Central Mindanao University

College of Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

Lecture Notes in
CE 93 - Geosynthetics in Geotechnical Engineering

TOPIC IV: GEOMEMBRANE

4.1: INTRODUCTION

4.1.1. Overview
According to ASTM D4439 or the Standard Terminology for Geosynthetics, a
Geomembrane is “—an essentially impermeable geosynthetic composed of one or more
synthetic sheets.”
Geomembranes have a very low permeability synthetic membrane liner or
barrier used with any geotechnical engineering-related material to control fluid (or gas)
migration in a human-made project, structure, or system.

What are they typically made of?

Geomembranes are made from relatively thin continuous polymeric sheets, but they can
also be made from the impregnation of geotextiles with asphalt or elastomer sprays or as
multilayered bitumen geocomposites.

4.1.2. Types of Geomembranes Polymers

Thermoplastic geomembranes can be melted and reformed, recycled and reused, and
welded together, whereas thermoset geomembranes cannot be melted and reformed, cannot be
recycled and reused, and require adhesives to bond.

Thermoplastic Polymers Thermoset Polymers

➢Chlorinated polyethylene (CPE) ➢Ethylene propylen diene monomer

➢Chlorosulphonated polyethylene (EPDM)
(vaCSPE) ➢Ethylene propylen terpolymer (EPT)
➢Linear low density polyethylene ➢Ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA)
(LLDPE) ➢Epichlorohydrin rubber
➢High density polyethylene (HDPE) ➢Isobutylene-isoprene (IIR)
➢Polypropylene (PP) ➢etc.
➢Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)

1
 4.1.3. Geomembrane Surface

Geomembranes are produced in rolls. These rolls will then be unrolled to form flat panels
which are then seamed together. Geomembranes are flexible sheets of watertight material.
However, the surface of a geomembrane is important. If low friction is desired, a geomembrane
with a smooth surface is used. If high friction is desired, a geomembrane with a rough surface
is used.
Another important aspect of geomembrane surface is its color. Geomembranes are
generally black, because they are protected from ultra violet radiation by carbon black, which
consists of fine particles of carbon mixed with the polymer at the manufacturing stage. But black
color exposed to sunlight results in high temperature, which has detrimental effects, such as
accelerated aging and thermal expansion.
Geomembranes with white surface or reflective surface have a lower temperature,
compared to black geomembranes, which is an advantage in hot climates.

2
 4.1.4. Reinforced Geomembrane and Unreinforced Geomembrane

There are two types of geomembrane specification. Reinforced and Unreinforced

Geomembranes. Reinforced geomembrane can either be coated or laminated geomembranes.
Whereas unreinforced geomembrane can either be calendered or extruded.
Coated geomembraes are engineered with a molecular bond between the base fabric
and the outside coating. On the other hand, laminated geomembranes are comprised of an
open base fabric featuring a lighter scrim that is spaced farther apart than that of coated
geomembranes.
Since they are engineered, they are more flexible and durable than unreinforced liners
despite their thickness range falling into 20-60 mil. Their strength are derived from the base
fabric rather than relying on strength derived from thickness alone. Unreinforced
geomembranes has no base fabric present. The strength of the material comes from the overall
thickness of the membrane, with the thickness ranging from 5-200 mil (extruded) and 10-80 mil
(calendered). Another advantage of reinforced geomembranes is the fact that this material can
be prefabricated in a controlled area. This results in reduction of field seaming and installation
mishaps are lessened. On the other hand, unreinforced geomembranes are welded together at
installation sites. This can leave the unreinforced geomembrane susceptible to failures. When
exposed to sunlight for too long, unreinforced geomembranes can experience thermal
expansion and cracking. Due to this, the applications for unreinforced geomembranes should be
limited to avoid any failures or heavy maintenance/replacement costs down the road.
Reinforced geomembranes have a variety of applications, whether it be as a floating
cover or a secondary containment unit. However, reinforced geomembranes reign supreme for
projects where a steep side slope is present. Unreinforced geomembranes have the ability to
collapse under their own weight in steep side slope scenarios, so it’s best to specify a reinforced
geomembrane for these applications to avoid failures.
Unreinforced geomembranes are most commonly specified for projects in which the
geomembrane will be buried, such as landfill liners. It’s important to note that unreinforced
geomembranes can still experience failures due to thermal expansion when buried. You should
also avoid specifying unreinforced membranes as floating covers due to the inevitable direct
exposure to UV and thermal expansion contraction.

4.1.5. Functions of Geomembranes

Despite being called impermeable, polymeric geomembranes are not absolutely

impermeable (actually nothing is), but they are relatively impermeable when compared to
geotextiles or soils, even to clay soils.

The current market for Geomembranes is extremely strong, new applications are
regularly being developed and this is directly reflected in sales volume, geomembranes are
currently the largest segment of geosynthetics as far as product sales are concerned.

