Central and Eastern Africa.
 The Mfecane was caused by white Slave Traders
The Career of Shaka
Shake was born in about 1787 to a Zulu chief, Senzangakhona, and
Langeni princess, Nandi. He was born out of wedlock
(unmarried parents) and hence he was considered an
illegimate child. As such he was not accepted as a heir to
the Zulu throne. As a child Shaka and his mother were
rejected and abused by the father’s people. He grew up a
bitter young man as a result. The rejection by his people
made him want to prove that he was a better man than his
half-brothers. He had in other words, a burning desire to
become the next Zulu chief.
Compared to their neighbours, the Zulu were a very small
clan/group, about 2000 strong. Because of their inferior
numbers, the Zulu were soon to be absorbed by the Mthethwa
of Dingiswayo. As soon as he was old enough, Shaka joined
the Mthethwa army. While in the army he proved himself a
born soldier. He was a brave warrior and also an
intelligent tactician. Dingiswayo recognized his abilities
and promoted him to head his regiment. In the process, he

Page 85 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

became Dingiswayo’s favourite warrior. When his father died

in 1816, Shaka seized the Zulu throne from his half-
brother, Sigujana. He enjoyed the backing of Dingiswayo.
Shaka’s Military Reforms
Shaka’s position as a chief allowed him to try out his military
reforms. The following were some of the military reforms
introduced by Shake:
 Short stabbing spear and large shields - The short
stabbing spear was one very effective weapon of
warfare introduced by Shaka. Shaka’s warriors waited
for their enemies to hurl throw their long spears at
them. They then rushed in close and stabbed them to
death. The Zulu warriors used long shields to protect
them from the long thrown spears from their enemies.
Because of the short stabbing spear the Zulu were able
to inflict heavy defeats on their enemies.
 Abolition of Sandals - Soldiers fought bare footed.
Sandals were altogether discarded. This was done so as
to improve the speed of warriors during battle.
 Use of Espionage - Shaka revolutionized warfare in the
whole of Nguniland and beyond. This he did through
attacking his enemies when they least expected it. The
Zulu army used espionage (spying on their enemies).
Spies were used to gather information about the enemy.
Runners were also used to gather useful information
about the enemy.
 The cow horn formation - The COW-HORN formation was
yet another battle tact introduced by Shaka. In the
cow-horn formation one or two regiments engaged the
enemy while other regiments cycled round to totally
surround it.

Page 86 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

THE HORN THE

HORN

THE CHEST

THE RESERVE

 Total warfare and scorched earth policy –

o Defeated enemies were shown no mercy.
o Their women and children were killed.
o Their chiefs also faced the same fate, that is,
they were also killed.
o In their place, Shaka put his trusted indunas.
o Further to this. Shaka introduced the scotched
earth policy. Under this policy, homes and crop
fields of defeated groups were burnt down.
 Other military reforms:
 Warriors lived in barracks until they attained, the
age of 40 years.
 As active warriors, men were not allowed to marry.
 Warriors were taught and encouraged to be brave and
fearless. In battle they were supposed to kill both
women and children without hesitation Cowardice in
battle was punished by death.
 Regular training of warriors was introduced. It was
Shaka's belief that warriors needed to be physically
fit at all times.
 Young boys were used to carry the soldiers' baggage.
Warriors only had to carry their spears and shields.
Political Reforms - The Zulu were very strong militarily. However
the military strength of the Zulu was not the only reason
why the Zulu were successful in battle. Good political
reforms also contributed to the military strength of the

Page 87 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

Zulu kingdom. The following are some of the political

reforms introduced by Shaka.
 Centralization of authority: all authority came from
Shaka. He was the commander of the army and the chief
justice of the kingdom. In short, all important
decisions in the kingdom were taken by Shaka. Before
the Zulu became a too powerful group, kingdoms in
Nguniland were loosely controlled by those in
authority.
 Creation of a military state: all males and females aged
between 18 and 36 years were recruited into age
regiments (male and female regimens laid in separate
barracks). Large regimental towns were set up around
the kingdom. Male regiments looked after the cattle,
usually those captured in warfare. The warriors fed
off their milk and meat. The female regiments
cultivated crop field to feed the warriors and the
rest of the kingdom.
 Military commanders: They were solely appointed by
Shaka. They were to be in charge of the male
regiments. Shaka's female relatives took charge of the
female regiments. They were also to report disloyal
commanders to Shaka.
 The male regiments formed the main source of warriors.
As the majority of able bodied males in the kingdom
were in the military, the Zulu kingdom was,
principally a military state. The head of the kingdom
was also a military man.
 Economic reforms: The most significant economic reform
introduced by Shaka was in the form placing strict
control on trade. This led to the heavy protection of
the Delagoa Bay trade route. The Zulu traded their
ivory for beads and cloth with Delagoa Bay traders.
Also, all ivory in the kingdom belonged to the king,
Shaka.
 The end of Shaka: Because of Shaka's political reforms,
the Zulu kingdom was in a perpetual state of war.
After all warfare made the Zulu kingdom what it were-
a strong and feared military state.
 As Shake became all too powerful, more and more people
were executed for even the silliest and pettiest
reasons. For example, following the death of Nandi in
Page 88 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

1827, many people were killed. Most of those killed

were accused of having failed to show sufficient
grief.
 As the Zulu warriors were in constant battle with
their enemies, both near and far, they in the fullness
of time began to tire. They traveled long distances in
search of enemies and also met stronger enemies. Some
people in the kingdom and some of Shaka's generals
were tiring of Shaka's unbecoming habit of
unnecessarily executing people. This discontent on the
part of the people of Zululand expla,ins why nobody
came to Shaka’s rescue when he was executed by his
half-brothers; Dingane and Mlangane in 1828.
The career of Moshoeshoe
 Moshoeshoe was born in about 1786 at Menkhoaneng to a
minor Sotho chief. He was from the Mokoteli clan. He
distinguished himself as a leader during his youth.
His sound personality and general successes in life
attracted people to him.
 In 1820 he set up his own small village at Butha
Buthe. This was the time of the Mfecane wars and
Moshoeshoe’s followers suffered a number of attacks
from the Tlokwa, Hlubi, and the Ngwane. To avoid
further Ngwane attacks, Moshoeshoe decided to send
their king cattle as tribute.
 Because of his good leadership, he was able to hold
his subjects together. Many people were as a result
attracted to him. These among others included other
Sotho clans and other groups fleeing from the Mfecane
wars.
 To increase his herds, Moshoeshoe resorted to raiding
weaker groups. His following was further boosted by
lending out mafisa cattle to some of his neighbours.
 Following his heavy defeat at the hands of the Tlokwa,
Moshoeshoe decided to leave his home of Butha Buthe.
He set up a new home at Thaba Bosiu, which was a
plateau. Thaba Bosiu proved good for defense purposes.
 Moshoeshoe’s reputation soared while at Thaba Bosiu.
Many more people were attracted to Thaba Bosiu because
of the peace and security Moshoeshoe promised them.

Page 89 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

Some were attracted by his wealth in cattle. The birth

of the Sotho kingdom began here at Thaba Bosiu.
 Moshoeshoe accepted refugees from surrounding
villages, areas and offered them another chance to
life by lending them mafisa cattle. Refugees from the
Cape were also accommodated in the new nation. The
refugees brought with them valuable technology, horses
and guns. These became useful in defense matters of
the kingdom.

Administration
 Moshoeshoe’s government was built on a loose
confederacy, that is, the various chiefdoms in the
kingdom were allowed some degree of independence, each
chiefdom was allowed to have and keep its regiment.
Their chiefs and headmen were allowed to stay in their
positions of authority.
 All regiments were however responsible for the defense
of the entire kingdom. The Sotho did not have a
standing army in the mould of what the Zulu had for
example.
 Intermarriages were encouraged between the chiefdoms
in the kingdoms. Even Moshoeshoe married from among
the different groups in the kingdom. This served to
strengthened ties with his subject.
 Royal towns were set up at various points in the
kingdom. This was done as to ensure that the subject
people remained loyal to the king. All decisions of
great Importance were made and taken at the pitso, a
kgotla gathering of some sort.
 Moshoeshoe did not discriminate not even against
social misfits such as the cannibals of the Maluti
Mountains. He talked them into discarding their evil
habits and gave them cattle. They in the long run
became important members of the kingdom.
Foreign policy
 When it came to kingdom matters, Moshoeshoe used both
diplomacy and war against his neighbours. The following
were his important lines of policy:
 Paying tribute to more powerful kingdoms - Moshoeshoe
paid tribute in the form of cattle to his more powerful
Neighbours such as the Ngwane and the Zulu under Shaka,

Page 90 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

who were given tribute in the form of feathers and furs.

Moshoeshoe and his people were spared from attacks from
these powerful groups because of his paying them tribute.
 In the 1831 war with the Ndebele Moshoeshoe gave the
defeated Ndebele cattle as provision on their long
journey back home. This was a sign that he still
considered the Ndebele as formidable enemies and wanted
no future wars with them. This was diplomacy of the
highest level.
 Moshoeshoe defeated the British at Berea in 1851. Despite
emerging victorious, Moshoeshoe sent the defeated British
a letter pleading for mercy. This was Moshoeshoe and his
sound diplomacy.

 Use of defensive warfare when attacked - During the above

mentioned war with the Ndebele, Moshoeshoe instructed his
people to roll down rocks on the advancing Ndebele
warriors. As the only passages to the summit of the
mountain were full of people rolling down stones on the
Ndebele warriors, it was impossible for them to capture
the Sotho capital. This was a good example of
Moshoeshoe's defensive warfare.

