Course: Writing and Editing for Media – Module 2 and 4 (2024)

(Reference Notes – Rhutuja Koli)

Program BAMMC
Year SYBAMMC
Semester IV
Paper CORE VIII DSC D1
Course Code BAMMC WEM-402
Total Marks 100 (60: 40)
Number of Lectures 48

COURSE OUTCOME
1. Provide the ability to understand writing styles that fit various media platforms.
2. It would help the learner acquire information gathering skills and techniques.
3. On completion of this course, students will be able to understand similarities and differences
in writing for all forms of media including internet and digital.
4. The learner will gather knowledge of different news and copy formats along with appropriate
style-sheets and layout.
5. The learner will imbibe the importance of writing clearly, precisely and accurately for
different types of audiences
6. Provide acquire basic proficiency in proof-reading and editing.
II WRITING FOR BROADCAST MEDIA

1. Radio and Television: Challenges, strengths and weaknesses

2. Writing for Television and Radio programs
3. Script writing formats
4. Writing for interviews, live news and daily news
5. Radio jockeying / online radio and new trends
Storyboarding for Television commercials

1. Radio and Television: Challenges, strengths and weaknesses

Radio is the technology of signaling and communicating using radio waves. Radio waves are
electromagnetic waves of frequency between 30 hertz (Hz) and 300 gigahertz (GHz). They are
generated by an electronic device called a transmitter connected to an antenna which radiates
the waves, and received by another antenna connected to a radio receiver.
From its birth early in the 20th century, broadcast radio astonished and delighted the public
by providing news and entertainment with an immediacy never before thought possible. From
about 1920 to 1945, radio developed into the first electronic mass medium, monopolizing “the
airwaves” and defining, along with newspapers, magazines, and motion pictures, an entire
generation of mass culture. About 1945 the appearance of television began to transform radio’s
content and role. Broadcast radio remained the most widely available electronic mass medium
in the world, though its importance in modern life did not match that of television, and in the
early 21st century it faced yet more competitive pressure from digital satellite- and Internet-
based audio services.
Based on the human voice, radio is a uniquely personal medium, invoking a listener’s
imagination to fill in mental images around the broadcast sounds. More readily and in a more
widespread fashion than any other medium, radio can soothe listeners with comforting dialogue
or background music, or it can jar them back into reality with polemics and breaking news. Radio
also can employ a boundless plethora of sound and music effects to entertain and enthrall
listeners. Since the birth of this medium, commercial broadcast companies as well as government
organs have made conscious use of its unique attributes to create programs that attract and hold
listeners’ attention.
Radio broadcasting began in India in 1922. The Government owned radio station All India
Radio dominated broadcasting since 1936 but through privatization and deregulation has
allowed commercial privately owned talk and music stations to reach large audiences.
Strengths of Radio:

1. Radio Makes Pictures/ Medium of Sound and Voice/ Visual Interpretation

Radio is a sightless or a viewless medium. In radio, either the performer or listener cannot see
each other. Therefore, it is called blind medium. Since it is a blind or sightless medium, the
performer as well as listener has to creatively imagine each other. Imagery is the most potent
tool of radio, which helps stimulate the imagination. It is an exclusive medium of the sound. It is
an aural or auditory medium, a medium of the ear. There are three major elements of a radio
broadcast: spoken-word, music and sound effects. They are all sounds carried on the air waves
to the listener.

2. Radio speaks to individual/ An intimate medium

Unlike TV, where viewer is observing something coming out of the box over there, the sight and
sound of radio are created within us, and can have greater impact and involvement. To the
listener, it seems that as if the broadcaster is broadcasting for each listener individually. Radio
has a personal touch for its audience. It is called a personal medium, as the broadcasters speak
conversationally and one to one manner. The radio perceives the audience as singular. When the
broadcaster broadcasts the news on the radio, he keeps in mind that personal touch is important,
so he does not broadcast for the masses but individuals.

3. The speed of radio/ Medium of immediacy

It can report the event almost instantly, as they are happenings. So, it is the medium of the “here
and now”. The radio is enormously flexible medium and is often at its best in the totally
immediate live situation. The immediacy element plays a cardinal role in the virtue of news as
people are interested in the recent event and happenings in their local communities, state,
nation, and all around the world. Radio provides news to the listeners on an immediate basis. It
gives information as to when the event occurs. People tune in to their radio news stations to
listen to the updates. The news broadcasted is simple, short and concentrates more on the facts.

4. Radio is a mobile medium / no boundaries

Radio can accompany and entertain anywhere. One can have it at home, at picnic resort, while
driving or at any other occasion. It can accompany you and entertain you anywhere as a never-
failing companion. Radio signals have no terrestrial limits. Its signal can clear mountain barriers
and may cross ocean deeps.
 5. Simple language and reach of Illiterates

Especially in developing countries, with its language being simple, live and direct, it can reach
illiterate and semi-literate people. The radio holds the edge by reaching it to illiterates. Literacy
is not a prerequisite for listening to radio. The popularity of radio increases in less economically
regions and developing societies. The illiterate people show an inclination towards radio as it
passes the hurdle of illiteracy. The news and relevant information reach the nook and corner with
the lowest possible cost.

6. Radio is inexpensive/ Low-cost medium

As it is simple, it is also a cheaper medium. The cost of production is low and a small radio can be
bought for as low a price as say fifty rupees. The most significant advantage of radio news is that
it is available to people at a low cost and remotely. The radio sets are available to ordinary people
at affordable prices through which the news reaches the common people at a low cost. The
advancement of technology made radio production and transmission at minimum possible rates.

7. Local Medium

The community radio is a service in the local area for the people of the community. It informs
people about the latest happenings in their local language. The community people also get
helpful information and tips about their local profession, for example, sharing of information to
the local farmers about the crops, seeds, soil and weather information. The community radio's
broadcast language is the local language spoken by the person, which helps in better
understanding among people.

8. Radio speaks to millions/ A Mass Medium

Radio reaches a wide range of listeners; and is one of the media which covers huge population.
Specific stations and shows appeal to a narrower demographic, so if you have a particular target
market – age, ethnicity, income, gender – you can tailor your ad-buying to the shows your desired
customers are most likely to listen to. Radio advertising representatives should be able to provide
you with demographic breakdowns, showing who listens to which show and when your ad spots
will produce the best results for your business.
Weaknesses of Radio:

1. A one chance medium / Low attention audience

You have only one chance to listen on radio. What is said on radio does not exist any longer;
unless you record it. The words have momentary life. So that is one of the greatest limitations or
weaknesses of radio. It’s momentary nature or to put it differently –radio is a one chance
medium. A listener has just one chance to receive the message and understand it.

2. Radio has no visual images/ Messages on radio are easily forgotten

Anything seen on television is more effective than what you hear on radio. It is said that “a picture
is worth a thousand words”. It is also said that ‘‘seeing is believing’’. So when you see something,
it is more believable than what you hear. So having no visuals is a major limitation of radio. The
problem of not having visuals leads to another limitation of radio. What is seen is often
remembered and may remain with us. But what you hear is normally forgotten fast. So, this is
another limitation of radio. Messages heard on radio are easily forgotten.

3. Poor performance on the part of announcers

Presenters or participants in a radio programme can be boring or uninteresting that it can result
in listeners switching off their radio sets. So, listeners’ interest depends up on
how information or messages are presented.

4. Only audio medium

Radio broadcasts are of no use to people who have no sense of hearing

especially those with hearing disabilities. The foremost limitation of radio is that it entirely
depends on the sense of hearing. Broadcast is not reinforced by the powerful medium of sight.
Comprehension and assimilation, therefore, require more efforts.

5. Limited by Imagination

On radio, one has to use one's imagination after listening to other accounts. On TV, one does not
even need a commentator, whereas on radio a commentator and a few sound effects are
essential for the listener to follow the content presented. The same is true of color, sense of
space, a situation, or appearances. A listener can only use his or her imagination, which may or
may not give a true picture. There can be gaps between illusion and reality. At times, a facial
expression, body language can communicate muttered messages. Both, the broadcaster and the
listener, have to constantly keep in mind that what is being conveyed will have to be heard,
understood and remembered instantly.