Typical values of geomembrane permeability as measured by water-vapor transmission

−12 −15
tests are in the range 1 𝑥 10 to 1 𝑥 10 m/s, which is three to six orders of magnitude lower
than the typical clay liner. Thus, the primary function is always as containment of, or barrier
to, liquids and vapors.

3
 4.1.6. Current Uses

Geomembranes can be used as liquid containment (pond liners), cover for reservoirs
and quasi-solids, water conveyance (canal) liners, solid-material (landfill liners), as a landfill
cover and closure, wet (bioreactor) landfills, underground storage tanks, and other hydraulic and
geotechnical application.

More specifically, Geomembranes have been used in the following environmental,

geotechnical, hydraulic, transportation, and private development applications:

- As liners for potable water

- As liners for reserve water (e.g. safe shutdown of nuclear facilities)
- As liners for waste liquids (e.g. sewage sludge)
- As liners for radioactive or hazardous waste liquids
- As liners for secondary containment of underground storage tanks
- As liners for solar ponds
- As liners for brine solutions
- As liners for the agriculture industry
- As liners for the aquaculture industry
- As liners for golf course water holes and sand bunkers
- As liners for all types of decorative and architectural ponds
- As liners for water conveyance canals
- As liners for various waste conveyance canals
- As liners for primary, secondary, and/or tertiary solid-waste landfills and waste
piles
- As liners for heap leach pads
- As covers (caps) for solid-waste landfills
- As covers for aerobic and anaerobic manure digesters in the agriculture industry
- As liners for vertical walls: single or double with leak detection
- As cutoffs within zoned earth dams for seepage control
- As linings for emergency spillways
- As waterproofing liners within tunnels and pipelines
- As waterproof facing of earth and rockfill dams
- As waterproof facing for roller compacted concrete dams
- As waterproof facing for masonry and concrete dams
- Within cofferdams for seepage control
- As floating reservoir covers for preventing pollution
- To contain and transport liquids in trucks
- To contain and transport potable water and other liquids in the ocean
- As a barrier to odors from landfills
- As a barrier to vapors (radon, hydrocarbons, etc.) beneath buildings
- To control expansive soils
- To control frost-susceptible soils

4
 4.1.7. Service Life
The service life of the geomembrane can be greatly improved by adding
antioxidants, carbon black and other UV packages to help with weatherability.
Geomembranes that are formulated for exposed applications have a typical service life
of 30 years, but there are many examples where they are in operation for beyond 30
years with little to no loss in physical properties.

Many geomembranes are specifically designed for buried applications, where

they are protected from the elements like UV degradation, freezing, wind uplift and
damage from animal or human intrusion thus extending its service life to well beyond
100 years. Also, a thicker material extends the anticipated service life.

4.2: GEOMEMBRANE PROPERTIES AND TEST METHODS

4.2.1: Physical Properties

Physical properties have to do with the geomembrane in an as-manufactured

and/or as-received state. They are important for quality control, quality assurance, and
proper identification.

[Link]: Thickness

Depending on the type of geomembrane, there are three types of

thickness to be considered: the thickness of smooth sheet, the coe thickness of
textured sheet and the thickness (or height) of the asperities of the textured
sheet.

● Smooth Sheet

The thickness of smooth geomembranes is measured

using an enlarged-area micrometer under 20 kPa pressure,
following ASTM D5199 and ISO 09863 standards, with
thicknesses ranging from 0.5 to 3 mm for non-reinforced materials.
Scrim-reinforced geomembranes typically range from 0.91 to 1.5
mm.

● Textured Sheet

For textured geomembranes, thickness is measured using

a tapered-point micrometer per ASTM D5994, focusing on the
minimum core thickness between roughened peaks (asperities),
with typical measurements taken across the roll width for
accuracy.

● Asperity Height

5
 Asperity height in textured geomembranes affects interface
shear strength. A depth gauge micrometer with a 1.3 mm stylus
measures this height by gauging the peaks of the texture. Multiple
measurements are averaged and compared to specification
values.

[Link]: Density

The density or specific gravity of a geomembrane is dependent on the

base material from which it is made. There are distinct differences, however,
even in the same generic polymer. For example, polyethylene comes in several
varieties: very low density, low-density, linear low-density, medium-density, and
high-density. Geomembrane density varies by material, with a typical range of
0.85 to 1.5 mg/l. ASTM D792 and ISO R1183 are standard methods for testing
density, based on Archimedes' principle. ASTM D1505 offers a more accurate
method using a density column. HDPE geomembranes often use MDPE resins,
modified to meet the ASTM density standard of 0.941 mg/l.

[Link]: Melt-Flow Index (MFI)

The melt-flow index (MFI) test, following ASTM D1238, is commonly used
by geomembrane manufacturers to control polymer uniformity and processability.
It measures the flowability of molten polymer by heating it and forcing the fluid
through an orifice under constant weight. The MFI value represents the weight of
material extruded in 10 minutes. Higher MFI values indicate lower polymer
density and molecular weight, providing a basic assessment of polymer
characteristics.