 Restricting cattle raids to distant peoples: To avoid

conflicts with his neighbors and keep cordial
relationships, Moshoeshoe restricted his cattle raids to
people who were far from his kingdom. He would send his
soldiers to distant areas to get cattle. And these cattle
would be given out as Mafisa to his people and neighbors.
Diplomacy in relations with other groups
 Guns were very useful in defense matters and Moshoeshoe wanted
to have access to them. As the British could not grant
him his wish, he sought the help of the Griquas and Kora.
Moshoeshoe bought guns and even horses from them. In no
time the Basotho became highly skilled mounted gun
carrying soldiers. This greatly enhanced the security of
the entire kingdom.
 Moshoeshoe was also quick to welcome European Christian
missionaries to his kingdom. This he did so that his people
could acquire European education. He also believed that
their physical presence could stop the Griqua and Kora

Page 91 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

from attacking his kingdom. The missionaries would also

provide a useful link between Sotho nationals working in
the Cape colony and the kingdom. Indeed the missionaries
ultimately became useful allies of the Basotho.
 Faced with the threat of losing his land to the
Trekboers/Voortrekkers, Moshoeshoe sought British
protection. The Boers from the Orange Free State were a
sure and constant threat to the Sotho nation. British
protection was granted and this altogether stopped the
Boers in their tracks from stealing Basotho’s land.
 Moshoeshoe the visionary leader and great diplomat died in
1870. This was after he had achieved so much for his
people. The nation of present day Lesotho owes its
existence to the efforts of Moshoeshoe.
The career of Sebetwane
 The Kololo of Sebetwane were originally known as the
Patsa-Fokeng. They were a Sotho speaking people. Their
nearest neighbours were Taung of Moletsane. This was
before the Mfecane period. When the Mfecane started they
were pushed out by the Tlokwa of MmaNtatisi. During this
Tlokwa attack the Fokeng lost most of their cattle and
were forced to flee. During their flight they crossed the
Vaal River and were joined by other defeated Fokeng
groups. As the Fokeng were joined by other small groups’
fleeing-from the Mfecane conflict, this had the ultimate
effect of increasing the numbers. Unfortunately for this
fleeing Fokeng, they lost their leader, Sebetwane’s
father, who was killed by a lion. The young Sebetwane
succeeded his father and the young leader was more than
prepared to establish a new home for his people. The
group's wandering took them westwards into Tlhaping
territory. Sebetwane’s group met other displaced groups
with whom they ganged up and attacked the Tlhaping
capital of Dithakong in 1823. The Batlhaping sought the
help of mounted Griqua gunmen, the Fokeng and their
allies were summarily defeated. This defeat forced the
Fokeng to head northward through Tswana country.
 The Fokeng finally reached the Rolong territory. They
immediately attacked and defeated the Rolong. They
however decided not to settle in Rolong territory. On
their journey up north they met the Hurutshe whom they

Page 92 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

engaged in battle and defeated at their capital of

Kaditshwene. From there they attacked nearby groups such
as the Bakgatla whom they raided for cattle. Sebetwane
and his subjects could not settle long at Kaditshwene
because of constant attacks from the Ndebele.
 During his flight northward, Sebetwane was able to
increase his following and his livestock numbers soared.
This mixed following now came to be known as the Kololo,
meaning the wandering ones. In fact the name was of the
clan of Sebetwane’s wife.
 Sebetwane left Kaditshwene and headed into a
northwestwards direction and ended up in the lands of the
Bakwena. The Kololo attacked the BaKwena and defeated
them at Dithubaruba. Dithubaruba for a time was a Kololo
capital. The defeated Kwena enlisted the help of the
Ngwaketse of Makaba and jointly attacked the Kololo. They
however were defeated by the battle hardened Kololo. In
turn, the Ngwaketse asked for help from two English
traders and they defeated the Kololo and forced them out
of Dithubaruba.
 Sebetwane led his people into Ngwato land whom he
attacked and defeated. He forced them out of their
capital. In the process their cattle were captured. The
Kololo continued with their northward journey. They met
and defeated the Batawana near Lake Ngami. From here the
Kololo raided the Herero for cattle.
 Sebetwane's journey northward took a westward direction
and as a result he ended up in the Kalahari Desert.
Conditions here were tough and most of the traveling had
to be done through the night. Resistance from desert
communities forced Sebetwane and his subjects to return
to the lake Ngami area.
 He defeated the Batawana and destroyed there capital
Toteng around 1875. At this time the Batawana were under
the regency of Mogalakwe, as their Leader Letsholathebe I
was not yet of age. From here the Kololo dispersed the
Batawana and took some of them hostage. The young
Letsholathebe found refuge among the Wayei in the Okavang
Delta. From here the Bokololo headed to the Chobe where
they attacked the Subiya fishing communities in the area.
The Kololo however did not stay long in the Chobe because
of malaria. They later crossed the Zambezi and settled at

Page 93 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

the confluence of the Zambezi and Kafue rivers. Although

they were attacked by other groups, they were able to
repel them.
 Sebetwane decided to move his settlement further on the
Kafue territory. This was Lozi country. He easily
defeated the Lozi and proceeded to establish his Kololo
kingdom.
 Policy of fusion
o Sebetwane discouraged the Kololo from adopting the
attitudes of a dominant aristocracy. He wanted them
to stop treating the other subject groups as
inferior. He therefore worked hard towards bringing
the diverse groups together. There was a need to
fuse the Kololo and the Lozi into a single entity.
Both the Kololo and Lozi subjects were appointed
into leadership positions, that is, they all could
be appointed as headmen. However the majority of
these were Kololo.
o Intermarriage was encouraged between the different
groups in the kingdom. Sebetwane himself married
wives from amongst the Lozi women. This endeared him
to the Lozi people.
o The Kololo language was made the official language
of the kingdom. This served to unify the kingdom.
There was now a feeling of understanding and oneness
between the Lozi and the Kololo. In the fullness of
time both groups started to consider themselves as
Kololo and gradually the Lozi indigenous language
died.
o Sebetwane further allowed the Lozi to practice their
traditional culture. For example, he allowed them to
practice their matrilineal system alongside the
patrilineal system of the Kololo. Sebetwane also
mixed freely with all his subjects. This won him the
respect of all his people, both Lozi and Kololo.
 Economic reforms
o Subject people were encouraged to do farming and
fishing, hunting and trade were also encouraged.
Tribute was collected from various subject peoples.
This was done so as to boost the kingdom’s wealth.
Sebetwane moved his capital to Linyanti so as to

Page 94 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

have easier access to the routes to the south.

Sebetwane also raided his neighbours for cattle.
 Political reforms
o Villages were grouped into district, provinces
under the supervision of loyal Kololo governors.
This was done so as to ensure loyalty and at the
same time ensuring that the kingdom becomes stable.
Political and social stability were indeed achieved
through this arrangement.
o Trusted local Lozi chief, were given some degree of
authority. They were allowed to rule their people at
the village level.
o To further boost the security of the kingdom,
Sebetwane placed humble and loyal Kololo families as
overlords in the different villages in the kingdom.
Their sole important duty was to monitor the affairs
of the Lozi villages.
o Power was shared in the kingdom. Sebetwane ruled
with the help of Kololo and Lozi councilors. This
arrangement brought about unity and stability.
o A national army made up of both Kololo and Lozi was
set up.
o National unity was further boosted by the
introduction of a national slogan: all are the
children of the chief. This strengthened the policy
of fusion which was introduced during the early days
of the kingdom. Both the Lozi and the Kololo began
to now regard themselves as one people.
The Career of Mzilikazi
Mzilikazi was the son and successor of Mashobane, chief of the
Khumalo. He later on in his life became chief of the Khumalo.
The Khumalo were a small northern Nguni clan found between the
Black Mfolozi and Mkhuze rivers. They were part of the Ndwadwe
kingdom. However they changed sides and supported Shaka in the
Ndwadwe-Zulu war of 1818-1819, otherwise known as the Mhlatuze
River battle. The Khumalo were one of a few clans which
voluntarily joined the Zulu kingdom. The Khumalo joined the Zulu
kingdom despite the fact that Zwide of the Ndwadwe was
Mzilikazi’s maternal uncle and also king. It is said that
Mzilikazi joined the Zulu kingdom because he suspected that
Zwide was responsible for the death of his father.
Page 95 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

Shaka was pleased by Mzilikazi's action so much so that he

allowed him to remain chief and military commander of the
Khumalo regiments. This shows that Shaka trusted Mzilikazi
because no subject chief was ever given such freedom.
During his early years as Shaka's subject, Mzilikazi carried out
raids on behalf of his King Shaka. All booty from the raids was
handed over to Shaka who often rewarded him generously. In the
fullness of time, Mzilikazi began to resent and detest having to
work for Shaka.

Mzilikazi Breaks away From Shaka

In about 1821 Mzilikazi was sent out on a raiding mission on the
Sotho speakers close to the Zulu kingdom. The mission was very
successful in that a lot of cattle were raided. Instead of
handing over the cattle to his king, as it was the norm,
Mzilikazi kept them for himself. This angered Shaka. To make
matters worse, Mzilikazi ill-treated messengers sent to plead
with him to hand over the cattle. Mzilikazi's behavior was
interpreted by Shaka as an open rebellion against his authority
and a clear declaration of war on the Zulu empire. The
appropriate response, Shaka was convinced, was military action
against Mzilikazi and his Khumalo followers. In 1821 the Zulu
attacked and Mzilikazi was thoroughly defeated at the battle of
Nthumbane hill.
Although Mzilikazi was defeat, many of his warriors survived the
Zulu attack. Fearing for his security Mzilikazi led his Khumalo
people away from the Zulu northwards in about 1822. This was the
beginning of Mzilikazi's long nation building career.

How did the Khumalo come to be known as the Ndebele?

There is no definite answer to this question. An intelligent
guess would suggest that they got this name from the Sotho who
referred to all invaders. Second, they were the Nguni origins.
The Khumalo might therefore have adopted this name for
themselves. They opted it seems, for the Nguni version
"Amandebele Ndebele".

Page 96 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

When the Khumalo entered the Highveld they numbered between

2000- 3000 fighting men. Their women and children and livestock
had either been killed or left behind. Because of their military
prowess the Khumalo had a relatively easy passage to the north
through other people’s territory. In about 1822/23, the Khumalo
had reached the upper Oliphant's river. They settled here to
rest and hence they called the place EkuPumuleni, the resting
plate. Raids were launched from here into neighboring chiefdoms.
Young men, women and cattle were brought in from these raids.
This was the beginning of a new nation, the AmaNdebele. From now
hence forth, we are going to refer to the Khumalo as the
Ndebele/ Amandebeke.
EkuPumuleni was too close to the Zulu kingdom. Shaka still
wanted to punish Mzilikazi. The Pedi nearby were also a threat.
Further to this, the pastures were not good. The place was
therefore not suitable for a permanent settlement. The place was
abandoned and a new capital was set up and it was given the name
Mhlahlandela. This happened in 1826. Other than starting up a new
capital, Mzilikazi established military towns all-round the
capital. Some of the military towns were Endinaneni and Enkungqini.
Prior to the arrival of the Ndebele peace and tranquility
prevailed among the northern Sotho on whose territory the
Ndebele settled. The Ndebele brought all this to a sudden and
violent end. From 1826 to 1830 Ndebele raids were a common
occurrence in the area. Both cattle and war captives were
brought in from the raids to swell the Ndebele herds and boost
its human population.
Mhlahlandela however was not an ideal capital due to the
following reasons;
 It was too close to the Zulu who still wanted to destroy the
Ndebele.
 Nearby there were Kora, Griqua and Khoesan who had the dreaded
guns.
 There was also the possibility of a combined attack by the
Kwena and the other groups.
The Zulu soon attacked the Ndebele. Before they could recover, a
combined force of the Griqua and Rolong attacked Ndebele cattle
were captured during the attack. This compelled Mzilikazi to

Page 97 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

move on and in 1832 the Ndebele settled at the headwaters of the

Marico. The Hurutshe who lived in the area were driven off.
In 1834 Mzilikazi was attacked by the Kora and the Griqua. Also,
the numbers of Kora, Griqua and Boers passing through the
kingdom were sharply rising. These people never sought the
permission of Mzilikazi while hunting and passing through his
kingdom. They threatened the security of the entire kingdom.
Mzilikazi decided to send soldiers out to drive them away.
Unfortunately for Mzilikazi, the wars which followed molted in
great losses in human life and livestock. It was clear that the
kingdom was far from being secure. Its list of enemies was also
growing by the day. The Ndebele had to emigrate. This they did
in about 1837.