6. Radio lacks space

Radio is bound of time and lack of space. It can allow less space to advertisement and personal
announcements than paper.

Challenges of Radio:

1. Generating listenership

Generating a listener base for radio is a challenge with the advent of other media gaining
popularity among the masses. Terrestrial radio stations can easily garner listenership in the
thousands as long as their towers cover an area effectively. But in terms of online radio stations
generating lots of listenership is tricky. Long before Instagram, YouTube, smartphones, gaming
consoles, and other modern distractions, radio was a popular means of entertainment for the
youth. The youth of today have a wide range of options, and sadly listening to the radio is one of
the many. And both terrestrial and web radio stations might face problems appealing to this age
group.

Private FM channels accounts for only 30% listenership in India. This means a larger audience is
still not under their reach. A major cause of this problem is molding of private channel on a certain
theme. Being theme based is good as it gives you one direction in which one has to frame the
programmes but on the other hand it also ties your hands in respect of creativity and production
of programme for different genre. Bad content, Language issue and government policies are big
hurdles in the way of radio industry.

2. Stiff competition from streaming service

Radio stations have to compete for attention from streaming services such as Pandora, Spotify,
etc. These algorithm-driven services give listeners the choice of millions of songs. Some even
allow listeners to create “radio stations” based on a single song. For a long time, terrestrial
broadcasters have emphasized more music and less talk. However, music is now widely available.
The only way stations can rise above these streaming services is to provide what they can’t:
personality, local content such as news, meaningful relationships with their audience, etc.
 3. Lack of a strong brand

Brand identity is key, and stations must work to create strong brands. It starts with a clearly
defined image, voice, and personality. There should be consistency in the station’s image across
its social media accounts, website, merch, etc. The music played must reflect the station’s overall
style. Presenters must mold the station’s personality. For instance, you’ll find that at hot hits
stations, the radio hosts are full of energy & always pumped in their delivery. Radio imaging
should be also top-notch. The station must create ear-catching jingles. Station IDs must be played
regularly to ground the station’s name & format in the listener’s mind.

4. Quality Content

In media it is said that content is supreme. If you have a strong content the audience will
automatically follow you and this is the area were radio industry lacks. In today s world the
channels are not having enough variety and content to give the customers. A radio channel is
mainly regarded as all about music and art. Majority of the content it is still about music. Till now
radio industry has managed to keep its head out of water but day by day listeners are diverting
towards alternatives because technology like web radio and internet streaming provide them
with a vast range of choice to opt from.

5. Excessive advertisements

In the race of making profit the channels

have forgot their objectives. Turn on any channel and there will be regular
bombardment of advertisements which eventually compels you to tune in some other channel
and situation is no different there also, repeated jokes, same old stuff, repeated songs are making
the situation worse only. We can also listen to same song on same channels at same time for a
couple of days or may be at a difference of ten minutes.

1. Television: Challenges, Strengths and Weaknesses

Television, sometimes shortened to TV or telly, is a telecommunication medium used for

transmitting moving images in black-and-white or in color, and in two or three dimensions and
sound. The term can refer to a television set, a television show, or the medium of television
transmission. Television is a mass medium for advertising, entertainment, news, and sports.

Television became available in crude experimental forms in the late 1920s, but it would still be
several years before the new technology would be marketed to consumers. After World War II,
an improved form of black-and-white television broadcasting became popular in the United
Kingdom and United States, and television sets became commonplace in homes, businesses, and
institutions. During the 1950s, television was the primary medium for influencing public opinion.
In the mid-1960s, color broadcasting was introduced in the U.S. and most other developed
countries. At the end of the first decade of the 2000s, digital television transmissions greatly
increased in popularity. Another development was the move from standard-definition television
(SDTV)) to high-definition television (HDTV), which provides a resolution that is substantially
higher. Since 2010, with the invention of smart television, Internet television has increased the
availability of television programs and movies via the Internet through streaming video services
such as Netflix, Amazon Video, etc.

Strengths of Television:

1. Grabs attention

One of the biggest advantages of TV ads is the ability to call out to your audience right where
they are. It's akin to tapping them on the shoulder and saying, "Hey, come look at this!" It is a
visual medium which allows for a creative production approach

2. Combines sight and sound

TV is intrusive, capable of interrupting whatever else a viewer might be doing to watch and listen
to. It combines both the visual and verbal senses making a better impact on the audience. It is an
audio-visual medium.

3. Fosters emotion and empathy

TV shares walking, talking messages. The content determines how you want your audience to
react. Smile. Laugh. Cry. Take action. You can make it lighthearted or even humorous, thought-
provoking or heartbreaking. You can try to do that with print, but you can't control how the words
are read, with the proper emphasis and pauses for emotion. You can put the emotion into radio,
but without the visual effect it's just not as powerful. As an entertainment medium, it is very
acceptable psychologically.

4. Domestic mass medium

One of the big advantages of television is the huge audience that can be reached instantaneously.
TV can be targeted to specific audiences surprisingly well. It has immediate distribution which
can be massive. Television is now a days one of the widely used communication media. Useful
information can be reached to millions of people directly by TV. It has a large national audience
network as well as reach

5. Spectacular medium – sound, animation, motion and color

It is combination of various aspects when used to together in harmony creates a very lasting
impact of the audience.

Weaknesses of Television:

1. Expensive, both in production and utilization

It requires a fully developed TV network and electric supply to operate a television. TV receivers
are expensive than other broadcast mediums. Producing content on television requires a lot of
effort. Multiple people have to be hired from script writers, actors, director, etc. Rehearsing,
shooting and retakes take an entire day or more. It's time-consuming and expensive.

2. Non-interactive medium.

The audience cannot interact with the content. It’s a one-way communication. The feedback is
delayed.

3. Non-Portable

Television cannot be easily carried from one place to the other unlike newspaper or radio. Thus
making it one of its weakness.

Challenges of Television:

1. Digitization and technological advancements

The biggest challenge that affects the Television media industry is digitization and technological
advancements. Technology never remains static, televisions which were very popular once, have
not much in style in the present day. The channels now have their own mobile application
through which users can watch the shows from any device, anywhere and this does not look good
for this traditional medium of communication. OTT platforms have become quite popular
amongst the younger generation. The customers have become tech savvy and since now
everything is on their fingertips, it is easier for them to decide what electronics are best suited
according to their lifestyle, what is pocket friendly and what return do they get out of their
investment.

2. Cheaper alternatives

This is another challenge for the industry; the customers have realized that television sets are
expensive and which are not-so-expensive might need added accessories like speakers and home
theatre etc. The other electronics are cheaper and come with newer technologies. The
subscription of these OTT platforms and the mobile applications is not very expensive as
compared to paying for a TV channel package.

3. Fresh content

The customer’s flavor is changing every day; they are not anymore fully satisfied with
conventional broadcasting. They want, rather need, fresh content each time they log in; on their
laptops, tablets, mobile phones, social media TV etc. That being said, customers now do not have
the time to sit in front of the LED TV and view content, they rather prefer television-on-the-go.

2. Writing for Television and Radio programs

Writing for Radio Programs

Radio writing simply means writing in the language of radio. Radio writing is different from any
other kind of writing. It is also true that radio writing is more difficult and challenging than other
kinds of writing. This is so because radio is an aural medium. Also, there is the absolute necessity
to remain within the time duration allotted for the programme. Moreover, you have to deliver a
powerful message or convince the audience through spoken words only. The writing also varies
according to the format.

When writing a script for the radio, you should always bear one thing in mind: you are writing for
listeners – not for readers. The listeners will only hear your text once and they will have to
understand it immediately. In radio, the speed at which the listeners have to digest the
information is determined by the speaker. And everyone has to listen to everything. Radio texts
have to be well presented, logically structured and easy to understand. If listeners stumble over
unfamiliar words or cannot follow your train of thought, you lose their attention. And even if the
listeners are only disoriented for a moment, the speaker on the radio meanwhile continues
reading. So it will be difficult for the listeners to catch up with the context, once they are ready
to concentrate again. Ultimately, much of your message will be lost on the listeners.