[Link]: Mass per Unit Area (Weight)

The weight of a geomembrane (actually its mass per unit area but
invariably called simply weight) can be determined using a carefully measured
area of a representative specimen and accurately measuring its mass. It is
measured in units of g/m². The test is straightforward to perform and usually
follows ASTM D1910 procedures.

[Link]: Water-Vapor Transmission

The water-vapor transmission (WVT) test, as per ASTM E96, measures

the relative impermeability of geomembranes by using water vapor as the
permanent, focusing on diffusion as the mechanism of permeation. A specimen is
sealed over an aluminum cup containing either water (for 100% relative humidity)
or desiccant (for 0% humidity), with a controlled humidity difference across the
geomembrane. Weight changes over time are monitored to assess vapor
transmission. Test durations typically range from 3 to 40 days.

[Link]: Solvent-Vapor Transmission

6
 Solvent-vapor transmission tests, similar to ASTM E96 for water vapor,
assess a geo membrane's ability to contain organic solvents, which can vary
greatly from water. Accurate sealing is difficult, and specific tests are needed for
each solvent. Research shows HDPE geomembranes effectively block some
solvents but allow rapid diffusion of others. Solutions include using thicker liners,
surface treatments, or double-liner systems.

4.2.2: Mechanical Properties

[Link]: Tensile Behavior (Index)

Many tensile tests performed on geomembrane specimens are quite

small in size and are used routinely for quality control and quality assurance
(conformance) of the manufactured geomembranes. The test procedures
generally used are covered in ASTM D6693 or ISO 527-3 as well as ASTM
D6392, D882, D75l, and D413.

[Link]: Tensile Behavior (Wide-Width)

Tensile tests on wider specimens, such as those 200 mm wide as

specified in ASTM D4885, address limitations of smaller index tests by better
simulating field conditions. Wider specimens are preferred because they avoid
the one-dimensional behavior seen in narrower samples. While tests using a 200
mm width take significantly longer (e.g., 3.3 hours for 200% strain and 16.7 hours
for 1000% strain), they provide more design-relevant data compared to smaller
specimens. The broader width helps generate more accurate stress-strain curves
and better reflects the material's performance in practical applications,
particularly under plane-strain conditions.

[Link]: Tensile Behavior (Axi-Symmetric)

Tensile behavior under axi-symmetric conditions assesses how

geomembranes respond to out-of-plane stresses, such as those from localized
deformations beneath a landfill cover. This is modeled by placing the
geomembrane in a large container, sealing it, and applying pressure through
water or air until failure occurs. This setup simulates real-world conditions where
a geomembrane is subjected to differential subsidence of solid waste material,
providing insight into its performance under such stresses.

[Link]: Tensile Behavior of Seams

The tensile behavior of geomembrane seams is critical, as seams can be

weaker than the geomembrane sheet, particularly in field seams where quality
control is more challenging. To assess seam strength, shear and peel tests are
commonly used, following standards like ASTM D6392, D882, D751, and D413.
Shear tests pull the seamed portion apart, placing it in shear, while peel tests pull
on adjacent ends, placing the seam in tension. Peel tests are generally more
demanding and often reveal that seams are weaker than the parent material.

7
Both tests are important for fully evaluating seam quality, although results can
vary significantly depending on the geomembrane type and seaming method.

[Link]: Tear Resistance

Tear resistance in geomembranes is measured using standards like

ASTM D1004 and D2263. Thin, non-reinforced geomembranes have low tear
resistance (18 to 130 N), requiring careful handling during installation. Scrim
reinforcement greatly improves tear resistance (90 to 450 N). As thickness
increases, tear becomes less critical, shifting focus to design stresses.

[Link]: Impact Resistance

Impact resistance, assessed using methods like ASTM D1709 and ISO
13433, shows that thicker and reinforced geomembranes have higher resistance
to damage from falling objects.

[Link]: Puncture Resistance

Puncture resistance is crucial for geomembranes exposed to debris.

ASTM D4833, commonly used for quality control, measures this by pressing a
rod through the membrane. Non-reinforced geomembranes typically resist 50 to
500 N, while reinforced ones resist 200 to 2000 N. Adding a geotextile layer
significantly improves resistance by absorbing impact before reaching the
geomembrane.

[Link]: Interface Shear

Interface shear strength, essential for designing geomembrane-lined

slopes, measures soil-to-geomembrane friction using a direct shear test. The
setup involves a shear box with the geomembrane on one side and soil on the
other. The box size varies by soil type, with a 100 x 100 mm box generally
recommended, though ASTM D5321 suggests a 300 x 300 mm box unless a
smaller size is justified. Proper testing ensures effective geomembrane
performance and prevents failures.

[Link]: Anchorage

To simulate a geomembrane anchored between materials, a 200 mm

wide geomembrane is placed between back-to-back channels under pressure
with a hydraulic jack, and tension is applied using a testing machine. The test
helps determine the anchorage depth required to mobilize the geomembrane’s
strength, which typically ranges from 50 to 300 mm depending on the material
and stress.