The Northward Journey across the Limpopo

In 1837 Mzilikazi and his subjects embarked on a northward
journey across the Limpopo. The journey northwards was in two
groups, each following a different direction. The main group was
made up of the elderly people, women and children and most of
the livestock. Most of the king's sons were also in this group.
This group left first and it was under induna Gundwane Ndiweni,
also known as Kaliphi. Amongst the king's sons was the heir
apparent, Nkulumane and his brother, Lobengula. The route taken
by this group was not only the shortest but it was also more
direct. The first group was the first to settle across the
Limpopo and they named their settlement Gibixhegu.
The second group was under Mzilikazi and it followed a longer
route northwards. This group took westward direction through
Ngwato territory and turned further westwards toward Lake Ngami.
The group raided livestock along the way.
While on the way, Mzilikazi received a message that the first
group had chosen Nkulumane as king in his place. This enraged
Mzilikazi and he immediately decided to leave for Gibixhegu to
confront Gondwana and the other chiefs. They were all executed.
The fate of Nkulumane is up to this day not known. Following
this, Mzilikazi set up his new capital at Inyati, not far away
from present day Bulawayo.

Page 98 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

By the 1840s the Ndebele were already established in their new

settlement. They now called it Matabeleland. Matabeleland was
situated in a prominently Shona speaking area. Despite this,
Mzilikazi was able to assert his authority over all the
inhabitants of new territory of Matabeleland.
Mzilikazi’s Policies to consolidate power
 Subject people were required to pay tribute. Tribute was in
the form of grains and cattle. Young men and women from the
subject peoples had to join the Ndebele regiments, the
Amabutho.
 Military action was sometimes used to win the support of
the Shona subjects. At other times peaceful means were used
to win them over. For example some were given cattle under
the Ukulagisa system, the mafisa system in the Tswana
context.
 The Ndebele were faced with a variety of both internal and
external threats. These compelled Mzilikazi to focus a lot
more on developing his military. Thus, military towns were
set up around most parts of the kingdom. Each military town
had its regiment.
 A strong army was needed so as to help deal effectively
with internal disturbances and threats. Such a military
would allow Mzilikazi to assert his authority more
effectively among the conquered subject people. Some of the
Shona subjects, especially the Ronzvi leaders detested and
resisted Ndebele rule over them. Mzilikazi needed a strong
army to bring them under control. A strong army was also
needed for raiding purposes.
 Over and above the internal problems, the king had to deal
with serious external threats. These included among others
the Boers. An attack from the Boers would prove to be very
destructive and indeed the Zoutpansberg Boers attacked the
kingdom in about 1847 and seriously destroyed Ndebele
villages.
 Mzilikazi died in 1868 and was succeeded by his son
Lobengula. Lobengula inherited the problems which his
father had had to deal with on a daily basis.

MINERAL REVOLUTION UP TO 1910

Page 99 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

The years 1863-84 ushered in an era of dramatic change prompted

by the discovery of diamonds and then gold in the interior of
Southern Africa. The discovery of these minerals transformed the
socio-economic and political life of the Sub Saharan continent.
This transformation is known as Mineral Revolution. The
revolution commenced with the discovery of diamonds in what is
called Kimberly and the Witwatersrand. Gold was first discovered
on the Orange River near Hope Town in 1867 and there was no
immediate rush to the region. However, the situation changed a
few months later when diamonds were discovered along the banks
of the lower Vaal River. But within a year, attention had
shifted to a far richer diamond bearing area of Kimberly. The
discovery resulted in the dispute over the area. The area was
claimed by four claimants being:
 The Transvaal Boers under Pretorious,
 The Orange Free State Boers under Brand,
 The Griquas under Chief Waterboer,
 The Barolong and Batlhaping of Chief Mothibi.

Following this dispute, Sir Henry Barkley, the British Governor

of the Cape, proposed that the dispute over the diamonds field
should be decided by a special legal court. The arbitration
court was headed by Lieutenant Robert Keate, the governor of
Natal. And his verdict came to be known as THE KEATE AWARD.
The arbitration court ruled in favor of the Griquas of Waterboer
and awarded the disputed area to them. The Boers were
dissatisfied with the ruling. And Barkley then persuaded
Waterboer to seek British protection against the Boers.
Consequently, in 1871 Barkley annexed Griqualand west and later
became a British colony. Barkley had strong imperialist
ambitions and did not want the Boers to gain control of the
diamond fields because he feared that, such would weaken the
British position in South Africa. The arbitration court was to
ensure that the Boers would not gain control of the diamonds
fields. By annexing Griqualand West, the British added a
valuable territory to their possession. They gained access to
the mineral area which they exploited to their own advantage.

DEVELOPMENT OF MINING
The discovery of both diamonds and gold attracted thousands of
people from all over Southern Africa as well as fortune seekers
from Europe, America and Australia. From the start, the whites

Page 100 of 138

Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

dominated both the mining of diamonds and gold because they had
advantages of technology and capital. At first, the prosecutors
of miners resorted to individual mining, but as the mines got
deeper, problems increased which involved the collapse of the
railways and flooding of the mines. This forced mines to form
mining companies in order to overcome the rising cost of working
deep in the mines. One such company was the De Beers
Consolidated Mining Company owned by Cecil John Rhodes.

CONSEQUENCES OF THE MINERAL REVOLUTION

The discovery of diamonds and gold brought enormous socio-

economic and political change to the region. The mineral
revolution had far reaching results in the sub-continent and
these are still prevalent even today.

ECONOMIC RESULTS - The discovery of diamonds transformed South

Africa from poor to a rich economy, and the South African
economy shifted from an agrarian economy to a strong and stable
economy based on mining.

SOCIAL IMPACT
 Wagon travel from Cape Colony led to the improvement of
communication on the lands of Batswana and permanent roads
were now opened up and people began to travel regularly.
They reached far area such as the Okavango.
 Batswana’s traditional dress was now replaced by colored
cloth strong trousers, blankets and other cheap
manufactured goods.
 There was migrant labor to the South African mines and Boer
farms to get money to pay tax and buy manufactured goods
from cape colony.
 European trade enabled Batswana to interact more with the
whites and learnt their cultures and languages.
 Some areas such as Molepolole and Shoshong became trading
centers and European traders settled in such areas.
 Tinned roofs, wooden furniture, wagons and ploughs emerged
in various Tswana territories as a result of trading with
the Cape.
 Contact with European traders led to the rebirth of social
classes. Members of the royal family became richer at the
expense of the commoners but later European traders found

Page 101 of 138

Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

ways of trading with the commoners who later became rich,

hence improvement in their social status.
 Intermarriage later emerged between the blacks and whites.

POLITICAL IMPACT

 Cape trading enabled some of Batswana Dikgosi to expand

their areas or kingdoms over a large area as they now
wanted monopoly over trade. A shining example is the
Bangwato who claimed territory as far as Nata area.
Bangwato under Sekgoma brought Batswapong, Basarwa,
Baphaleng, Batalaote and Bakalanga under their rule in
order to monopolize the ivory trade over a large area.
 Shoshong and Molepolole became trading centers under the
influence of Cape trading. Sekgoma and Sechele wanted to
control the movement of traders and obviously to accumulate
wealth for themselves and to acquire guns from the European
traders.
 Initially cape trading strengthened the powers of the
Dikgosi because they were the only ones who traded within
the commoners, and latest manufactured goods were only
found from the members of the royal families.
 Later on the powers of the chiefs were threatened since the
traders found ways of trading with some commoners who also
became rich and influencial.
 The powers of the dikgosi were later threatened by the
Boers who demanded cheap labor and land from Batswana
dikgosi.

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

 Large numbers of the wild animals were killed particularly

through the use of guns and Horses; elephants were hunted for
their ivory and rhinos for their horns,.
 As the population increased particularly in areas such as
Molepolole and Shoshong more trees were cut down and there was
poor sanitation.
 The discovery of minerals also gave birth to the industrial
development of South Africa. Without the discovery of
minerals, the industrial process would have come much later in
South Africa.

Page 102 of 138

Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

 The discovery of minerals resulted in urbanization. There was

an increase in population especially in those areas which
initially had sparse population. This resulted in the
emergence of large urban areas such as Kimberly, Johannesburg,
and Witwatersrand etc.
 Towns appeared where there were mining centers; these towns
soon had greater population than any other town in South
Africa.
 There was telecommunication developed in South Africa as a
result of the mineral revolution; Railways and roads were
constructed to link towns. Railway lines were constructed from
Cape Town, Port Elizabeth and East London to transport gods to
and from mining towns.
 The railways reached Kimberly in 1885 and the Transvaal in
1892. Roads were greatly improved by 1914; there were 25, 600
km of all-weather roads in South Africa. The telegraph wires
reached Kimberly from the Cape in 1876 and in 1882 the
telephones were introduced. Many of these developments would
have taken place much later if minerals were not discovered in
South Africa.
 The mineral revolution also had influence on farming, as the
emergence of towns meant that farmers had bigger and a
reliable market for their produce. The improved communication
system meant that people could transport goods or supply towns
more easily and cheaply. Gardening and dairy farming started
to cater for the needs of urban dwellers. However, only the
foreigners and the Boers took advantage of this larger and
reliable market. In fact, agriculture in the areas occupied by
Africans suffered. Many able-bodied men left their homes to
seek employment in towns. This resulted in shortage of labor
to cultivate the land. It is true, therefore the discovery of
minerals caused agricultural stagnation in areas occupied by
the blacks and developed in white owned areas.
 The mineral revolution increased the demand for labor, and
laborers were recruited from South Africa and the neighboring
countries such as Botswana, Lesotho, Swaziland, Malawi, Zimbabwe
and Mozambique. This gave rise to the Migrant Labor System and
its far reaching consequences.
 The blacks provided cheap labor and without them, gold could
not have been mined on a profitable basis, hence the Bantu
laborers have been called BLACK GOLD. Africans were confined
to the heavy unskilled tasks and received low wages- a clear

Page 103 of 138

Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

case of further exploitation, and division of labor was on

racial basis. This condemned Africans to perpetual servitude.

SOCIAL EFFECTS

 African population was drastically reduced by the movement to

urban areas. Their way of life was rooted in the country side
and as such was shattered as a result of urbanization.
 Some African populations were detribalized and lost much of
tribal customs they acquired many vices of western
civilization and could no longer fit properly in behavior
patterns of their societies.
 The move to towns by men led to temporary separation of
husbands and wives. This weakened the unity of the family and
resulted in deterioration of the authority of the father which
had bound the family together in the countryside.
 The temporary separation of husbands and wives also led to
illicit marriages in towns and break up of many marriages.
Those husbands who returned brought with them sexually
transmitted diseases such as syphilis, gonorrhea etc.
 The mineral revolution undermined the authority of men as
women in town acquired considerable degree of independence
because of their employment and income.
 The compounds had a bad effect on the morale of African
workers. Mine workers were subjected to unbearable working
conditions in the compounds. The mine workers were unhealthy
and miners contracted diseases like tuberculosis. The mine
workers became dangerous carriers of the disease to their
rural areas.
 Some people in towns turned to crime such as robbery and trade
in illegal liquid as means of earning a living.
 Prostitution also emerged in towns (particularly by women who
were unemployed) to sell their bodies for money.