Most of the radio listeners are engaged in some other simultaneous activities as well.
Therefore, the radio writer has to shoulder a double responsibility. Firstly, from the very
beginning of the programme, by sheer magic of his/her words he/ she has to attract the listeners
towards the programme, and, after that keep them engaged in it till the end. Further, the content
of a radio programme has to be understood by the listeners then and there, in real time, during
the process of listening itself. Hence in radio writing there is no scope for difficult words, long
sentences, unknown references, etc. A radio script has to be in a language we use to speak or
talk to each other. That is why the language of radio script is called ‘Spoken Word’. It should be
friendly and informal. Another challenge for a radio writer is the wide diversity of listeners – from
scholarly intellectuals to illiterates - so a radio writer has to find a balance in his writing so that it
can appeal to a wide spectrum of society.

In radio, simplicity wins. Simple words, clear short sentences and a logical structure are necessary
to get information across. Radio scripts should be informal, direct and polite. When you write
your script and when you present it on the air, imagine that you are talking to one individual
listener: your neighbor, your friend or your aunt. When you present your script on the air, think
of that one concrete person. Talk, as if you were addressing just that one person.

Radio language should be very close to spoken language. Write as you would speak. However,
this does not mean that you can slip into colloquial slang. Aim for straightforward simplicity and
avoid long, complicated sentences and specialist jargon. When writing your script, you should
always know what language is appropriate for your target group. If you use words that your
listeners do not understand or language that they find offensive, you alienate them and not get
your message across. You need to keep in mind what your listeners’ religious, moral and ethnic
sensibilities are. Carelessness can cause great harm and damage your radio station’s image and
credibility.

Every Radio programme is in fact a message to the listeners. If this message is communicated to
and understood by the listeners and also appreciated, then that radio writing can be considered
effective and fruitful. A message through radio or any other medium, have certain codes form
the sender of the message and one who receives the message decodes them. There are four
basic elements which constitute radio programmes:
i. Spoken words
Words are the most important part of any radio programme. These words are different from
printed words because they reach a listener through a ‘human voice’ and thus are ‘spoken
words’. Words of radio form a double code. One, their own meaning embellished by the beauty
of language and second, the voice in which these are rendered. Thus, the quality of voice as
well as delivery of words can make the language of radio more effective, depending on the style
of presentation. In brief we may say that:
• Words used in a radio programme are spoken words.
• These give a feel of human presence.
• These also reflect some aspects of the speaker’s personality.
• These may tell us about the ‘broadcast stations’ or even the country from where the
broadcast is coming.

ii. Sound effect

Because radio is a blind medium with no visuals, appropriate sound effects enrich the visuals
created by spoken words in listeners’ minds. Radio plays and documentaries take immense help
from suitable sound effects.

iii. Music

Music also helps in developing the language of radio. For example, a musical piece of just 30
seconds, which is played as a ‘signature tune’, identifies not only the broadcast institution but
also the individual programme. Similarly, the effect of an opening or dropping curtain in a
theatre is achieved by ‘fade in’ and ‘fade out’ of music in a radio drama. The background music
in a radio drama is helpful in making a scene lively.

iv. Pause or Silence

Radio is a sound medium but absence of any sound is also an important part of language of
radio. This really is the most interesting contradiction that no radio programme can be
imagined without natural and even deliberate pauses or silences. Pause is an integral part of
the grammar of radio. The use of a comma or full stop in print is replaced by that of a pause in
radio.

Radio listeners may be engaged in some other activities while listening to radio; therefore, we
should keep our words simple and friendly as in our normal conversation. Long and
complicated sentences need to be avoided. Short sentences and simple words are essential
requirements of radio language.

There are many formats of radio programmes and these formats are created by combinations of
the four elements of radio i.e., spoken word, sound effect, music and pause. Pause is a
compulsory element for all the formats. If we take only spoken words (no sound effect, no music),
we get the following formats:

1. Radio Talk
2. Dialogue
3. Interview
4. Discussion
5. News Bulletin

If we combine spoken words with sound effects, we have the following formats:
1. Quiz
2. Radio Report
3. Live Commentary

If we combine spoken words, sound effects and music, then we have:

1. Radio Feature/Documentary
2. Radio Drama
3. Radio Spots (Advertisements/commercials)
4. Radio Serial
5. Docudrama
6. Newsreel

Every Radio format has its own attraction and requirements. We choose a format as per available
airtime, subject or theme, target audience, etc. Thus, while a radio advertisement may be of just
30 seconds duration, a radio play may be 15 minutes to 1 hour long, and a talk may usually be of
4 to 9 minutes. We have to understand a particular radio format before writing a script for it. It
has to be understood here that certain formats of radio programmes have to be unscripted by
their very nature. For instance, running commentary of a sports or non-sports event cannot be
pre-scripted as it is essentially a live description of what is happening on the spur of the moment.
However, proper preparation and having detailed background material are indispensable for
running commentaries also. Similarly, interviews and discussions are also extempore formats but
systemically preparing talking points is essential for these, so that invaluable radio time is put to
optimum use.
Identifying the listeners:

After learning about the broad categories of programmes, radio writers should also know about
the programmes for special audiences. Whenever we plan a programme and write a script for it,
we have to keep in mind the listeners of that programme. Certain programmes are for all the
listeners but many are targeted at special groups of audience. When we write for a particular
audience group, we also need to identify various sub-groups and their particular requirements.
For example, radio stations have programmes for women but all women may not have identical
interests. A housewife may have some requirements but a working woman may have different
requirements. Similarly, needs of an unemployed youth would be different from those of a young
person holding a good job.

Research for a script:

Any radio script can be effective on the basis of its content, which depends on the research
about the subject. To find out unknown, rare facts on a given subject, one should consult books
on the subject, go through magazines for relevant articles, consult subject matter specialists,
visit a particular place or tourist spot or historical building concerning the subject and so on.
Formats like documentaries require deep and detailed research. But, even for writing a radio
talk of 5 minutes, the importance of research can’t be ignored. If we write for radio without
proper knowledge of facts, it will only be a ‘play of words’, which would be unethical and will
almost mean cheating the listeners.

Attractive beginning:

After you have done proper research on a subject and get down to write a script for radio, the
most important aspect is an attractive beginning. Attractive beginning is important for all mass
media but in a radio programme it is very crucial as this medium has no visual dimension like
television or cinema and, hence, the opening few lines of a radio programme often decide the
fate of the entire programme. A very formal beginning of the radio programme has very little
chance of being attractive. Whatever be the subject, the beginning should be such that it
connects immediately with the listener, creates curiosity, touches emotions and forces the
listener to pay attention and start listening to the programme.

Maintaining the Flow of Script:

An attractive beginning catches the attention of the audience and makes them
listen to our programme, but that is not all. We have to ensure that our listener continues to
listen to the whole programme with maximum possible attention. If after a good beginning, the
writer is not able to maintain the flow and the progression of the script does not arouse any
curiosity then the programme will not achieve its objective. Hence, it is necessary for a radio
writer to ensure that along with the use of informal and friendly language, relevant and
interesting facts on the subject continue to be presented in an attractive manner so that the
listener remains engrossed in the broadcast. The talker may be a very renowned and
knowledgeable person but while broadcasting he/she should use interactive phrases such as just
to establish a friendly rapport with the listener and make them a partner in discussing the subject.