[Link]: Stress-Cracking (Bent Strip)

8
 This ASTM D1693 test measures environmental stress-cracking in
semicrystalline materials like HDPE. Small specimens with a notch are bent into
a U-shape and exposed to a wetting agent at 50°C. The test records how many
specimens crack over time. However, it is no longer recommended for HDPE
geomembranes as it is not a significant challenge for current materials.

[Link]: Stress-Cracking (Constant Load)

A more appropriate and stringent type of stress-cracking test for

polyethylene geomembranes has been developed and adopted for HDPE
geomembrane specifications. It is called the notched constant tension load
(NCTL) test, designated ASTM D5497.

[Link]: Stress-Cracking (Single Point)

The Single-Point NCTL (SP-NCTL) test, outlined in ASTM D5397, offers a

quicker alternative to the full NCTL test for HDPE geomembranes. It uses
notched specimens subjected to a constant load of 30% of yield stress. If the
specimen does not fail within 300 hours, it indicates that the material meets the
stress-cracking resistance required for a longer period. This test simplifies quality
control while still ensuring effective stress-cracking performance.

4.2.3: Endurance Properties

Geomembranes must be monitored for long-term degradation, which can cause

brittleness, reduced elongation, increased modulus, and decreased ductility. Key
concerns include polymer chain scission and additive depletion.

[Link]: Ultraviolet

Ultraviolet (UV) degradation, while a concern, affects geomembranes less

than geotextiles due to their different surface areas. Therefore, temporary UV
protection before placement is typically not required.

[Link]: Radioactive Degradation

High radiation levels (above 10^6 rads) can cause significant polymer
degradation, making geomembranes unsuitable for high-level radioactive waste.
Low-level radioactive waste, however, can be contained using geomembranes,
with various HDPE-lined systems employed since 1979. Limited research on this
topic highlights the need for further studies.

[Link]: Biological

Geomembranes buried in soil may face degradation from various

biological agents:

● Animals

9
 Burrowing animals like mice and rats can damage
geomembranes. Stronger, harder, and thicker geomembranes are
better at resisting such attacks. There are no established test
procedures, but empirical evidence suggests that resilience
depends on the material's hardness relative to the animal's teeth
or claws.

● Fungi

Fungi thrive on organic matter and could potentially

degrade geomembranes placed in decomposing organic residue.
However, high-molecular-weight polymers used in geomembranes
are generally resistant to fungal degradation. ASTM G21 is the
relevant test standard for assessing plastic resistance to fungi.

● Bacteria

With populations exceeding 1 billion per gram of soil,

bacteria are involved in organic transformations. Although
bacterial degradation of geomembranes is less of a concern than
fungal degradation, it can still occur. ASTM G22 assesses plastic
resistance to bacteria. The main issue with bacteria is their
potential to clog drainage systems rather than directly degrading
the geomembrane itself.

[Link]: Chemical

The chemical resistance of a geomembrane vis-a-vis the substance(s) it

is meant to contain is always important, and often it is the foremost aspect of the
design process.

[Link]: Thermal

Thermal effects significantly impact geomembranes due to their polymer

composition. Warm and cold temperatures each have distinct influences, with
heat potentially causing material degradation and cold reducing flexibility, making
seam formation more difficult. Temperature sensitivity must be considered in
geomembrane applications.

● Warm Temperatures

Warm temperatures can cause geomembranes to undergo

changes in physical, mechanical, or chemical properties,
depending on the duration and intensity of heat exposure. ASTM
D794 provides guidelines for evaluating the permanent effects of
heat on plastics, using a tubular oven method (ASTM D1870) that

10
 allows for air circulation. Heat failure is defined by changes that
make the material unsuitable for its intended use. To assess heat
resistance, comparison testing or the use of new samples for each
incubation period, followed by tensile testing, is recommended.

● Cold Temperatures

Cold temperatures typically do not degrade

geomembranes significantly under normal conditions. Tests on
various geomembranes and seam types show no adverse effects
after 500 cold cycles. However, cold reduces flexibility and makes
seaming more challenging, which is the primary concern in
extremely cold conditions. Therefore, it is crucial to test the
proposed seaming method at actual site temperatures on test
specimens to ensure proper seam strength.

● Thermal Expansion and Contraction

Thermal expansion and contraction in geomembranes can

be measured using procedures such as ASTM D2102 and D2259
for contraction, and ASTM D1042 and D1204 for expansion and
dimensional changes. These methods involve exposing the
material to a constant source of heat or cold and measuring
changes in separation between two initial points. This data is
crucial for understanding the effects of temperature fluctuations
during geomembrane installation.

[Link]: Oxidation

Oxidation occurs when a free radical, such as on a carbon atom in the

polyethylene chain, reacts with oxygen, leading to long-term degradation. The
oxygen forms a hydroperoxy radical, which moves through the molecular
structure, eventually reacting with another polymer chain and creating a new free
radical. This chain scission accelerates the degradation process once initiated.

There are two related methods that are used to track the amount and/or
depletion of antioxidants. They are called oxidative induction time (OIT) tests and
are performed with a DSC device.