POLITICAL EFFECTS

The mineral revolution also helped to bring a number of

political results;
 The Transvaal and Orange Free State felt cheated by the
granting of the mineral fields to Waterboer of the Griquas.
They were even angry when Britain annexed Griqualand and
the diamond fields in 1871. This strained the relations

Page 104 of 138

Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

between the Boers and the British. The loss of the diamond
mines intensified Afrikaner nationalism and their desire to
cut links with the British.
 The discovery of gold threatened the independence of
Transvaal. The Boers had trekked from Cape Colony to escape
British influence but the discovery of gold at the
Witwatersrand mine intensified their relations. Britain
pledged to share the wealth from gold with the Boers.

 The discovery of minerals increased the number of British

national in the Boer republics. And the Boers named them
Uitlanders, meaning outsiders. The Boers resented the large
numbers of Uitlanders in their territory because that would
lead to political and cultural domination and they became
reluctant to franchise the Uitlanders. This further
strained the relations between the Boers and the British
Since most of the Uitlanders were British citizens.

 The mineral revolution led to the conquering and

dispossession of African states by the whites. The
annexation of Griqualand meant that the Griquas lost their
independence. The whites used the mineral wealth to cling
to political power. This delayed Africans to develop
themselves in their country of their birth.
FEDERATION SCHEMES

After the Boer Trek, there were four White separate states in
South Africa; Cape Colony & Natal (British), Transvaal and the
Orange Free State (Boers). These white states were surrounded by
many Black Kingdoms which posed a threat to their survival as a
race.
Their survival as the white race would be in uniting and forming
one state. This attempts to unite the four states came to be
known as FEDERATION SCHEMES. The idea of federating or
uniting these separate states was started by George Grey in
1959. Grey, the British colonial secretary pointed out that the
internal affairs of the four white ruled states was small that
they could not produce statesman, land nor provide adequate
educational opportunities, he further stated that when the four
states were separated, they could not produce enough money for
their own weaker white states. Grey argued that the federation

Page 105 of 138

Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

scheme would allow the white states to resist any attack from
powerful African states.
However, Sir George Grey failed to federate the white states due
to the different racial policies in them which could not be
reconciled or harmonized. He also failed because he lacked the
support of the British government which had no intentions of
increasing their responsibilities in South Africa hence rejected
Grey’s plan and was called home.

LORD CARNARVON’S SCHEME OF FEDERATION 1874-78

During the 1870s, Britain was forced to change her policy of the
scramble for Africa. The British were faced with a new era of
political and economic competition with other European
countries. The economic competition in Europe increased the
importance of colonies in Africa as a source of raw materials
and market for European goods. Further, the discovery of
minerals in South Africa forced Britain to change her policy of
withdrawal to that of federation. Britain hoped that the federal
government would be under the British crown.
Lord Carnarvon also attempted to federate or unite the white
ruled states in South Africa. Carnarvon as colonial secretary
was determined to use the British government to force the states
to unite if they were not, the independence of the Boer
republics in 1854 had to be reversed and the Boer republics had
to be brought under British control again.

LORD CARNARVON’S ARGUMENTS FOR FEDERATION

Lord Carnarvon and the British government were interested in

colonies that could pay for their own expenses. Britain did not
want to shoulder the financial burden of her colonies. Carnarvon
therefore came up with a plan as a means of relieving Britain
the expenses and responsibilities. Carnarvon wanted to relieve
Britain of the burden of defending her colonies of Natal and
Cape Colony against the indigenous people. He argued that
federated white South African states would be able to defend
themselves, and that Britain would no longer be required to give
any assistance, be it military of financial help to her
colonies. Lord Carnarvon also saw federation as a means of
guarding against any foreign interference in South Africa. He
saw the disunity of the white states as a weakness that might

Page 106 of 138

Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

lead to foreign investment. To him, therefore, federation would

check and prevent foreign power to gain a foothold in South
Africa, thereby safeguarding British supremacy in the region.

Carnarvon believed that separation encouraged economic rivalry

among the white states, and that federation would encourage
economic cooperation and also attract foreign investment. This
would make South Africa rich. He argued that as long as the
white South African states were weak, isolated and financially
unstable, capital will not be attracted to South Africa on large
scale. Moreover, if the states were federated, they would share
the mineral wealth equally and this would end the dispute over
the possession of diamond fields and the bitterness which had
resulted from dispute.

Carnarvon also argued that federation would make it possible for

the formulation of a single native policy and would enable the
federated states to deal with the Africans unrest in an
effective way. He thought that Africans, given an opportunity
may rise against the whites in an attempt to regain land they
have lost to the whites. He argued that it is dangerous for the
African states to attack other states. Federation was therefore
initiated to foster unity among the white states against African
kingdoms.

THE FAILURE OF LORD CARNAVON’S FEDERATION SCHEME

Lord Carnarvon did not achieve his goal of uniting the white
ruled states in South Africa because of the attitudes of the
Boer republics and Cape Colony resulted in the collapse of the
federation scheme;
 In the republics of the Transvaal and Orange Free State,
there was bitterness caused by the Keate award of the
diamond fields to Waterboer. This bitterness was further
worsened by the annexation of Griqualand by the British in
1871. Transvaal decided to cut ties with the British, and
this attitude failed the federation scheme because the
Boers in the Transvaal have never considered joining the
federation.
 The Boers in the Transvaal and Orange Free State were
determined to reserve their independence and rejected
federation because it meant giving up their independence.

Page 107 of 138

Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

After the Boers in the Orange Free State have removed the
Basotho threat, they needed no ally hence saw no need to
join the federation.
 Cape Colony under Prime Minister John Maiteno opposed the
idea of federation as it promised little. Cape feared that
as the wealthiest state, she might bear the cost of
federation, more so that at that time, Transvaal was also
bankrupt.
So it is these differences that led to the failure of the
federation plan and this forced Carnarvon to annex the Transvaal
on the 2th April 1877 as a way of bringing federation by force.

ANNEXATION OF TRANSVAAL - 1877

Lord Carnarvon was determined to succeed with his federation

plan in South Africa. He was worried by the Transvaal’s
opposition of his plans and considered Transvaal as a serious
threat or obstruction. He therefore decided to bring Transvaal
under British control by force.
Carnarvon was worried that if Transvaal became too strong, it
could afford to stay out of any federation with the other
states; this would ruin plans for federation. The Transvaal’s
decision to construct a railway line to Delegoa Bay forced
Carnarvon to annex it. This plan was regarded dangerous because
it would become a powerful commercial rival to British supremacy
in South Africa. The British supremacy required control of the
whole coast line of South Africa. To get rid of these threats,
it was imperative to bring the Transvaal under British rule.

The British government was also aware that Germany wanted

colonies and had shown interest in the Boer republics so they
decided to prevent German interference in South Africa. This was
done to safe guard British Supremacy. Carnarvon believed that
with the Transvaal under British control, the Orange Free State
would be forced to join the federation. He thought all these
decisions would help facilitate the federation plan.
However, the annexation of the Transvaal could only be effected
on certain conditions. The opportunity of Carnarvon to annex the
Transvaal came after reports of weakness and confusion in the
Transvaal and there was much criticism in the manner in which
Transvaal was being administered.

Page 108 of 138

Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

Further, in 1877 the Transvaal government attempted to bring

Bapedi under their control. And Lord Carnarvon claimed to come
to the aid of the Bapedi as well.

RESULTS OF THE ANNEXATION OF THE TRANSVAAL

The annexation of the Transvaal had important consequences;

 The Boers of the Transvaal strongly opposed the annexation
because it meant loss of independence to the British.
 The annexation of the Transvaal stimulated and strengthened
the sentiments of Boer nationalism.
 It left the Boers disgruntled, bitter and more critical
than ever of the British policy in South Africa. The Boers
could not allow themselves to be reduced to the status of a
colony of the British.
 They were determined to maintain their independence, hence
had no alternative but to prepare for war.

From January 1879 Paul Kruger and other Boer leaders started to
prepare their people for an armed struggle against the British.
The Boers acted in this way because their petitions have been
ignored. The Boers immediately mobilized their supporters {6000}
who met at Wonderfontein and came up with a policy entitled the
“boycott of anybody who cooperated with the British authorities,”
the hosting of the old flag of the Boer Republic before
annexation by the British.

THE FIRST ANGLO BOER- WAR

In 1880, war broke out between the Boers of the Transvaal and
the British and it became to the known as the first Anglo Boer War
{the war of independence}. The British who had underrated the
strength of the Boers were defeated at the battle of Majuba Hill on
the 27th February 1881. The war was ended by the Pretoria convention
of 1881. The terms of the convention were that;
 The Boers accepted British overrule.
 The Transvaal was granted self-rule/ independence in all
internal matters/ affairs.
 The boundaries of Transvaal were defined.
 Equal civil rights were extended to all people and slavery
was prohibited.

Page 109 of 138

Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

The Boers who had fought to defend their independence were

dissatisfied with the terms of Pretoria Convention. The
dissatisfaction resulted in growing Boer nationalism and later
the Boers would again take up arms and fight the British for
total independence.

THE MIGRANT LABOUR SYSTEM

The discovery of diamonds and gold also caused migrant labor.

The migrant Labor system affected most countries in southern
Africa like Bechuanaland, North and South Rhodesia, Nyasaland,
Mozambique, and even Angola and South West Africa. Batswana went to
work in South African mines for the following reasons:
 Bechuanaland had few job opportunities, so they flocked to
the diamond and gold mines in South Africa.
 The introduction of money as a medium of exchange by
European traders was another cause of migrant labor. Slowly
but surely money was needed for people to buy their basic
needs such as food and clothing
 In some cases, land shortage was also a cause for migrant
labor especially after the Boer Trek. This was so because
Boers grabbed land from Africans forcing Africans to change
their way of life. Due to land shortage Africans could not
continue living as mixed farmers and they were forced to
work as migrant laborers in mines.

THE EFFECTS OF MIGRANT LABOUR IN BOTSWANA AND SOUTHERN

AFRICA

 Men left women and children alone and the burden of family was
left to women.
 Agricultural production fell as the burden of family work such
as growing of crops was left to women there was therefore
inadequate labor to work in the fields as men went to work in
mines.
 Some homes were broken as husbands went away for longer periods
or never came back.
 Women became heads of the families and struggled to raise their
families they made decisions on.
 Gender roles changed due to migrant labor, since jobs that were
culturally preserved for men were now done by women in the
absence of their husbands. E.g. men looked after Cattle, and

Page 110 of 138

Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

women grew crops. But due to absence of men, women took over
those roles. Men in the mines had to wash clothes and look after
themselves, did their own sweeping and other general domestic
duties normally done by women.
 Migrant workers earnings boosted the coffers of the Bechuanaland
protectorate, as the migrant laborers brought back their earning
to support their families.