Basic rules of a Radio script:

a) Use simple words:

Easier simple and common words should be used. We
need to remember how we talk, not how we write. Radio is a medium whose
least common denominator audience are the laymen, using simple words is really important.

b) Use short sentences:

Sentences should avoid conjunctions as much as possible. The sentences should ideally be of a
length appropriate for talking. Unlike print we cannot go back to the sentence and rehear it.
Repeat important terms. It is confusing for radio listeners, if you replace nouns or names with
pronouns. It is better to repeat the name or noun. This may not sound elegant, but it
guarantees clarity.

c) One idea per sentence:

One sentence should carry one idea. Never clutter one sentence with too many ideas.

d) Avoid sound clashes:

Read your copy aloud for awkward sounds. Be sparing in the use of ‘s’ ‘th’ and ‘ing’ sounds.
Avoid words like ‘thrust’, ‘wrists’ and ‘frisked’ all of which are difficult to pronounce.

e) Use present tense:

This is especially relevant for news bulletins, particularly the headlines. For conveying the
immediacy and to drive home the urgency of news, use of present tense is a cardinal rule. For
example:
The Monsoon Session has commenced (commences)
We have responsibility for quality.... (are responsible)
The Prime Minister has inaugurated the project (inaugurates)
f) Use active voice:
Scripts should be written in active voice, for example: -
A new governor was appointed by the President.... (President appointed)
Ten shops were destroyed by a fire ... (A fire destroyed)
A meeting will be held by the teachers.... (Teachers will hold a)

g) Avoid stock phrases, superfluous words and clichés.

Do not use words that we tend to use every day while writing in English (which is not
exhaustive):

Stock Phrases:
“Follow in x’s footsteps”- just follow
“Ground rules”- just rules

Superfluous words:
It is a true fact
In a week’s time
First priority
Past History

h) Numbers and figures

Radio is not the medium for detailed figures and numbers. Therefore, it is better to concentrate
just on two or three key few figures in a radio script – those that are absolutely necessary – and
leave the rest to the printed press or online articles. If you have to mention numbers or figures
in your script, it’s usually better to round the numbers off if this is possible without changing
the information content of your message.
E.g.: Instead of “7123 people have signed a petition against the construction of the new
factory.”
Use “Well over 7000 people have signed a petition against the construction of the new
factory.
However, there are cases in which it is essential to give the listener exact numbers and figures –
sometimes up to the second or third decimal point. This applies particularly to election results,
inflation rates and wage agreements. Percentages frequently sound abstract to radio listeners.
Wherever possible, try to avoid them in your scripts.
E.g.: Instead of “50 %” use “half”
Instead of “66 %” use “Two thirds”
Precautions for Final Draft:

Once you have written and evaluated your script for a radio programme and found it suitable
for broadcast, keep the following precautions in mind while preparing a final draft:

1. Script should be typed or written only on one side of a sheet so that no noise is recorded
while turning the pages.
2. It is better to finish a paragraph on the same page. If that is not possible, at least, the
sentence should be completed. Carrying an incomplete sentence on to the next page should be
avoided because it will create a break in the flow of reading at the time of recording. A new
page should always begin with a new sentence.
3. Nothing should be written which is against the code of conduct of the concerned broadcast
organization.
4. Decency of language should always be maintained.
5. Nothing should be written which can hurt the sentiments of any community or ridicule any
disabled person even if it is a programme of humor or satire.

News Writing on Radio:

In India, the leading radio news channels are All India Radio, Vividh Bharti, FM Gold, Radio
India, all FM Channels.

The story's length is short of around 5-6 sentences and 25-30 seconds. It also follows the dramatic
unity style as followed by the other mediums of news. The most important information comes
first, followed by the current information, the background information and other related
information. The story proceeds from the essential facts to the least important. The news story
answers the 5W’s and 1H: What, Why, Who, Where, When and How. The news story is brief,
objective refrain from any comments or opinions. Too much jargon, numbers and dates are
avoided, which may confuse the listener. Before the presentation of the news story on the radio,
the news item is checked for the following points:

1) The news story is updated and relevant.

2) It follows the inverted pyramid style
3) The news story is well researched.
4) It contains relevant facts which make it reliable.
5) The news story is neutral and does not contain any personal opinion.
6) The news item is short.
7) The presentation is done in the proper context, into the broader radio broadcast.
UNESCO has documented suggestions on radio production to ensure the quality of radio scripts.
a) The use of easy words and colloquial language helps in easy understanding by people.
b) The length of sentences should be short
c) The dependent clauses and clumsy inversions should be avoided, used in a written matter to
give detailed information. The radio scripts are more precise and do not confuse the listener.
d) Use descriptive words wherever possible, which further helps in sketching pictures in the
listeners' minds.
e) The rhythm of the speech should flow with the fluency of poetry. It carries the listener along,
holding its attention.
f) A radio script should highlight the element of immediacy.

Writing for Television:

Media programme writers and producers use a variety of formats for presentation of their
programmes. Producers and writers of educational programmes often use an individual format
or a combination of two or more formats which best suit their requirements of a particular
topic or subject. At the initial programme development stage itself, a writer must devote some
time to thinking over the choice of a suitable format for the effective presentation of his
programme content. Decisions on the format are generally guided by the nature of the specific
subject-matter, its requirements and objectives, interests of the audiences and lastly and more
importantly the availability of appropriate production resources. Some of the standard formats
used for presenting television programmes are:

i ) Story/straight talk: Straight talk or the story format generally uses one person as a narrator.
Illustrated talks, special reports, newscasts and presenter-graphic-presenter-type programmes
are covered under this category. To add a little variety, sometimes two persons/ voices are
used for presentation of materials supported by appropriate visuals. Fully scripted in advance,
stories and talks are often used for presenting a variety of educational materials.

ii) Interview: In this format, two people - an interviewer and an interviewee-are engaged in a
face-to-face dialogue. The interviewer talks to the interviewee on behalf of the viewers or
listeners and attempts to elicit from the interviewee interesting information relevant to the
topic under discussion. The interview format is useful for presenting programmes on current
affairs, or such information and educational programmes in which a living scholar, scientist or
expert talks to the audience, enhancing the interest and the credibility of the programme.
Interviews are generally not scripted. Only the opening and concluding questions and remarks
are written down and sometimes rehearsed. The rest of the programme is extempore and
unscripted and much depends on the interviewer's confidence, skill and preparation. Relevant
questions framed with clarity, arranged logically and asked with confidence, tact and
spontaneity, are at the heart of a good interview.

iii) Panel discussion: This is an extension of the interview format. Here, a select panel consisting
or three or more experts discusses some subject matter of public interest or controversy. A
panel discussion brings people of differing opinions and viewpoints on to one platform. The
panel chairman guides and moderates discussions. It requires no script but the moderater or
the host should prepare thoroughly. He should be very alert, well-informed, and tactful and
should remain in full command of the situation to ensure a cordial, orderly and meaningful
discussion.

iv) Feature: In this format, a single topic or subject is chosen for presentation of its various
aspects and the discussion of facts, opinions, beliefs, arguments, controversies and counter-
arguments - all about the same topic.

v) Drama: Drama is a very interesting and entertaining format and is especially effective when it
is intended to appeal to the emotions of the audience. Drama enables us to present and watch
people, their behavior, temperaments and characteristics in realistic or life-like situations.
Writing and producing a good television drama is a difficult task. Nevertheless, numerous
educational topics in History, Literature, the social sciences and other areas, lend themselves to
perfect dramatic adaptation and presentation. Drama is acted out by a cast of actors and
requires realistic sets to present situations and events.

vii) Documentary: As opposed to drama, the documentary format takes a factual approach to a
subject. Here, an issue is treated in depth and all its aspects are factually investigated. The main
emphasis in a documentary is on documenting real life - real people, real events, real sounds
and the real experiences of people. A documentary film maker's main job is to research and
investigate various aspects of the topic factually and in depth. He uses a variety of techniques
for presenting his materials, e.g. narration, montage, interviews, discussions, eye-witness
accounts, candid visuals and shots of real events, comments from the 'man in the street',
expert's opinion - all put together in a logical way. The documentary format is suitable for
presentation of current events especially social and political ones.

viii) Quiz: It is a useful format for presenting educational and current affairs. Quiz format is
highly stimulating and participatory. It holds the attention of the viewers, keeps them active
and holly involved and engrossed in the programme.
It may be mentioned that most of the above formats are used independently as well as in
combination with each other, depending on the choice of the programme writer and producer.
The choice of the format or a combination of formats, however, again depends on the nature
and objectives of the specific subject matter and availability of time, budget and resources.

The script is the basic building block of any successful production. It is a carefully devised
blueprint, which charts out instructions for actors, directors and technicians. Scriptwriting for
television is largely a co-operative activity. It may be seen as a sort of dialogue between the
scriptwriter, producer and other members of the production team. This dialogue is mainly a
collaborative activity, which begins with the programme idea finally produced. Creativity,
imagination and co-operative efforts are the key words in the scripting process.