● Standard O1T (ASTM D3895 or ISO 11357)

The oxidation is conducted at 35 kPa and 200°[Link] test

appears to misrepresent antioxidant packages containing the
synergists and/or hindered amines due to the relatively high test
temperature.

11
 ● High Pressure OIT (ASTM D5885)

The oxidation is conducted at 3500 kPa and 150°C. This

test can be used for all types of antioxidant packages and is the
preferred test. By conducting a series of simulated incubations at
elevated temperatures, OIT testing can be conducted on retrieved
specimens to monitor the antioxidant depletion rate.

[Link]: Synergistic Effects

Synergistic effects in geomembrane degradation occur when multiple

mechanisms, such as chemical degradation, oxidation, elevated temperatures,
and stress, act simultaneously. For instance, a waste containment geomembrane
may experience anaerobic leachate above and oxygen exposure below, leading
to combined chemical and oxidation degradation. Additionally, heat from
decomposing waste and local stress can further complicate the situation.
Understanding these interactions is crucial for accurate lifetime prediction of
geomembranes.

4.3: LIFETIME PREDICTION

Lifetime prediction for geomembranes is challenging due to the long durations needed to
evaluate degradation mechanisms under real-world conditions, particularly with synergistic
effects. To address this, accelerated testing using high stress, elevated temperatures, and
aggressive liquids is essential. These methods expedite the assessment of geomembrane
durability and performance, providing faster data for decision-making. Lifetime prediction
approaches interpret data from these accelerated tests to estimate the long-term behavior of
geomembranes.

Lifetime prediction methods:

● Stress limit testing

A method used by the HDPE pipe industry in the United States for
determining the value of hydrostatic design basis stress [34).

● Rate process method

Used for pipes and geomembranes, the method is comparable to

the above and is common in Europe (35).

● Hoechst multiparameter approach

A method that utilizes biaxial stresses and stress relaxation for

lifetime prediction (36] and can include seams as well [37, 38].

● Arrhenius modeling

12
 The Arrhenius model has been used successfully for failure
mechanisms that depend on chemical reactions, diffusion processes or
migration processes. This covers many of the non-mechanical (or
non-material fatigue) failure modes that cause electronic equipment
failure.

4.3.1: Elevated Temperature Incubation and Arrhenius Modeling

Mitchell and Spanner were the first to simulate in situ conditions of a

geomembrane beneath a landfill using elevated temperature incubation and Arrhenius
modeling. They combined compressive stress, chemical exposure, oxidation, and
elevated temperature over long durations in a single experimental setup. At the
Geosynthetic Research Institute, 20 experimental columns were constructed with
temperatures of 85, 75, 65, and 55°C, under 260 kPa of stress and 300 mm of liquid
head. Test coupons made from 1.5 mm thick HDPE geomembrane were periodically
evaluated for changes in physical, mechanical, and chemical properties to understand
the material's long-term behavior.

4.4: GEOMEMBRANE INSTALLATION

4.4.1: Installation Steps
[Link]: Subgrade Preparation

● Grading and Smoothing

○ The subgrade, which forms the base for the geomembrane, must
be meticulously graded and smoothed to eliminate any sharp
objects, stones, or irregularities that could puncture or damage the
geomembrane once installed. This step is crucial to create a
uniform surface that supports the geomembrane and ensures its
long-term effectiveness.
● Compaction
○ The subgrade must be compacted to the required density to
prevent future settlement, which could lead to differential
movement and strain on the geomembrane. Proper compaction is
critical to maintaining the structural integrity of the geomembrane,
preventing any voids or loose areas that could cause the liner to
shift or wrinkle.
● Moisture Control
○ Achieving the right moisture content in the subgrade material is
essential for optimal compaction. Moisture control helps in
achieving the desired density and ensures that the subgrade
remains stable over time. This step often involves adding or
removing water from the soil and may include the use of fine
materials like sand to smooth out the surface.

13
[Link]: Laying of Protective Geotextile

● Protection Against Damage

○ The protective geotextile layer is laid directly over the prepared
subgrade to serve as a buffer between the subgrade and the
geomembrane. This layer helps to protect the geomembrane from
potential punctures, tears, or abrasion caused by sharp rocks or
uneven surfaces in the subgrade.
● Separation and Filtration
○ Beyond protection, the geotextile acts as a separation layer,
preventing the subgrade materials from migrating upward and
contaminating the geomembrane. This separation is critical in
maintaining the integrity of the geomembrane and preventing
damage that could compromise the barrier’s performance. In
some applications, the geotextile also provides filtration properties,
allowing water to pass through while retaining soil particles.
● Enhancing Durability
○ By distributing the loads applied to the geomembrane and
reducing the risk of punctures, the geotextile enhances the overall
durability of the geomembrane system. This ensures that the
geomembrane performs effectively over its intended lifespan,
reducing the likelihood of maintenance issues or failures.