THE JAMESON RAID 1895-1896

The Jameson Raid was a failed raid against the South African
Republic (The Transvaal) carried out by British colonial
administrator Leander Starr Jameson and his company troops
("police" in the employ of Alfred Beit's and Cecil Rhodes' British South
Africa Company) and Bechuanaland policemen over the New Year
weekend of 1895–96.

Paul Kruger was president of the republic at the time. The raid
was intended to trigger an uprising by the primarily British
expatriate workers (known as Uitlanders) in the Transvaal but
failed to do so. The workers were called the Johannesburg
conspirators. They were expected to recruit an army and prepare
for an insurrection. The raid was ineffective and no uprising
took place. The results included embarrassment of the British
government; the replacement of Cecil Rhodes as premier of the
Cape Colony; and the strengthening of Boer dominance of the
Transvaal and its gold mines. The raid was a contributory cause
of the 2nd Anglo-Boer War (1899–1902).

Cecil John Rhodes - Prime minister of Cape colony was a central

or key figure in the arrangement for the Jameson raid. Rhodes
was determined to bring the Transvaal under British control by
force. Rhodes advocated for British supremacy. The Transvaal was
too rich in minerals to be left out of the British sphere of
influence. Without the knowledge of Joseph Chamberlain (colonial
Secretary), Rhodes arranged for arms to be smuggled into the
Transvaal and instructed certain British mining industrialists
in the area to plan for a rebellion in December, 1895. The plan
was that the outbreak of a revolt by the Uitlanders would lead
to and legitimize British intervention in the interests of the
security of the British invasion would assume an air of legality
and Paul Kruger would be overthrown his country subjugated.

Page 111 of 138

Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

Jameson led 500-600 men from Bechuanaland (Phitshane) on the

Transvaal border, where they were easily defeated by the Boers
and Jameson himself surrendered unconditionally. The invasion
was poorly planned and organized. The Uitlanders did not rebel
against the Transvaal government as it was planned. After the
raid, Jameson was tried and imprisoned in London for four
months. Sixty-four of the leaders of the conspiracy were
arrested, four were sentenced to hanged but the sentence was
later commuted to $25,000 fine which was paid by Cecil John
Rhodes and then the raiders were handed over to an embarrassed
British government to deal with.
 The Jameson raid achieved nothing positive. Rather its
significance lies in the fact that it brought all the Boers
together in support of Kruger’s Transvaal. Jameson raid was
an unnecessary catastrophe of which the inevitable result
was the inflammation of the already bad relations between
the Boers and the British. Rhodes had to resign as Prime
Minister of the Cape colony and as head of British South
Africa Company. On the other hand, Kruger’s prestige was
boosted, and with it, Boer nationalism, with independence
as its aim. The raid had further effect of drawing the
Orange Free State closer to Transvaal, for both had been
subjected to British aggression. Paul Krugger thus received
unexpected moral support in his struggle against the
British which substantially strengthened his hand and
hardened his attitude towards the Uitlanders.
 Of equally significance was the raid’s effect on Britain’s
international relations. On the 2nd January 1896, the
emperor of Germany sent a congratulatory telegram to Kruger
for his efficiency and success in crushing the raid. It
encouraged the Boers to believe rightly or wrongly, that
Germany would go to their assistance, should Britain attack
them. This worried the British who suspected Germany’s
motives. Britain was critical of Germany’s behavior and
became more resolute in its declared policy of maintained
and safe guarding its interest in South Africa.

SIR ALFRED MILNER AND THE SCHEMES OF FEDERATION

 In April 1897, Lord Rosmead resigned from the posts of High

Commissioner for Southern Africa and Governor of Cape Colony,

Page 112 of 138

Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

and the colonial secretary, Joseph Chamberlain, selected

Alfred Milner as Lord Rosmead's successor.
 Alfred Milner was a British statesman and colonial
administrator who played a role in the formulation of foreign
and domestic policy between the mid-1890s and early 1920s.from
December 1916 to November 1918, he was one of David Lloyd
George’s war cabinet.
 Milner was an acceptable British statesman in whom public
confidence was reposed, and was assigned to go to South Africa
to consider all the circumstances and to formulate a policy
which should combine the upholding of British interests with
the attempt to deal justly with the Transvaal and Orange Free
State governments. (en.wikipedia.org).
 Milner arrived in the Cape in May 1897 and by August, after
the difficulties with President Kruger over the Aliens' Law
had been patched up, he was free to make himself personally
acquainted with the country and peoples before deciding on the
lines of policy to be adopted. Between August 1897 and May
1898 he travelled through Cape Colony, the Bechuanaland
Protectorate, Rhodesia, and Basutoland. To better understand
the point of view of the Cape Dutch and the burghers of the
Transvaal and Orange Free State, Milner also during this
period learned both Dutch and the South African "Taal"
Afrikaans. He came to the conclusion that there could be no
hope of peace and progress in South Africa while there
remained the "permanent subjection of British to Dutch in one
of the Republics." (en.wikipedia.org).

 After the defeat of the raiders in the Jameson raid, Sir

Alfred Milner met with Paul Kruger in May 1899 at the
Bloemfontein Conference. Sir Alfred Milner was not impressed
in particular by the concessions made by Kruger, a Boer
hardliner who was determined to restore Boer nationalism. The
concessions were such that the Uitlanders will be given a five
year franchise period {i.e. all the Uitlanders who had been in
residence for five years will be allowed to vote.}
 Sir Milner passed the information to the British Prime
Minister Chamberlain and they both distrusted the Boers while
they were willing to accept the concessions. Chamberlains
reply was vague- not clear and this made the Boers to withdraw
the concessions made.

Page 113 of 138

Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

 Sir Alfred Milner was now convinced that war was the only
solution and with tensions mounting British troops began to
arrive in Durban from India and the Mediterranean and the
border garrisons were increased.

THE UITLANDERS AND THEIR GRIEVANCES

 The discovery of gold in Witwatersrand led to the influx of
foreigners from all over the world to the Transvaal. The
foreigners or fortune seekers from overseas were referred
to as the Uitlanders. Most of the Uitlanders were from
Great Britain. The influx of Uitlanders alarmed the
Transvaal authorities and the Boers in general. The Boers
hated the Uitlanders for their ungodliness and drunkard
ness. Further, the Boers believed that they were
outnumbered by the Uitlanders and therefore feared
political domination. It was fear that prompted the Boers
or Transvaal authorities to tighten u the nationalism and
franchise laws. The Boers believed that to enfranchise the
Uitlanders was equivalent to handing over their
independence to the Uitlanders.
 The safe guard Boer independence Paul Kruger’s government
passed a law that stated that for the Uitlanders to qualify
for franchise, they should have resided or lived in the
Transvaal for fourteen (14) years of age. This became
serious grievance or complaint of the Uitlanders. The
Uitlanders complained that they were denied the rights of
citizenship and yet were called upon to join military
services. Uitlanders complained of Transvaal’s education
policy which they believed was one sided. Uitlanders
complained that the standard of Dutch required was too
high. The Uitlanders were embittered by the withdrawal of
state subsidy from schools that used English as medium
instruction and by preference shown for teachers from
Holland.
 The Uitlanders resented high rates charged by the Transvaal
railways for the use of lines and accused Transvaal
Railways authorities of corruption. Uitlanders further
accused Transvaal authorities of accepting bribes and
giving monopolies to certain firms. The most criticized
Page 114 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

monopoly related to the company manufacturing dynamite. The

company was suspected to have bribed the officials so that
it could be given the monopoly. Because of the monopoly,
the company charged extremely high prices for the dynamite.
The Uitlanders hated granting of monopolies because they
believed the policy was a danger to the economic
development of the country.
 The Uitlanders formed Transvaal National Union to act and
seek a redress of their complaints. The Union petitioned
the authorities and supported Joubert who was Kruger’s
rival for Presidency. However, all the demands of the
Uitlanders fell on deaf ears and as a result the National
Union began to organize a revolution against Kruger’s
government. Cecil John Rhodes, the Cape Colony Prime
Minister, decided to take the Uitlanders complaints to his
advantage. He wanted to remove Kruger’s government which
was the biggest obstacle to his scheme of a South African
federation under the British flag.
 In 1895 Paul Kruger made come concessions to the
Uitlanders. Kruger announced that the government would give
subsidy to English Medium School and that certain railway
rates and import duties would be reduced. The concessions
made the Uitlanders to postpone the planned uprising
against Kruger’s government. It was this failure to rebel
which led to the failure of the Jameson Raid which was
organized by Cecil John Rhodes

THE SECOND ANGLO BOER WAR 1899-1902

 The second Anglo Boer war of 1899-1902 was the culmination
of many generations of misunderstandings, suspicions,
hatred and rivalry between the Boers and the British. The
causes of the war could be traced as far back as 1870. One
incident after another increased differences between the
Boers and the British and the 1899 war was inevitable.
 Before 1882 anyone could be enfranchised (given the right
to vote) after only one year’s residence in the Transvaal.
In 1882, this residential requirement was raised to four
years. In 1890, a further restriction was enforced at the
local level in mining districts where a special council was
set up by the government. Uitlanders had to stay in the
country for a minimum of two years before they could
qualify to vote for the local councilors. The strongest

Page 115 of 138

Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

restriction related to the election of members of

parliament. Only those people who had been in the country
for 14 years or more were eligible to vote for MPs. It was
this restriction which precipitated conflicts between the
Bores and the Uitlanders. These conflicts led to the
outbreak of the war in 1899.
 By 1902, the British had crushed the Boer resistance, and
on May 31 1902, the Peace of Vereeniging was signed, ending
hostilities. The treaty recognized the British military
administration over Transvaal and the Orange Free State,
and authorized a general amnesty for Boer forces.

THE PEACE TREATY OF VERENIGING, MAY 1902

The peace treaty of Vereeniging was finally signed on May 1902.
The terms of the treaty were as follows;
 The Boers were promised eventual self- government.
 There was no enfranchisement of the Africans.
 The Dutch and English languages were to have equal status.
 The Boer leaders agreed to recognize overall British
authority - that is, they had to accept the new king of
England, Edward IV, as their sovereign.