Television scriptwriting may be seen as a process consisting of a series of steps or processes,

which do not necessarily operate sequentially or separately from one another. In fact, these steps
or processes operate together and often overlap. But the basic pattern of the scripting process
remains almost the same and TV scriptwriters, whether consciously or unconsciously, go through
certain stages in one way or the other. These are the major stages in the scriptwriting process as
given below:

1. Programme idea:

Discuss the idea and evaluate it against media selection criteria for video production. If it satisfies
the criteria, finalize and accept the idea for possible production.

2. Programme brief outline:

Expand the selected and tested programme idea into a programme brief, defining the precise
details in terms of: title, target audience, duration, programme objectives (in behavioral terms),
and content outline or synopsis. Programme brief is the first written statement which forms the
basis of a television/ video script.

3. Programme Research:

Plan and carry out thorough research on the topic and your target audience. Look for visual
materials and other important, interesting information on the topic. Consult books,
encyclopedias, journals, experts and knowledgeable people. Know your target audience well. Get
authentic information about their background, their interests, their likes and dislikes,
etc. Also keep in mind viewing conditions and the context of viewing.

Selection of materials: Select the most relevant materials, resources and ideas, which match your
programme objectives. Estimate and determine how much content should be included in the
final programme. Eliminate what is not directly relevant to your objectives. Keep your objectives
and programme length in view and estimate sufficient content for inclusion in your final
programme.

4. Programme design strategy/message planning:

Message planning is the most decisive and creative stage of programme development. Here,
think about and decide on programme design and presentation strategy. Explore and create
interesting ways of dishing out your programme to your audience. Always keep in view your
viewer's interests, the nature of your subject/topic, your programme objectives and the visual
possibilities that your medium can offer. Give a serious thought to such considerations as:
presentation format or a combination of formats, programme style, pace and approach,
information- size and emphasis, media possibilities, visual analogies and examples, attention-
getting devices, humor, repetition of key ideas, use of graphics, animation and other production
resources gimmicks.

5. Programme structure and visual treatment:

The stage where the programme begins to unfold its structure or shape. It is concerned with the
creative process of giving the programme a clear shape and a form. Here, give some thought to
such questions as: which sequences will form the middle (body) of the programme? Think of a
good beginning for your programme because it is the opening sequence of a programme, which
holds the attention of the audience, and it can certainly make or mar the whole show. Also think
of a good and realistic ending. Work out detailed visual treatment for the middle parts or
sequences of your programme. Think of visual representations/ visual analogies for abstract ideas
and key concepts. Give a logical and natural order to your programme segments, so that they
appear to be evolving from one sequence to the other. Also think of possible visual and/or aural
links or transitions from one sequence to the other. Keep an eye on time and objectives. Draw a
time-line showing how much time should be devoted to each sequence keeping in view the
coverage of the content and weightage or emphasis on programme objectives and key teaching
points. The treatment should give a full description of what the viewers will see, hear, think, and
feel.
6. Storyboard making:

Storyboard means a detailed, shot-by-shot description of the programme on a sheet of paper

divided into two vertical columns. The rectangular boxes (3:4) in the left hand column are used
for drawing pictures/sketches with shot-size described on each and the right-hand column is
used for writing supporting words, sound effects and music.

7. Script Development

There are three main stages of script development. These are:

i) Draft script: First fill-length script with a complete listing and description of all visuals/captions,
accompanying commentary or dialogue, music and sound effects. Discuss the draft script with
your colleagues, experts and production team members to get their reactions and suggestions.
Be ready to accept criticism of your draft script and be open to ideas for
improvement.

ii) Final script: At this stage, all suggestions made at the draft script stage are incorporated. And
the final script goes over to the producer who should analyze it from the viewpoint of production
and should work out a camera script. Usually, the scriptwriter goes off the scene after this stage,
and the producer takes over, but the interaction between the scriptwriter and the producer
continues up to the point the programme has been finally produced.

iii) Camera script: This is the critical phase of script development: the final script prepared by the
script writers converted into a camera script for the use of the producer and his team. It is indeed
a technical script in which shot division is done; instruction for production crew are given; music,
effects and dialogue are indicated in a logical sequence. In short, a camera script represents the
inter-relationships of all programme elements and resources. It is an important working
document for the producer.

8. Testing of the script

The last stage of script development is the testing of its effectiveness. Testing the script with the
target audience is advisable at least once when the production of a series of several programmes
is to be undertaken. The main idea of script-testing is to assess the presentation and
comprehensibility of the content, the difficulty level of the language and the relevance and
variety of materials used to be used in the programme. In the case of a complete script, the
contents are actually read out to the target group for testing their strengths and weaknesses.
Some researchers attempt to dramatize the story sequences as they appear in the actual script.
In the light of the feedback obtained through such testing, the content and organization of the
script and the design, sequence and number of visuals may be altered by the scriptwriter. Script-
testing is a technique of formative evaluation which provides a quick feedback on various aspects
of the product which can then be suitably modified before its actual production

Basic rules of a Television script:

1. Start with an Outline

Before you write your script, it helps to start with an outline of the basic elements, including the
overall story arc and individual scene descriptions. An outline will help you shape your story, and
point out any holes before you jump into developing the dialogue.

2. Visualize your show

Television is visual, so as you are writing your script, consider the visual context of your scenes.
What is the setting? What will the characters be wearing, will they be sitting still, entering or
exiting, being active? Remember, you want your characters to be as dynamic as possible on
screen to make the best possible use of your visual stage.

3. Know your Audience(s)

You need to have a specific audience in mind – a good way to research this is paying attention to
the target market of adverts played during similar shows. You also need to have an idea when
you see your show airing and what content is suitable for that time. Research the watershed
rules. Finally, you need to know who broadcasts shows like this. Do your research.

3. Read and revise

Writing for television is a very collaborative environment. Be prepared to listen to a lot of

feedback once your script is written. Read it aloud, and have several people do the same. Keep
rewriting and editing, making sure that your changes contribute to your characters feeling real,
fleshed out and practically jumping off the page and onto the screen.
3. Script writing formats

A script is a document that comprises setting, characters, dialogue, and stage directions for
movies, TV shows, and stage plays. When directors stage such productions, they follow the
instructions provided by the script. In live theatre, script writers are playwrights, and the scripts
are also known as playscripts. In film and television, script writers are called screenwriters. A film
script is called a screenplay, and a TV script is called a teleplay.

The script starts the artistic process for a dramatic performance, but film, TV, and theatre are all
inherently collaborative. Directors, actors, and designers interpret the script. Sometimes these
professionals uncover new insight about the material that the original screenwriter may have
never imagined during the scriptwriting process. While a great script forms the foundation of a
great performance, it is not the only factor in the artistic process.

TV Format

The format behind television screenplays is different because the television platform has
different nuanced structure that must adhere to the inclusion of in-program advertising
(commercials), as well as the shortened time lengths for television and streaming channel slots
— thirty minutes to an hour.

1. Script Length: Writing for television involves much shorter scripts than writing for features.
The run time of a television show ranges from 30 minutes to 60 minutes.

2. Story Engine: Television shows are meant to last multiple seasons. This means that writing for
television is dependent on creating different driving forces than a film. TV shows often have
multiple central characters that move the show forward unlike features that typically have a
single central protagonist. TV shows utilize multiple story lines otherwise known as A, B, and C
story lines.

3. Structure: Because both the length and engine of a television show both differ from that of a
film, the structure of a television show also differs. Writing for television aims to retain the
audience's attention and set up following episodes.

4. Lack of immediate resolution: The episodic format of a television show means that each central
narrative lasts over the course of multiple episodes or even seasons. For that reason, TV shows
do not need to tie a neat bow on every episode with a resolution unlike a film.
Before you begin writing your script, it’s important to understand how to structure an episode of
TV. Typically, on network television, there are about five acts roughly lasting about 11 pages each.
Here’s the structure of each of the acts:

• Act I: Introduce your characters and present the problem.