[Link]: Geomembrane Placement

● Unrolling and Positioning

○ Geomembrane sheets are carefully unrolled over the geotextile
layer, ensuring that the sheets are positioned with minimal tension
to avoid any stress points. During this process, great care is taken
to avoid the formation of wrinkles, folds, or creases, as these can
lead to weak spots in the geomembrane and reduce its
effectiveness as a barrier.
● Alignment and Overlap
○ The sheets must be aligned precisely, with the correct overlap
between adjacent sheets to facilitate effective seaming. The
overlaps are crucial for creating strong, impermeable seams that
prevent leakage. Proper alignment also ensures that the
geomembrane covers the entire area without gaps or exposed
sections.
● Temporary Anchoring
○ To keep the geomembrane in place during installation, temporary
anchoring methods, such as sandbags, are used. This is
particularly important in windy conditions or on sloped surfaces,
where the geomembrane could shift or move before it is fully
secured. Temporary anchoring helps maintain the geomembrane’s

14
 position and tension until the final seaming and permanent
anchoring are completed.
● Final Adjustments
○ Before seaming, any necessary adjustments are made to ensure
the geomembrane is free of imperfections and properly tensioned.
This step involves carefully checking the entire surface for
wrinkles, folds, or misalignments, making any necessary
corrections to ensure the geomembrane lays flat and evenly
across the entire area.

4.4.2: Geomembrane Seams

- One of the critical aspects of geomembrane installation as it can affect the overall
performance of the geomembrane if performed properly.
- Seams are crucial because they are often the weakest points in a geomembrane
system. The effectiveness of a geomembrane in preventing leaks or
contamination largely depends on the strength and durability of these seams.

There are 3 common types of seams:

[Link]: Extrusion Seams

● Extrusion seaming involves the use of an extruder to apply molten

polymer material along the edge of overlapping geomembrane
sheets, bonding them together. This method is particularly
effective for thicker geomembranes, such as those made from
High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE).
● Extrusion seams are commonly used in field conditions where
precise control is needed to ensure a strong bond. They are ideal
for areas requiring patch repairs, corners, or intricate shapes
where other seaming methods might be difficult to implement.
● The primary advantage of extrusion seaming is its ability to create
a robust, homogeneous seam that is often as strong as the parent
material. It is versatile, allowing for the joining of geomembranes
of different thicknesses or materials. However, this method
requires skilled operators to ensure the correct temperature and
pressure, and it can be time-consuming.

[Link]: Thermal Fusion Seams

● Thermal fusion seaming involves using heat to bond

geomembrane sheets together. Two common methods are hot
wedge welding and hot air welding. In hot wedge welding, a
heated wedge is inserted between overlapping sheets, melting the
material, which is then pressed together by rollers to form a seam.

15
 In hot air welding, a stream of hot air is used to melt the
geomembrane surfaces, which are then pressed together.
● Thermal fusion seams are widely used for large-scale projects
where long, continuous seams are required. They are particularly
effective for thinner geomembranes, such as those made from
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) or Linear Low-Density Polyethylene
(LLDPE).
● Thermal fusion seams are known for their high strength and
consistency, making them reliable for critical containment
applications, such as in landfills or pond liners. The process is
efficient and can be automated for large installations, reducing
labor costs and increasing productivity. However, it requires
precise control of temperature and pressure to avoid overheating
or underheating, which could compromise seam integrity.

[Link]: Chemical Seams

● Chemical seaming involves the use of adhesives or solvent-based

chemicals to bond geomembrane sheets. The chemicals dissolve
a thin layer of the geomembrane surface, allowing the sheets to
fuse together as the solvent evaporates, creating a solid bond.
● This method is typically used for geomembranes made of
materials like PVC or Ethylene Propylene Diene Monomer
(EPDM), where thermal welding might not be suitable. It is often
employed in applications requiring flexible, watertight seams, such
as in tunnel linings or certain types of containment systems.
● Chemical seams offer the flexibility to bond geomembranes in
complex configurations, such as around penetrations or tight
corners, where other methods might struggle. They are relatively
easy to apply and do not require specialized welding equipment.
However, the strength of chemical seams can be affected by
environmental factors such as temperature and humidity, and they
may not be as strong as extrusion or thermal fusion seams.
Additionally, the use of solvents and adhesives can pose
environmental and health risks, requiring careful handling and
ventilation.

4.4.3: Installation Equipments

[Link]: Earthmoving Equipments

● Excavators
○ Excavators play a vital role in the initial stages of
geomembrane installation, primarily during subgrade
preparation. They are used to excavate, grade, and shape

16
 the ground surface to create a stable and even base that is
essential for the geomembrane to lay flat and perform
effectively. The precision of excavators ensures that the
subgrade is free of sharp objects or irregularities that could
damage the geomembrane.
○ Additionally, excavators are used to create anchor
trenches along the perimeter of the installation area. These
trenches secure the edges of the geomembrane,
preventing movement and ensuring the liner remains in
place over time.
● Compactors
○ Compactors are used to achieve the necessary density
and stability of the subgrade. Proper compaction is critical
to preventing future settlement, which could lead to
differential movement and potentially damage the
geomembrane. Different types of compactors, such as
plate compactors or roller compactors, may be used
depending on the soil type and project specifications.
○ By compacting the subgrade, compactors help to eliminate
voids and provide a firm, stable base that supports the
geomembrane, reducing the risk of punctures, wrinkles, or
other issues that could compromise the liner’s
performance.