THE UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA

 The second Anglo Boer war taught both the Afrikaners and
the British that they should forget about the past and
concentrate on building a united country. Alfred Milner and
Joseph Chamberlain had envisaged a union of South Africa
dominated by a British political majority. But the British
realists on the other hand realized that British political
majority will never be realized in South Africa. The
liberals believed unification could be achieved only with
Afrikaner cooperation. So the British authorities had to
strike a compromise with the Afrikaners to achieve
cooperation. The British government therefore granted self-
government to Transvaal and the Orange Free State in 1906
and 1907 on reconciliatory terms.
 Political parties were formed in each of the four white
provinces which strived for reconciliation and
reconstruction. Et Volk (the people) in Transvaal led by
Louis Botha and General Smarts; South African party led by
Hofmeyer- Cape; Orangia Union Party(OFS) led by Stern. All
these political parties agreed that the four provinces
Page 116 of 138
Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

should be united, especially Botha and Smuts, and their Het

Volk arty supported the reconstruction and reconciliation
policies, but at the expense of African and colored people.
 The first move towards the union was made by F.S Malan in
the Cape parliament. In 1908 the national convention met in
Durban to consider Curtis scheme. The South African party
led by Merriman was now in office in Cape Town. The
question which became a stumbling block was where to have
the capital of the union. Finally, a compromise was
reached; Cape Town became the legislative capital; Pretoria
became the executive capital while Bloemfontein became the
judicial capital.
 There are also certain factors which influenced the pro-
union opinion, such as trade, railways and customs duties.
The Bambata rising also influenced the white states to
unite in 1906. Another factor was the wealth of the
Transvaal, that through unity all the white states would
benefit. The union constitution was finally approved by
three parliaments and by a referendum in Natal. The
question of African voting right was shelved.

SOUTH AFRICAN ACT 1910.

 THE AFRIKANERS - the constitution was intended to
conciliate the feelings of the Boers after the bitter
Anglo-Boer war. Rural voting areas in which the Afrikaners
dominated were smaller than urban areas. So there were no
African voters in Boer provinces.
 By removing its imperial control, Britain gave power to the
two minority white groups. Afrikaner whites were severely
racist by doctrine and tradition English speaking people
were also equally prepared to promote white interests; they
supported the pass laws and the policy of driving Africans
into reserves or as laborers on white farms, industries and
for white families. The land act of 1913 was very harsh on
the Africans. They were then given one tenth of the land
only.
 AFRIKANER SENTIMENTS; the Afrikaners felt recognized when
their language became one of the two officials. The split
of capitals also favored the Afrikaners and the government
offices were in Pretoria where power lay.

Page 117 of 138

Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

 AFRICANS AND COLORED PROTESTS WERE IGNORED - In 1912 the

Africans formed the African Native National Congress (ANC)
to fight their interests which had no place in the act of
1910. The Act of Union was a declaration of white supremacy
in South Africa. The South African Union came into being on
31st May 1910 with Louis Botha as Prime Minister and General
Smuts as his deputy.
 The birth of the Union of South Africa meant different
things to different people. To the whites, a new nation had
been born, while to the Africans, the Act of Union became
domination by the British government. The act of the Union
completed the process of British surrender to the racist
policies and activities of white South Africans.
Bechuanaland, Basutoland and Swaziland were never
incorporated as it was agreed earlier by the British and
the Afrikaners.

REVISION QUESTION - PAPER 1

1. ORIGINS OF MANKIND
2011
Explain the weaknesses of the cultural explanations of the
origins of humankind. [6]
2009
a) Describe any one cultural myth on the origins of humankind.
[4]
b) Explain how the increased brain size affected the development
of the Homo erectus. [6]
c) ‘Humankind originated in Africa.’ How far do you agree with
this statement? Explain your answer. [10]
2008
Explain how the increased brain size of the Homo erectus
influenced their lifestyle. [6]

Page 118 of 138

Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

2004
a) State four important points from Charles Darwin’s ‘Theory of
Evolution’. [4]
b) Explain how environmental changes affected the physical
development of Australopithecus.[6]
c) ‘Africa is the original place of human beings’. Do you agree
with this statement? Explain your answer.
[10]
2002
a) Describe the process of ‘Natural Selection’. [4]
b) Explain why Africa is regarded as the home of humankind.
[6]
c) How far is the theory of evolution a convincing explanation
of the origins of humankind? Explain your answer.
[10]
2000
a) Briefly describe the main stages in the early development of
humankind. [4]
b) Explain two different African cultural beliefs about the
origins of humankind. [6]
c) ‘Humankind originated in Africa and spread to other parts of
the world.’ How far do you agree with this statement? Explain
your answer. [10]

2. TRANSFORMATION FROM STONE AGE TO IRON AGE AND THE EVOLUTION

OF LATE IRON AGE CIVILIZATIONS IN SOUTHERN AFRICA UP TO 1800
2012
a) State any four early Iron Age sites in Botswana. [4]
b) Explain the social organization of the Herero up to 1830.
[6]
c) Was one of the following factors more important than the
others in the development of the Shona before 1800:
i) iron technology;
ii) agriculture;
iii) trade?
Explain your answer. [10]
2010
a) What were the features of the Stone Age?
[4]
b) Explain how agriculture influenced the lifestyle of the
Toutswemogala people.
[6]
c) Was one of the following factors more important than the
others in the collapse of Toutswemogala:
i) the rise of Mapungubwe;

Page 119 of 138

Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

ii) drought;
iii) Diminishing natural resources?
Explain your answer, referring to i), ii) and iii) above.
[10]
2009
a) State any four technological developments of the Late Stone
Age.[4]
b) Explain the impact of agriculture on the social welfare of
the people of Domboshaba. [6]
c) Was one of the following factors more important than the
others in the development of the people of Toutswemogala:
i) mining;
ii) hunting;
iii) trade?
Explain your answer, referring to i), ii) and iii) above.
[10]
2008
a) State any four characteristics of the Iron Age period.
[4]
b) Explain how the Iron Age technology improved the social
welfare of the people of Toutswemogala before the 14th century.
[6]
c) Was one of the following factors more important than the
others in the development of Toutswemogala settlement:
i) trade;
ii) agriculture;
iii) hunting and gathering?
Explain your answer referring to i), ii) and iii) above. [10]
2007
Explain why the Toutswemogala settlement collapsed.
[6]
2005
a) Describe the technological development of the Late Stone Age
people. [4]
b) Explain how arable farming contributed to the development of
the lives of people at Domboshaba.
[6]
c) The emergence of Mapungubwe was the only cause for the
decline of Toutswemogala’. How far do you agree with this
statement? Explain your answer.
[10]

2003
a) What was the Iron Age? [4]

Page 120 of 138

Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

b) Explain how Iron Age technology led to the improvement of

arable farming. [6]
c) Pastoral farming was the most important activity in the
development of the lives of the Toutswe people. How far do you
agree with this statement? Explain your answer.
[10]

3. SHONA, SOTHO-TSWANA, SOUTH-CENTRAL BANTU AND KHOISAN

COMMUNITIES UP TO 1800
2012
Explain the role played by cattle in the lives of the Khoikhoi
before 1800. [4]
2011
a) Name any four South Central Bantu groups in Southern Africa
before 1800. [4]
b) Explain the social organisation of the Sotho-Tswana before
1800.[6]
c) ‘Trade was the most important factor in the development of
the Shona.’ How far do you agree with this statement? Explain
your answer. [10]
2010
Explain how the social organization of the San differed from
that of the Khoikhoi.
[6]
2008
Explain the effects of the Sotho-Tswana activities on the
economic organization of the Khoisan before 1800. [6]
2007
a) Describe the political organization of the Sotho-Tswana. [4]
b) Explain the differences between the social organization of
the South-Central Bantu and the Khoikhoi before 1800. [6]
c) Was one of the following factors more important than the
others in the development of the Sotho-Tswana before 1800:
i) agriculture
ii) trade
iii) mining?
Explain your answer referring to (i), (ii) and (iii) above.
[10]
2006
a) describe the religious organisation of the Shona before 1800.
[4]
b) Explain the differences between the political organisations
of the Sotho-Tswana and the san before 1800.
[6]

Page 121 of 138

Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

c) ‘The arrival of the Sotho-Tswana in Southern Africa before

1800 brought only negative effects on the san.’ How far do you
agree with this statement explain your answer.
[]10]
2004
a) Outline any four political activities of the Shona before
1800. [4]
b) Explain how the religious organization of the Shona differed
from that of the Sotho-Tswanabefore 1800.[6]
c) ‘The following were all equally important in the development
of
the Shona:
i) agriculture;
ii) trade;
iii) mining’.
Do you agree with this statement? Explain your answer
referring to (i), (ii) and (iii) above. [10]
2002
Explain the differences between the political organization of
the Khoikhoi and that of the San before 1800. [4]
2000
a) Briefly describe the economic way of life of the San.
[4]
b) How far did the San’s political structure differ from that of
the Bantu speakers? Explain your answer.
[6]
c) ‘Contact with the Bantu brought only benefits to the San.’
How far do you agree with this statement? Explain your answer.
[10]
a) What were the main social activities of the Iron Age Shona?
[4]
b) Explain how the uses of iron affected the way of life of the
Iron Age Shona. [6]
c) ‘The following were all equally important in the development
of the lives of the Iron Age Shona:
i) trade;
ii) agriculture
iii) mining.’
Do you agree with this statement? Explain your answer referring
to i), ii) and iii) above. [10]

4. COLONIALISM

5. PORTUGUESE COLONISATION OF ANGOLA

2011

Page 122 of 138

Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

a) Describe the main features of the Portuguese policy in the

Kongo Kingdom during early years of contact. [4]
b) Explain the role played by Queen Ndzinge in the resistance to
Portuguese colonization of Angola. [6]
c) ‘Portuguese colonization had mainly negative effects on the
people of Angola.’ How far do you agree with this statement?
Explain your answer. [10]
2010
a) Describe any two aspects of the Regimento.
[4]
b) Explain why the westernization of the Kongo Kingdom failed.
[6]
c) ‘The slave trade benefitted the people of Angola.’ How far do
you agree with this statement? Explain your answer. [10]
2009
Explain the reasons why Queen Nzinge failed to prevent the
colonisation of Angola by the Portuguese. [6]
2008
a)State four factors that led to the European colonization of
Southern Africa before 1830. [4]
b) Explain the reasons for the Portuguese failure to westernize
the Bakongo Kingdom. [6]
c) ‘Slave trade benefitted the people of Angola.’ How far do you
agree with this statement? Explain your answer. [10]
2007
a) Describe the early relations between the Portuguese and the
Bakongo in the late fifteenth century. [4]
b) Explain how Afonso I benefitted from his alliance with the
Portuguese between 1505 and1543.
[6]
c) Was one of the following factors more important than the
others in contributing to the collapseof the Kongo Kingdom:
i) succession disputes
ii) slave trade
iii) Jaga invasion of 1568?
Explain your answer, referring to (i), (ii) and (iii) above.
[10]
2004
a) State any four factors that led to the Scramble of Africa.
[4]
b) Explain the career of Queen Ndzinge in Angola.
[6]
c) ‘The colonization of Angola benefitted the people of Angola.’
How far do you agree with this statement? Explain your answer.
[10]