• Act II: Escalate the problem.
• Act III: Have the worst-case scenario happen.
• Act IV: Begin the ticking clock.
• Act V: Have the characters reach their moment of victory.

The other essential components of your episodes are your A, B, and C storylines:

• A storyline: The A storyline involves your main character and is the core of your show.
• B storyline: The B storyline is secondary and helps the narrative keep moving forward.
• C storyline: The c storyline, sometimes referred to as “the runner,” is the smallest
storyline and holds the least weight.

Writing a TV comedy, or sitcom, is a different process from writing a TV drama. Here’s what
makes them different:

• Tone - TV sitcoms are funny, tackle lighthearted topics, and intend to make viewers laugh.
Dramas are more serious and take time to develop a story rather than telling jokes.
• Story Arc and Pace - Sitcoms have a quick narrative pace, they focus on the build to the
climax, have less act breaks, and introduce the conflict before the end of act one. The
more time the characters spend solving a problem, the less room there is in the script for
humor. Dramas are paced slower, have more act breaks, and spend more time developing
the story, building to a climax, and arriving at a conclusion.
• Run Time - Sitcoms run for approximately 21 minutes without commercials, while dramas
run for about 43 minutes without commercials. One page of a script in Final Draft equals
about one minute on air, so a 21-minute sitcom script should be around 20 pages long,
and a script for a 43-minute-long drama should be about 40 pages long.

Format and story structure are precise when it comes to episodic television. A 1/2-hour story
runs about 22 minutes; an hour show, about 45 minutes with commercials dispersed for the
remaining time. The breaks must be in the right spot for the advertisers to put up their wares.
They also need to be compelling enough to bring your viewer back to the program.
One-Hour Drama:

One-hour shows are formatted like features, except for the act breaks. You begin and end them
as you would a sitcom, however there are no scene breaks. Each page equals about a minute of
screen time and script lengths usually fall between 53-60 pages.

The Cover Page should indicate the name of the show, episode title, and the writer's name. The
Title Page should contain show name, episode title, writer's name and contact information.
Typically, a one-hour drama consists of a teaser and 4 acts. Acts are designated numerically,
usually written out and centered at the top of the page. Placing "End Act One" or "End Act 1"
creates act breaks. This is centered and double-spaced beneath the last piece of narrative or
dialogue. FADE or CUT may be used to end a scene, but it isn't necessary. A simple scene slug line
will do nicely instead. Begin each new act of a fresh page.

The act break is where the script reaches a strong dramatic moment. That's where the station
typically inserts commercials. The big question here is whether or not the story moment is strong
enough to break your audience back.

Situation Comedies:

There are two types of sitcoms: multiple camera format and single camera format. Multiple
camera format is the traditional form. Single camera shows are shot and formatted like films. No
matter what type of show, it's important to find several actual scripts for the spec you're writing
so that you can get really familiar with the format.

Some shows have teasers and tags, some have two acts (multiple camera format) and some have
three acts (some, but not all, single camera shows), and some have page counts that differ from
industry averages. An analysis of past scripts would indicate this happens about 7-11 minutes
into the episode, but not always. Know the rules before you break them.

Typical format for multiple camera sitcoms

A. FADE IN: - All caps and underlined

B. SCENES - numbered using CAPS. Ample space above and below and underlined.
C. SLUGLINES - indicate location, time of day, and underlined.
D. Character List - should appear directly below the slug line and indicate which characters
are needed for the scene. Also enclosed in parentheses.
E. ACTIONS/DESCRIPTIONS - listed in a capital letters
 F. CHARACTER INTROs - Capitalized and underlined.
G. SOUND EFFECTS/SPEICAL EFFECTS/CAMERA INSTRUCTIONS - Capitalized and underlined.
H. CHARACTER NAMES/DIALOGUE - Capitalized and double spaced.
I. PERSONAL DIRECTION - appears within dialogue - on the same line - in all capitals and
enclosed in parentheses.

The Cover Page should indicate the name of the show, episode title, and the writer's name. The
Title Page should contain show name, episode title, writer's name and contact information.

Begin most 1/2-hour scripts by writing the name of the show, centered and capped, 6 lines from
the top of the page. Double space down from the name and center the episode title in quotation
marks. 6 lines below that, center ACT ONE, then A below that, also centered. 8 lines below that,
write FADE IN: @ the 1.4-inch mark from the margin. A list of which characters are needed
appears at the beginning of each new scene. Every page should contain page numbers as well as
the scene letters.

You can end each scene with a CUT TO, DISSOLVE TO, FADE TO, etc., however this is seen less
frequently today.

The second scene begins on a new page. 21 lines down, write B, centered. 6 lines below that,
write the opening slug line. All the scenes are "numbered" with letters. The script is divided into
acts and each new act begins on a new page.

Dialogue is double-spaced for legibility and stage direction is all in CAPS in order to distinguish
them easily from the dialogue. There should be lots of white space for jotting down notes.
Dialogue may also contain "personal direction" for the actors within it, rather than outside it; just
like a stage play.

Typical format for single camera sitcoms:

A. Formatted like screenplays and similar to the one-hour drama.

B. May or may not have formal act breaks written on the page (this depends on whether or
not the show has commercial breaks.
C. Dialogue and stage direction are single-spaced.
D. The characters are described in ALL CAPS the first time they are introduced.
E. Scripts are generally 28-32 pages in length.
Choosing Your Format

Choose between a 30-minute or 1-hour show - Television scripts fall into 2 categories: 30-minute
comedies or 1-hour dramas. When you want to write a script, consider what type of show you
like to watch and want to write. If you want to make something more serious, aim for an hour-
long show, but if you want to try writing something funny like a sitcom, pick a 30-minute show.
Scripts for 30-minute comedies are shorter than those for hour-long dramas, but jokes may be
more difficult to write.

Formatting Your Script

I. Make a title page for your script. Put the title of your show in the center of the page in all
caps. Put a line break after the title of the show to write the title of the episode. Add
another line break before putting “written by” followed by your name on the next line.
Put your contact information, such as an email address or phone number, in the bottom
left margin. If you based the script on a book or movie, include the phrase “Based on”
followed by the title and original creators. Put the line underneath your name so readers
can see it easily.

II. Type in 12-point Courier font for the whole script. The standard font for any screenplay is
any variation of Courier since it's easy to read. Make sure the font is size 12 since it's
industry standard. Use formatting, such as bold, underline, or italics, sparingly since it
could be distracting to someone who's reading your script.

III. Put your act breaks at the top and bottom of the page. Whenever you start a new act,
write “ACT” followed by the number at the top of the page in the center. Underline the
phrase so a reader can easily see it. Once you reach the end of an act, write “END OF ACT”
followed by the act number after the scene. Don't start a new act in the middle of the
page. Always add a page break between the end of one act and the start of another.

IV. Write scene headings whenever you change locations. Align the scene headings so they're
on the left margin 1 1⁄2 inches (3.8 cm) from the edge of the page. Use INT. or EXT. to label
the scene as interior or exterior. Then, name the specific location the scene is taking place
along with the time of day so reader's get an idea of the setting.
V. Use action blocks to describe settings and character actions. Action blocks help explain
what's going on in the scene and what your characters are physically doing. Align the
action block with the left margin of the page. Write in the present tense, and use visual
and descriptive language in your action so it's clear what your characters are doing. Keep
action blocks around 3-4 lines long so it doesn't look overwhelming on the page.
 VI. Center character names and dialogue when they speak. Write the character's name in all-
caps so it's 3.7 inches (9.4 cm) from the left edge of the page so it's clear who's speaking
in your script. On the next line, start your dialogue so it's 2 1⁄2 inches (6.4 cm) from the
left side of the page.

In the most basic terms, a screenplay is a 90–120-page document written in Courier 12pt font on
8 1/2" x 11" bright white three-hole punched paper. One formatted script page in Courier font
equals roughly one minute of screen time. That's why the average page count of a screenplay
should come in between 90 and 120 pages. Comedies tend to be on the shorter side (90 pages,
or 1 ½ hours) while Dramas run longer (120 pages, or 2 hours).