[Link]: Geomembrane Deployment

● Spreader Bars
○ Spreader bars are crucial tools used during the placement
of geomembrane sheets, particularly when dealing with
large and heavy rolls. These bars are typically attached to
cranes or excavators and allow for the even and controlled
unrolling of geomembrane sheets over the prepared
subgrade. The use of spreader bars helps to minimize the
risk of wrinkles, folds, or damage during placement.
○ By evenly distributing the weight of the geomembrane,
spreader bars ensure that the sheets are laid out flat and
aligned correctly, which is essential for creating consistent
and effective seams.
● Rollers
○ Rollers are employed to help smooth out and position the
geomembrane sheets once they have been unrolled. They
can be manually operated or motorized, depending on the
size of the project and the specific requirements. Rollers
ensure that the geomembrane is properly tensioned and

17
 free of air pockets, which is critical for achieving a tight and
uniform fit over the subgrade.
○ The use of rollers also aids in the alignment of the
geomembrane sheets, ensuring that they overlap correctly
for seaming and that the overall installation is completed
efficiently and accurately.

[Link]: Seaming/Welding Equipment

● Extrusion Welders
○ Extrusion welders are used for seaming geomembrane
sheets by applying a bead of molten polymer material
along the seam edge, effectively bonding the sheets
together. This method is particularly suitable for thick
geomembranes, such as those made from HDPE. The
extrusion welder extrudes molten plastic that adheres to
the geomembrane surface, creating a strong, continuous
seam.
○ These welders are essential for field conditions, where
seams need to be robust and capable of withstanding the
stresses of installation and environmental conditions.
Extrusion welders are also commonly used for repairs and
for sealing around complex shapes or penetrations.
● Hot Wedge Welders
○ Hot wedge welders are used to create thermal fusion
seams by inserting a heated wedge between two
overlapping geomembrane sheets, melting the material,
which is then pressed together by rollers to form a seam.
This method is particularly effective for continuous, long
seams and is widely used in large-scale installations, such
as landfills and reservoirs.
○ Hot wedge welders offer precise control over temperature
and pressure, resulting in consistent, high-strength seams
that are essential for ensuring the impermeability of the
geomembrane.
● Hot Air Welders
○ Hot air welders use a stream of heated air to melt the
surfaces of the geomembrane sheets, which are then
pressed together to form a bond. This method is versatile
and can be used for various geomembrane materials,
including those that are more flexible, like PVC or EPDM.
Hot air welders are particularly useful for seaming in areas
with complex geometries or where hot wedge welders
might be impractical.

18
 ○ These welders are also effective for detailed work, such as
corners, edges, or small repairs, providing a reliable and
durable seam. Hot air welders require careful operation to
ensure that the correct temperature and pressure are
applied, as these factors are critical to achieving a strong
and lasting bond.

4.4.4: Geomembrane Manufacturers

[Link]: Global Manufacturers

● Solmax – World High-density Polyethylene Geomembrane

Manufacturer
○ Solmax is a global leader in sustainable solutions for infrastructure
and environmental protection. Solmax’s pioneering products
provide separation, containment, filtration, drainage, and
reinforcement of infrastructure applications more sustainably,
making the world a better place. Solmax was founded in 1981 and
has grown through acquisitions of companies such as GSE,
TenCate Geosynthetics, and Propex. Solmax’s main products
include HDPE high-density polyethylene geomembranes and
LLDPE linear low-density polyethylene geomembranes. Solmax
has more than 40 years of experience in producing high-density
polyethylene geomembranes, and the technical indicators of
Solmax HDPE geomembranes can meet or exceed the GRI-GM13
international standard (GRI-GM13 specification is the globally
recognized international standard for HDPE geomembranes).
Solmax produces standard linear low-density polyethylene
geomembranes that meet or exceed the GRI-GM17 standard (this
standard is the recognized global standard for linear low-density
polyethylene geomembranes).
○
● EarthShield Geosynthetics
○ The company’s main products include smooth geomembranes,
textured geomembranes, composite geomembranes, geotextiles,
woven fabrics, bentonite waterproof blankets, geogrids, geocells,
etc. EarthShield Geosynthetics geomembrane products are widely
used in aquaculture, landfills, biogas tanks, sewage treatment,
drainage systems, municipal engineering, mining, landscaping,
and other fields.
○ With more than 20 years of industry experience, EarthShield
Geosynthetics is committed to providing customers with
high-quality geomembranes, geotextiles, and other geosynthetics
products with professionalism, innovation, and excellent quality as
its creed. Through advanced production technology, rich