Page 123 of 138

Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

2003
a) What factors led to colonization of Angola by the Portuguese?
[4]
b) Explain the effects of slave trade on the people of Angola up
to 1800. [6]
c) ‘The following were equally important for the failure of the
Portuguese to westernize the Kongo:
i) the Regimento;
ii) the attitude of Bakongo;
iii) the lack of Portuguese official support’.
Do you agree with this statement? Explain your answer with
reference to i), ii) and iii) above. [10]
2002
a) Discribe the Portuguese policy in the Kongo Kingdom during
the early years of contact. [4]
b) Explain the role played by Queen Ndzinge in the resistance to
Portuguese colonization ofAngola.
[6]
c) ‘Portuguese colonization had both negative and positive
effects on the people of Angola.’ Do you agree with this
statement? Explain your answer.
[10]

6. DUTCH AT THE CAPE UP TO 1800

2012
a) State any four motive for the Dutch settling at the Cape in
1652. [4]
b) Explain relations between the Dutch and the Khoisan from 1652
to 1854. [6]
c) ‘The arrival of the French Huguenots in 1688 was the most
important factor in the development of the Cape.’ How far do
you agree with this statement? Explain your answer. [10]
2010
a) Explain the problems encountered by Jan van Riebeeck when he
was setting up the half way station at the Cape from 1652 to
1657. [4]
b) Explain how Simon van der Stel contributed to the development
of the Cape Colony from 1679 to 1699.
[6]
c) How far did the indigenous people benefit from the Dutch
settlement at the Cape from 1652 to 1800? Explain your answer.
[10]
2009
a) State four reasons for the establishment of the Dutch
settlement at the Cape in 1652. [4]

Page 124 of 138

Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

b) Explain the effects of the Dutch colonisation of the Cape on

the Khoikhoi between 1652 and 1800. [6]
c) Was one of the following factors more important than the
others in causing the rapid expansion of the Cape Colony between
1652 and 1800:
i) immigration policies of governors;
ii) the rise of the Free Burghers;
iii) the emergence of Trekboers?
Explain your answer, referring to i), ii) and iii) above. [10]
2008
a) State any four instructions that were given to Jan van
Riebeeck by the Dutch East India Company when he was sent to the
Cape in 1652.
[4]
b) Explain any three factors which led to the expansion of the
Cape Colony between 1652 and 1800. [6]
c) ‘The Dutch occupation of the Cape had both negative and
position effects on the indigenouspeople.’ How far do you agree
with this statement? Explain your answer. [10]
2006
a) State any four reasons for choosing the Cape as a refreshment
station by the Dutch East India Company in 1652.
[4]
b) Explain how Jan van Riebeeck and Simon van der Stel
contributed towards the expansion of the cape Colony between
1652 and 1700.
[6]
c) ‘The British legal and administrative reforms were the most
important causes of the Boer Trek.’ How far do you agree with
this statement? Explain your answer.
[10]
2005
a) State four factors which influenced the Dutch to settle at
the Cape in 1652. [4]
b) Explain the importance of slave labour in the development of
the Cape Colony from 1657 to1800.
[6]
c) ‘The following were all equally important in the expansion of
the Cape Colony between 1652and 1800:
i) the free burghers
ii) Simon van der Stel
iii) the loan farm system’.
Doyou agree with this statement? Explain your answer referring
to (i), (ii) and (iii) above. [10]
2003

Page 125 of 138

Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

a) What were the reasons for the Dutch settlement at the cape in
1652? [4]
b) Explain the impact of the Dutch expansion on the indigenous
people of the Cape. [6]
c) ‘The following were all equally important reasons for the
Boer Trek in 1835:
i) the establishment of the circuit Courts in 1811;
ii) the introduction of English as the official language in
1828;
iii) the 50th Ordinance of 1828.’
Do you agree with this statement? Explain your answer referring
to i), ii) and iii). [10]
2002
a) Describe the relations between the Dutch and the Khoikhoi at
the Cape up to 1659. [4]
b) Explain the contribution of slaves to the development of the
Cape during the period1652-1806. [6]
c) ‘The following were equally important reasons for the
European colonization of South Africa before 1830:
i) strategic reasons;
ii) need for raw materials;
iii) need for slaves.’
Do you agree with the statement? Explain your answer referring
to i), ii) and iii) above. [10]

7. BRITISH COLONISATION OF THE CAPE UP TO 1835

2011
Explain any three British reforms at the Cape from 1806 to 1835.
[6]
a) Describe the factors which led to the British occupation of
the Cape in 1806. [4]
b) Explain the factors that led to the Boer Trek (other than the
British reforms at the Cape). [6]
c) How far were the indigenous groups of Southern Africa
affected by the Boer Trek up to 1854? Explain your answer.
[10]
2009
a) Describe the changes that were introduced by the British at
the Cape in the judiciary system between 1807 and 1828.
[4]
b) Explain how the Pass Ordinance of 1809 affected the lives of
the Khoikhoi. [6]
c) Was one of the following factors more important than the
others in causing the Boer Trek:
i) Land reforms of 1813;

Page 126 of 138

Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

ii) Fiftieth Ordinance of 1828;

iii) Abolition of slavery of 1833-4?
Explain your answer, referring to i), ii) and iii) above.
[10]
2004
a) State any four factors which led to the British occupation of
the Cape in 1806. [4]
b) Explain how the Circuit Courts (1811) and the 50 th Ordinance
(1828) improved the life of thenon-whites at the Cape. [6]
c) ‘The Boer Trek was mainly caused by the British reforms
introduced at the Cape’. How far do you agree with the
statement? Explain your answer. [10]
2000
a) Briefly describe the British legal reforms of the 1820s in
the Cape Colony. [4]
b) How far was the Slagters Nek incident of 1815 a reaction to
the British changes at the Cape? [6]
c) To what extent did the British reforms listed below benefit
the Africans at the Cape?
i) 1811 Circuit Courts;
ii) 1828 50th Ordinance;
iii) 1833/4 Abolition of Slavery. [10]

8. BOER TREK
2012
a) Describe the routes followed by any two Boer leaders during
the Boer Trek. [4]
b) Explain how the Boer Trek benefitted the Boers up to 1854.
[6]
c) To what extent was the Boer Trek a culmination of Boer
protest against equality between the Blacks and Whites? Explain
your answer. [10]
2007
a) Name any four Boer leaders during the Boer Trek.
[4]
b) Explain the reasons why the Boer Trek took place
[6]
c) ‘The Boer Trek had both negative and positive effects on the
economic life of the Sotho-Tswana.’ How far do you agree with
this statement? Explain your answer.
[10]
2006
Explain how the ‘Great Trek’ affected the economic organization
of African communities in the interior of Southern Africa up to
the 1860s. [6]

Page 127 of 138

Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

2005
a) What was the ‘Great Trek’? [4]
b) Explain how any two reforms introduced by the British helped
to cause the ‘Great Trek’. [6]
c) ‘The ‘Great Trek’ disrupted the economic activities of the
African communities in the interiorof the present day South
Africa’. How far do you agree with this statement? Explain your
answer.
[10]

9. MFECANE
2012
Explain how Sebetwane unified the Kololo and the Lozi in Zambia
up to 1851.[6]
2011
a) Name any four Nguni leaders before the outbreak of Mfecane
wars.[4]
b) Explain the factors that led to the Mfecane wars.
[6]
c) ‘Mfecane wars brought mainly negative results to the people
of Southern Africa.’ How far do you agree with this statement?
Explain your answer. [10]
2010
Explain any three of Shaka’s military reforms. [6]
2009
a) State four reasons for population increase in the Nguniland
before 1800. [4]
b) Explain any three measures used by Moshoeshoe I to build
Basotho into a powerful kingdom. [6]
c) ‘The rise of the Zulu Kingdom depended only on Shaka’s
military reforms.’ How far do you agree with the statement?
Explain your answer. [10]
2007
a) State any four of Shaka’s aims when he came to power. [4]
b) Explain the political reforms introduced by Shaka in building
the Zulu Kingdom. [6]
c) ‘Mfecane wars benefitted Southern African Bantu groups.’ How
far do you agree with this statement? Explain your answer.
[10]
2006
a) Name any four Nguni kingdoms which were involved in the
Mfecane Wars.
[4]

Page 128 of 138

Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

b) Explain how Moshoeshoe built the Basotho Kingdom at Thaba

Bosiu.
[6]
c) ‘Population explosion was the most important cause of Mfecane
Wars.’ How far do you agree with this statement? Explain your
answer.
[10]
2005
a) State any four causes of the Mfecane wars.
[4]
b) Explain the economic reforms introduced by Sebetwane to
create a stable economy for the Kololo Kingdom.
[6]
c) ‘The Mfecane wars brought more good than harm to the people
of Southern Africa.’ How far do you agree with this
statement? Explain your answer.
[10]
2004
a) Explain the concept of ‘Mfecane/Difaqane.’
[4]
b) Explain the political reforms introduced by Sebetwane after
settling in Western Zambia. [6]
c) ‘The following were equally important in causing the Mfecane
Wars:
i) population expansion;
ii) competition for trade;
iii) Mhlatuze drought’.
Do you agree with this statement? Explain your answer referring
to i), ii) and iii) above. [10]
2003
a) What were Mzilikazi’s aims as the King of the Ndebele?
[4]
b) Explain two aspects of Ndebele’s social organization under
Mzilikazi in Zimbabwe. [6]
c) ‘The following were equally important in the building of the
Ndebele Kingdom:
i) Mzilikazi’s character ;
ii) raids on Sotho-Tswana groups;
iii) tribute.’
Do you agree with this statement? Explain your answer
referring to i), ii) and iii) above. [10]
2002
How did the Difaqaneaffect different peoples of Southern Africa
between 1822 and 1835? [6]

Page 129 of 138

Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

10. NINETEENTH CENTURY BOTSWANA 1840-1880s

2012
a) Name four Batswana Chiefs who contributed to the rebuilding
of their states after the Difaqane Wars up to 1800.
[4]
b) Explain how the Tswana states were reconstructed after the
Difaqane Wars up to 1800. [6]
c) To what extent did the Cape trade of the nineteenth Century
affect Batswana in the following areas:
i) local industry;
ii) wildlife;
iii) the power of Chiefs?
Explain your answer, referring to i), ii) and iii) above.
[10]
2010
a) Describe the Kgamenlo system as a method of state
reconstruction in the post Mfecane period.
[4]
b) Explain the impact of the missionaries on the lives of
Batswana during the nineteenth century.
[6]
c) ‘Batswana benefitted greatly from the nineteenth century Cape
trade.’ How far do you agree with this statement? Explain your
answer.
[10]
2006
a) State any four motives of the European traders who came to
the land of Batswana after 1840.
[4]
b) Explain how the Batswana chiefs rebuilt their states between
1820 and 1880.
[6]
c) To what extent did the cape trade of the nineteenth century
affect Batswana in the following areas:
i. Local industry
ii. Wildlife
iii. The power of the chiefs?
Explain your answer, referring to i), ii) and iii) above.
[10]

11. MINERAL REVOLUTION

2012
a) What was the Mineral Revolution? [4]