A screenplay can be an original piece, or based on a true story or previously written piece, like a
novel, stage play or newspaper article. Professionals on the set including the producer, director,
set designer and actors all translate the screenwriter's vision using their individual talents.

The First Page of a Screenplay

The top, bottom and right margins of a screenplay are 1". The left margin is 1.5". The extra half-
inch of white space to the left of a script page allows for binding with brads, yet still imparts a
feeling of vertical balance of the text on the page. The entire document should be single-spaced.

The very first item on the first page should be the words FADE IN: Note: the first page is never
numbered. Subsequent page numbers appear in the upper right-hand corner, 0.5" from the top
of the page, flush right to the margin.

Screenplay Elements

Below is a list of items (with definitions) that make up the screenplay format, along with indenting
information. Again, screenplay software will automatically format all these elements, but a
screenwriter must have a working knowledge of the definitions to know when to use each one.

Scene Heading

A scene heading is a one-line description of the location and time of day of a scene, also known
as a "slug line." It should always be in CAPS. Example: EXT. WRITERS STORE – DAY.
Sub header

When a new scene heading is not necessary, but some distinction needs to be made in the action,
you can use a sub header. But be sure to use these sparingly, as a script full of sub headers is
generally frowned upon. A good example is when there are a series of quick cuts between two
locations, you would use the term INTERCUT and the scene locations.

Action

The narrative description of the events of a scene, written in the present tense. Also less
commonly known as direction, visual exposition, black stuff, description or scene direction. Only
things that can be seen and heard should be included in the action.

Character

When a character is introduced, his name should be capitalized within the action. For example:
The door opens and in walks LIAM, a thirty-something hipster with attitude to spare. A character's
name is CAPPED and always listed above his lines of dialogue. Minor characters may be listed
without names, for example "TAXI DRIVER" or "CUSTOMER."

Dialogue

Lines of speech for each character. Dialogue format is used anytime a character is heard speaking,
even for off-screen and voice-overs.

Parenthetical

A parenthetical is direction for the character, that is either attitude or action-oriented. With roots
in the playwriting genre, today, parentheticals are used very rarely, and only if absolutely
necessary. It can be used in conjunction with dialogue. Essentially, parentheticals help to explain
to the reader—and eventual actor voicing the dialogue—how it should be read.

Extension
Placed after the character's name, in parentheses. An abbreviated technical note placed after the
character's name to indicate how the voice will be heard onscreen, for example, if the character
is speaking as a voice-over, it would appear as LIAM (V.O.).

Extensions are used to indicate that what we’re reading as dialogue is more than just words being
spoken by that character on-screen.For instance, if there’s a “V.O.” in parentheses next to a
name, it’s notifying the reader that the dialogue is, in fact, a voiceover. A voiceover may or may
not be a character’s way of breaking the fourth wall and directly communicating with the
audience. Sometimes a voiceover is merely an internal voicing of a character’s thoughts. But in
either case, a voiceover is heard and not seen. Another common extension is “O.S.” If placed in
parentheses next to a character’s name, it means that the character is voicing their dialogue, but
it’s off-screen.

Transition

Transitions are film editing instructions, and generally only appear in a shooting script. Transition
verbiage includes:

• CUT TO:
• DISSOLVE TO:
• SMASH CUT:
• QUICK CUT:
• FADE TO:

As a spec script writer, you should avoid using a transition unless there is no other way to indicate
a story element. For example, you might need to use DISSOLVE TO: to indicate that a large
amount of time has passed.

Shot

A shot tells the reader the focal point within a scene has changed. Like a transition, there's rarely
a time when a spec screenwriter should insert shot directions. Once again, that's the director's
job.

Examples of Shots:

• ANGLE ON --
• EXTREME CLOSE UP --
• PAN TO --
• LIAM'S POV --

The vast majority of TV screenplays and teleplays follow an industry standard script format. Key
formatting standards include:

1. Page margins: You should have a 1.5-inch margin on the left of the page, a 1-inch margin
on the right of the page, and 1 inch of white space on the top and bottom of the page.
2. Proper font: An industry standard screenplay uses size twelve Courier font.
 3. Title page: The script should have a title page with no content apart from the title,
author's name, contact information and representation (if applicable).
4. Page numbers: Page numbers mark every page of the script apart from the first page.
5. Character names: When characters speak, their names appear in all capital letters,
centered on the page, and indented 3.7 inches from the left side of the page.
6. Dialogue: Lines should be centered on the page, below the name of the character
speaking. Each dialogue block should be indented 2.5 inches from the left side of the page.
7. Voiceover: Characters speaking in voiceover signified by "V.O." next to their names.
8. “Off-screen” or “off-camera”: Characters who can be heard off screen signified as O.S.
(off-screen) in film scripts and O.C. (off-camera) in TV scripts.
9. Dialogue descriptions: These should be centered in parentheses, directly above the
dialogue.
10. Action lines: Descriptions of action are aligned with the left margin of the page. Action
lines should always appear this way, never in parentheticals.
11. Proper character introductions: Characters’ names should be capitalized the first time
they appear. (This applies for everyone from the main character to unnamed extras
passing through a scene.)
12. Scene headings: Often called slug lines, these belong in all caps, aligned left on the page.
13. Locations: Scene headings must always be preceded by “EXT.” for "exterior" or “INT.” for
"interior."
14. Transitions: Instructions like "FADE OUT" or "BLACKOUT" appear in all caps, aligned with
the right margin.
15. Minimal camera directions on spec scripts: On a TV show or feature film, camera and
lighting choices belong to the director and their photography team. Refrain from including
camera or lighting directions unless it’s absolutely essential.

Radio formats:

1. Announcements: These are specifically written clear messages to inform. They can be of
different types. Announcements have become informal and resemble ordinary conversation.

2. Radio talk: The radio talk probably is the oldest format on radio. These talks have to go through
a process of being changed into radio’s spoken word style. Over the years, of Radio Programmes
these long radio talks have become unpopular. Instead, today, shorter duration
talks are broadcast.

3. Radio interviews: There can be different types of interviews in terms of their duration, content
and purpose. Firstly, there are full-fledged interview programmes. The duration of these may
vary from 10 minutes to 30 minutes or even 60 minutes depending up on the topic, and the
person being interviewed. Most of such interviews are personality based. Secondly, there are
interviews which are used in various radio programmes like documentaries. Here the interviews
are short, questions specific and not many. The purpose is to get a very brief, to the point answer.
Thirdly there are a lot of interviews or interview-based programmes in news and current affairs
programmes. With phone-in-programmes becoming popular, you might have heard live
interviews with listeners. These interviews have been made interactive. There is another type of
interview-based programme. Here generally just one or two questions are put across to ordinary
people or people with knowledge on some current topic to measure public opinion.

4. Radio discussions: In radio, this technique is used to let people have different points of view
on matters of public concern. Radio discussions are produced when there are social or economic
issues which may be controversial. So, when different experts meet and discuss such issues,
people understand various points of view. Generally, these discussions on radio are of longer
duration-say 15 to 30 minutes. Two or three people who are known for their views and a well-
informed senior person or journalist who acts as a moderator take part and discuss a particular
topic for about 30 minutes. The moderator conducts the discussion, introduces
the topic and the participants and ensure that everyone gets enough time to speak and all issues
are discussed.

5. Radio documentaries/features: Unlike documentary films, radio documentaries have only

sound – i.e., the human voice, music and sound effects. So, a radio documentary is a programme
based on real sounds and real people and their views and experiences. Radio documentaries are
based on facts presented in an attractive manner or dramatically. Radio documentaries are
radio’s own creative format. The producer of a documentary needs to be very creative to use
human voice, script, music and sound effects very effectively. Radio documentaries are also
called radio features.

6. Radio drama: A Radio drama or a radio play is like any other play staged in a theatre or a hall.
A radio play has only 3 components. They are the human voice, music and sound effects. Radio
of course, uses its greatest strength for producing radio plays and that is the power of imagination
and suggestivity. The voice of the actors, music and sound effects can create any situation in a
radio play.