19
 experience, and unremitting innovation, we provide the best
geotechnical material solutions for engineering construction
projects in various industries around the world.
● GSE Environmental
○ GSE Environmental, as a global leader in geomembranes,
provides high-quality HDPE and LLDPE geomembranes, which
are widely used in landfills, mining, and water resource
management.
● Maccaferri
○ Maccaferri is a well-known geomembrane manufacturer
specializing in engineering solutions for geotechnical engineering
and environmental issues. Founded by Raffaele Maccaferri in
Bologna, Italy, in 1879, the company has grown into a global
leader in providing erosion control, retaining structures, and soil
stabilization solutions. Maccaferri is particularly known for the
development and production of gabions, which are wire baskets
filled with stones or other materials for civil engineering, road
construction, military applications, and landscaping.
○ For more than 140 years, Maccaferri has been a leading
international supplier of advanced solutions for the civil,
geotechnical, and environmental construction markets. Maccaferri
provides innovative, durable, and environmentally friendly
solutions, from retaining walls to hydraulic engineering, from
rockfall mitigation systems to soil reinforcement.
● Agru
○ Agru is a US-based geomembrane manufacturer that specializes
in the production of high-quality polyethylene geomembranes for
waste management, water treatment, and civil engineering
projects.
○ AGRU America produces a variety of geomembranes for different
applications, focusing on durability, chemical resistance, and easy
installation. Its geomembrane products include smooth and
textured options made of high-density polyethylene (HDPE) and
linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE). AGRU America’s
geomembranes meet or exceed industry standards to ensure
reliable performance in demanding applications (AGRU America).
● Atarfil – Global leader in the manufacturing of geomembranes by
calendering
○ Atarfil is a multinational company that produces plastic
geomembranes made of polyolefins (high-density polyethylene
HDPE, linear low-density polyethylene LLDPE, very low-density
polyethylene VLDPE, and polypropylene PP) for secure
containment applications to ensure environmental protection
during the storage and packaging of domestic, industrial and

20
 mining waste, or for high-standard waterproofing applications
related to water conservancy projects, such as water storage
tanks, sewers and water treatment.

[Link]: Local Manufacturers

● Geomembrane Philippines Inc.

○ Geomembrane Philippines Inc. offers a wide range of pond liners
that are durable, flexible, and resistant to UV radiation, chemicals,
and punctures. These liners are manufactured to international
standards and are suitable for various projects, including
residential and commercial ponds, water gardens, and agricultural
reservoirs.
● EPI Geomembrane Philippines
○ EPI Geomembrane Philippines is a reputable supplier of
geosynthetic products, including HDPE liners. They offer
high-quality liners designed to provide superior containment and
environmental protection. EPI Geomembrane Philippines ensures
that their HDPE liners meet international standards and are
manufactured with state-of-the-art technology. Their liners are
resistant to punctures, tears, and chemical degradation, making
them suitable for various applications in sectors such as
agriculture, construction, and water management.
● The Best Project Material Co., Ltd (BPM Geosynthetics)
○ The Best Project Material Co., Ltd (BPM Geosynthetics) is a
company that specializes in the production and supply of various
construction materials. The company offers a wide range of
construction materials, including geosynthetics, geotextiles,
geomembranes, geogrids, and other related products. These
materials are commonly used in civil engineering, environmental
projects, landscaping, and other construction applications.
● Vertigrow
○ Vertigrow Geomembranes are impermeable geosynthetics that
were mainly used as canal and pond liners but due to the
advancement in our technology it has expanded the applications
to include wastewater treatment lagoons, landfills, aquaculture
and irrigation ponds.
○ Produced from high density polyethylene resin with carbon black
antioxidant properties and UV- Resistant materials which exhibit
impermeable and ultraviolet resistance.
● Fabrimetrics Phils Inc.
○ Geomembranes are made of premium Polyethylene (HDPE or
LLDPE) resins which are specifically processed. These materials
are excellent in retaining water and prevent seepage by creating
an Impermeable Liner.

21
 ○ Geomembranes provide an effective and efficient solution for
waterproofingSave layer on various applications. This product has
a range of thickness of 0.5mm-3.00mm.
○ Fabrimetrics Phils., Inc. also provides experienced technicians
and personnels for geomembrane installation.
● GEOSINO New Material Co.,Ltd ( GEOSINCERE)
○ GEOSINO New Material Co.,Ltd was established in 2007.
Geosincere began to produce a series of HDPE Linerproducts
when the factory was established, with an annual production
capacity of 24,000 tons. Using advanced blown film production
equipment, the HDPE Liner product thickness control is ±5%; the
size control is ±1%. The width is 8m, and the thickness is from
0.5mm to 3.0mm. It can produce HDPE geomembrane, LLDP
geomembrane, two-color and colored geomembrane, conductive
HDPE Linerand other series of products, with performance better
than GRI-GM13 and GRI-GM17 international standards.
Geosincere geomembrane specializes in the production of
geomembranes and membrane materials, and its advanced
laboratories ensure strict manufacturing quality.

22