Page 130 of 138

Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

b) Explain measures taken by Paul Kruger’s government to deny

the Uitlanders rights in the Tranvaal Republic.
[6]
c) ‘The discovery of minerals brought only benefits to Southern
Africa up to 1910.’ How far do you agree with this
statement? Explain your answer.
[10]
2011
a) Describe two economic results of the Mineral Revolution.
[4]
b) Explain the effects of migrant labour on Southern African
states. [6]
c) Was one of the followingfactors more important than the
others in causing the South African War of 1899 to 1902:
i. the Uitlander Question;
ii. the Jameson Raid;
iii. Milner’s Policy?
Explain your answer, referring to i), ii) and iii) above.
[10]
2010
a) Describe the Uitlander’s grievances in the Transvaal during
the Mineral Revolution.
[4]
b) Explain the causes of the migrant labour system in Southern
Africa.
[6]
c) To what extent were women in Soithern Africa disadvantaged by
the Mineral Revolution? Explain your answer.
[10]
2009
Explain how the Jameson Raid of 1895 affected the relations
between the British and the Boers. [6]
2008
a) Name any four groups which quarreled over the diamond fields
of Kimberley between 1867 and 1871. [4]
b) Explain the economic results of the mineral revolution in
Southern Africa from 1867 to 1910.[6]
c) ‘The following equally supported the federation of Southern
African states:
i) George Grey;
ii) Lord Carnarvon;
iii) Cecil John Rhodes.’
How far do you agree with this statement? Explain your answer
referring to i), ii) and iii) above. [10]
2007

Page 131 of 138

Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

Explaineffects of the Hut Tax on Batswana during the colonial

period. [6]
a) Name the four states which were to form the federation of
South Africa. [4]
b) Explain why Lord Carnarvon wanted to form the federation of
South Africa. [6]
c) ‘The attitude of the Boers was the most important factor that
led to the failure of LordCarnarvon’s federation plan.’ How far
do you agree withthis statement? Explain your answer.
[10]
2006
Explain the effects of the migrant labour system on Botswana’s
economy up to 1910.
[6]
2005
a) What were the Uitlanders’ grievances in Transvaal during the
Mineral Revolution? [4]
b) Explain the economic effects of migrant labour system on
Botswana up to 1910. [6]
c) The following were equally important in the failure of Lord
Carnarvon’s federation scheme:
i) the annexation of Transvaal
ii) the Keate Award
iii) the attitude of the Cape Government.’
Do you agree with this statement? Explain your answer. [10]
2003
Explain the political results of mineral revolution in Southern
Africa. [6]
a) What were the social results of the mineral revolution?
[4]
b) Explain the effects of the migrant labour system on African
women in Southern Africa. [6]
c) ‘The Jameson Raid was the most important cause of the South
African War of 1899-1902.’ Do you agree with the statement?
Explain your answer.
[10]
2002
a) Name any four groups which claimed the diamond fields of
Kimberley between 1867 and 1871. [4]
b) Explain the factors that led to the emergence of large scale-
scale mining in Southern Africa during the mineral revolution.
[6]c) ‘The mineral revolution brought negative and positive
results to the people of Southern Africa. Do you agree with
thisstatement? Explain your answer.[10]
2000

Page 132 of 138

Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

a) What were the economic results of the mineral revolution in

South Africa? [4]
b) Explain the effects of the migrant labour on Botswana.
[6]
c) ‘The following were all equally important causes of the South
African War of 1899-1902:
i) the Uitlander question;
ii) the Jameson Raid;
iii) Milner’s Policy.’
Do you agree with this statement? Explain your answer with
particular reference to i), ii) and iii) above.
[10]

12. COLONIAL ERA FROM 1850

2012
a) State four requests presented by Tswana Chiefs to the Queen
of England in 1895. [4]
b) Explain the impact of Hut Tax on Batswana during the Colonial
period. [6]
c) ‘The African Advisory Council paved the way for self rule in
Bechuanaland.’ How far do you agree with this statement? Explain
your answer. [10]
2010
a) Describe any two factors that led to the Scramble for Africa.
[4]
b) Explain why the British adopted the system of Indirect Rule
in Bechuanaland.
[6]
c) ‘Colonial rule brought both advantages and disadvantages to
the lives of Batswana.’ How far do you agree with this
statement? Explain your answer.
[10]
2009
a) Describe any two methods that were used by the Europeans to
colonise Africa. [4]
b) Explain the reasons why Batswana opposed the handing-over of
the Protectorate to the British South Africa Company (BSA).[6]
c) ‘The respect for Tswana laws and customs was the most
important reason why the British adopted indirect rule in
Bechuanaland.’ How far do you agree with this statement?
Explain your answer. [10]
2008
a) Describe any two methods used to colonize Southern Africa
before 1900. [4]
b) Explain any three reasons why the British declared a

Page 133 of 138

Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

protectorate over Bechuanaland in 1885. [6]

c) ‘The participation of Batswana in World War II had both
positive and negative effects onBatswana.’ How far do you agree
with this statement? Explain your answer. [10]
2006
a) What was meant by Imperialism?
[4]
b) Explain reasons for the adoption of Indirect Rule in
Bechuanaland by the British Government in 1891. [6]
c) ‘The following were equally important reasons which led to
the imposition of colonial rule in Bechuanaland by the British:
i. Missionary influence;
ii. German presence in Namibia;
iii. The protection of the road to the North.’
Do you agree with this statement? Explain your answer. [10]
2007
a) State any four issues that were discussed at the Kopong
Conference of 1889. [4]
b) Explain how the colonial administration improved education in
Bechuanaland Protectorate. [6]
c) How far do the post-independence problems in Botswana a
result of colonial rule? [10]
2004
a) State any four benefits of the British policy of indirect
rule in Bechuanaland. [4]
b) Explain the reaction of Botswana to the declaration of a
protectorate. [6]
c) How far did the political development in the South Africa
influence the formation of political parties in Bechuanaland?
Explain your answer.
[10]
2003
a) What were the causes of the Scramble for Africa? [4]
b) Explain the role of chiefs in colonial Botswana. [6]
c) ‘The following were equally important in bringing
independence to Botswana:
i) the legislative council;
ii) the influence of South African politics;
iii) the independence of other African states’.
Do you agree with this statement? Explain your answer with
reference to i),ii) and iii) above. [10]
a) Describe the reaction of Batswana chiefs to loss of power
during colonial rule. [4]
b) Explain the political factors that led to the formation of
political parties in Bechuanaland. [6]

Page 134 of 138

Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

c) ‘Colonial rule benefitted Batswana’. How far do you agree

with this statement? Explain your answer.[10]
2002
a) Describe the system of indirect rule.
[4]
b) Explain how the policy of indirect rule affected the powers
of the traditional rule in Bechuanaland Protectorate. [6]
c) ‘Bechuanaland Protectorate largely benefitted from British
colonial rule.’ How far do you agree with this statement?
Explain your answer. [10]

13. POST INDEPENDENCE IN SOUTHERN AFRICA

2011
a) Name any four political parties that were formed in Botswana
since independence. [4]
b) Explain the problems that have affected the economic
development of Botswana since independence. [6]
c) How far did either Zimbabwe or Zambia benefit from the
following organizations:
i. Front Line States;
ii. Southern African Development Community (SADC);
iii. Organisation of African Unity (OAU)?
Explain your answer, referring to i), ii) and iii) above.
[10]
2006
a) Describe the changes made by the Government in the education
and health sectors in either Zimbabwe or Zambia since
independence
[4]
b) Explain the problems that have slowed down the economic
development in either Zimbabwe or Zambia since independence.
[6]
c) To what extent did either Zimbabwe or Zambia benefit from the
following organisations:
i. Front Line States;
ii. Southern African Development Community (SADC);
iii. Organisation of African Unity?
Explain your answer, referring to i) ii) and iii) above.
[10]
2005
a) Name any four political parties which have emerged in
Botswana between 1965 and 1990. [4]
b) Explain the social changes that have taken place in Botswana
since independence. [6]
c) To what extent did Botswana benefit from the following

Page 135 of 138

Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

organizations?
i) Southern African Development Community (SADC);
ii) Frontline States;
iii) Organisation of African Unity (OAU).
Explain your answer, referring to (i), (ii) and (iii) above.
[10]
2003
Explain the social effects of British colonial rule on Botswana.
[6]
2002
a) Describe the aims of the Frontline States at its formation.
[4]
b) Explain the foreign policy of either Zambia or Zimbabwe in
relation to the SADC region. [6]
c) Choose either Zambia or Zimbabwe and explain how far the
post-independence economic problems in that country are a result
of colonial rule. [10]

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Azevedo Mario (ed), Africana Studies: A survey of Africa
and the African Diaspora, (Carolina Academic Press, 1998).
2. Cobbing J, “The Mfecane as an Alibi: Thoughts on Ditlhakong
and Mbolombo”, 1988, Journal of African History, Vol. 29,
No. 3, (1988), pages 487-591 (33 pages), Cambridge
University Press.
3. Davenport T.R.H, South Africa: A Modern History, 1991,
(Macmillan).
4. How Marlow, “An alibi for Mantatisi”, African Studies, Vol.
13, 1954 issue 2, pages 65-76, published online, 19 January
2007.
5. Marwick Arthur, The Nature of History, (Macmillan, 1970).

Page 136 of 138

Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

6. Morton Fred et.al, The Birth of Botswana: A History of

Bechuanaland Protectorate From 1910 to 1966, 1987,
7. Nettelton G.E. “History of Ngamiland Tribes up to 1926”, 31
March 2011, (Published onLine – tandfonline.com).
8. Needham D.E. et.al, From Iron Age to Independent: A History
of Central Africa, 1984 (Longman Group Singapore
Publishers), Singapore.
9. Omer-Cooper J. D, “Has the Mfecane a future? A response to
Cobbing critique”, Journal of Southern African Studies,
Vol. 19, No. 2 (June 1993) p.273-294 (22 pages), Taylor and
Francis Ltd.
10. Parsons Neil, A New History of Southern Africa, 1993
(Macmillan Publishers Limited), Malaysia.
11. Shillington Kevin, History of Southern Africa,2002,
(Longman Botswana), Gaborone.
12. Tlou T. and Campbell Alec, History of Botswana, 1984
(Macmillan Botswana Publishers PTY, Ltd,) Gaborone.
13. TLou T. A History of Ngamiland 1750 to 1906: The
formation of an African State, 1985, (Macmillan Botswana),
Gaborone.
14. Thompson L, The History of South Africa, 3rd Edition,
2001, (Yale University Press), Connecticut.

MATSHEKGE HILL SCHOOL HISTORY DEPARTMENT 2021

MOSES NDIRIVA KANDJOU - B.A. HUMANITIES + PGDE (UB) – STI
ANTHONY MORERI BUSANG – B.A. HUMANITIES + PGDE (UB) -
STII
KELETSO KOMBANI – B.A. HUMANITIES+ PGDE
(UB) – STII

Page 137 of 138

Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition
 Matshekge Hill School

Matshekge Hill Senior Secondary School

Private Bag 24,
Bobonong
Tel: 2619224
Fax: 2619544 / 2619618

Page 138 of 138

Compiled by History Department – 2021 Edition