7. Running commentaries: A commentator would give you all the details of the match such as
the number of players, the score, position of the players in the field etc. So, by listening to the
running commentary, you get a feeling of being in the stadium and watching the match. The
commentator needs good communication skills, a good voice and knowledge about what is going
on. Running commentaries on radio can be on various sports events or on ceremonial occasions
like the Republic Day Parade or events like festivals, melas, rath yatras, swearing in ceremony of
ministers, last journey (funeral procession) of national leaders etc.

8. Magazine programmes : A radio magazine is broadcast at a particular time on a particular day

of a week or a month. That means it has periodicity. Similarly, it has plenty of variety in contents.
Some or many formats of radio are included in a radio magazine. These may be talks, discussions,
interviews, reviews, music etc. Likewise, the duration of each programme or item in a magazine
programme also vary. Another characteristic of a radio magazine is that it has a signature tune.
A signature tune is an attractive piece of music which is specific to a
programme. It can be like the masthead (title) of a magazine. A magazine programme also has a
name and one or two presenters or anchor persons who link the whole programme. In the
beginning, the titles of the day’s programme will be given by the presenters after the signature
tune. They also give continuity and link the whole magazine. Magazine programmes are generally
broadcast for a special or specific audience. As the name suggests, a specific audience refers to
listeners with specific needs as mentioned in the beginning.

9. NEWS: Among all the spoken word formats on radio, news is the most popular. News bulletins
and news programmes are broadcast every hour by radio stations. In India, only All India Radio
is allowed to broadcast news. Duration of news bulletins vary from 5 minute to 30 minutes. The
longer news bulletins have interviews, features, reviews and comments from experts.

4. Writing for interviews, live news and daily news

Interviews:

The interview is a conversation between two people with different aims. The interviewer’s job
is to enable you to present the information, explain it more fully and, in some instances, justify
your position.

• The interviewer is looking for a topic that will interest the audience.
• The interviewee is the expert who has the information and may be trying to make a
particular point.
• But remember there’s a third person involved, the listener. Each programme has its target
audience. They will be listening to your conversation. So, find out as much as you can
about them and bear their needs in mind when you speak. It’s their attention you want.
There are three basic types of interview, but the principles for each are the same:

• The news interview – this is where the reporter just wants the facts. Perhaps you’ve just
witnessed a car accident or an armed robbery. The questions you will be asked are factual
ones: Who, Where, When and What happened?
• The information interview – this is an amalgam of facts and opinions. Perhaps you have
been invited to give your views on a social or ethical issue. More time is spent on
answering questions such as: How and Why?
• The in-depth interview – this is usually done completely on the interviewee’s wavelength.
These interviews deal with very personal matters, for instance, celebrity interviews or
people with a story to tell.

Television interviews can have intense, emotion-packed moments. As an interviewer, part of

your job—along with well-prepped research—is knowing when and how to ask the right
questions, as well as keeping your subject comfortable. TV interviewers should be great listeners,
ask good questions, digest and analyze the information they’re given, and expand on it with their
interviewee in a way that provides a complete story for the audience.

1. Know your subject. Do your pre-interview homework before sitting down to ask someone
questions. Know their credentials or their background, research their expertise, and be
aware of any controversial discussion topics.
2. Prep your subject. The interviewee should have the chance to prepare for the questions
they’ll be asked. While you don’t usually need to provide a complete list of specific
interview questions, give them a general idea or the key points of what they’ll be asked
and the topics that will be covered. You want an element of spontaneity without catching
your subject completely off-guard.
3. Start slow. Have a goal in mind for the kind of information you want to glean from this
interview, and slowly work your way towards it by asking simple questions. Interviews
can be emotional, and hammering people with ‘gotcha-style’ questioning or asking the
tough questions too soon can cause the interviewee to feel uncomfortable, especially if
this is their first TV interview. Remember that this is an interview, not an interrogation.
You want to gain your subject’s trust and build to the intense, revealing moments
naturally, while also making sure to cover the main points of the story.
4. Use active listening. Use your body language to indicate your attention and focus is on
the person you’re interviewing. Letting your interviewee talk and tell their story with only
minimal guidance is the ideal way to conduct your interview. You want your audience to
see a person freely sharing their story, product, experience, or knowledge—not someone
being prodded for sound bites. Even after your subject has answered your question,
maintain eye contact and leave a small pause. It’s likely your interviewee has a few
 prepared answers, so give them a moment to try and fill the silence themselves. What
they offer may be more of value than continuously trying to steer the conversation
yourself.
5. Ask open-ended questions. Ask follow-up questions to gain more information from your
subject, but rather than searching for ‘yes’ or ‘no’ answers, ask questions that will lead to
a story, or an emotional share. For instance, “how did you feel when you sold an album
for the first time?” Or, “when did you realize you wanted to be a doctor?” These questions
may not be part of your outline, but it’s important to react with follow-ups that can
expand the story—and questions you know your viewers would want to know the
answers to.

Formulate a response to typical introductory interview questions. Regardless of the line of work
you are in, most common interviews start off with an invitation to discuss your background, your
education and your previous work experience. For your scripting purposes, write a brief
introduction that explains where you are from, where you received your training or education
and summarize your previous work experience with an emphasis on positions that relate to the
role for which you are applying.

Anticipate questions that relate to your industry and to hypothetical issues you might encounter.
Script a summary to utilize when the interview is drawing to a close. The summary should
reiterate your interest in the position and inquire if the hiring manager needs additional
information about your background or your experience. Thank the interviewer for her time at
the end of your interview.

A TV interview can be as simple as asking questions of people on the street, or it can be as

involved as a one-on-one, sit-down discussion with the president. Getting good answers in a TV
interview can make a news story come to life and build your reputation as a probing journalist.
Build your skills so that you can lead the people you interview into giving you the information
you want with simple TV interview tips every news media professional can use.

• Decide the TV Interview Focus

• Learn Something About the Topic

Better still is to know that answer before the interview so that you can ask smarter questions.
The goal is to find out answers to questions that viewers would want to know.
 • Listen Closely During the Interview

An interview is a conversation; you just happen to have a microphone, camera, and notepad. One
aspect of listening is to not immediately jump in with your next question the moment the person
stops talking. If you wait for a second or two, while maintaining eye contact, often the person
will keep talking. That is useful if you are asking a question that is difficult to answer. The person
will sense that the pause means you're not satisfied with what you've heard and are waiting for
more. If you seek to get the person to admit to something, that pause can be the trick that throws
the person off-balance enough to get him to say what you want.

• Ask Follow-up Questions During the Interview

If you're listening during the interview and are not content with the answers you're getting, ask
follow-up questions to get the information you want. Asking follow-up questions requires not
just listening, but flexibility. You may have your list of ten questions on your notepad, but if the
conversation veers into an unplanned direction, you need to have something to ask. While
planning is important, so is reacting to what you are hearing.

While broadcast interviews can make even the most sophisticated executives uneasy, they offer
a unique opportunity to deliver messages to a wide audience quickly and simultaneously. As with
every opportunity, broadcast comes with its commensurate challenges. With the right
preparation and approach, every executive can be an effective communicator, even in the
relatively unforgiving environment that TV and radio represent.

• Basic Groundwork

Just as in any interview situation, you need to ask basic questions to ensure you understand the
context:

• What type of program is this?

• Who is the primary audience?
• Is the journalist knowledgeable? Does he or she have an apparent bias?
• Is anyone else being interviewed?
• Where does our story fit overall?
• What is the interview format?
• Live/taped
• Edited/unedited
• In-studio or talk show
• On-location or remote
 • Defining the Messages

Broadcast interviews typically are brief, so there is a limited amount of time to deliver messages.
Understanding the context, pick two or three that will resonate with the journalist and audience;
focus on refining and packaging these “message points” that can be reiterated by the
spokesperson during the interview. When developing the messages, think like a trial lawyer and
provide your spokesperson with proof points so he or she can back up any assertions made. Some
executives want to participate in the crafting of messages, but either way, your job is to ensure
that the messages are concise, credible, defensible and memorable.

Daily news:

Writing for radio and television is different from writing for print for several reasons. First, you
have less space and time to present news information. Therefore, you must prioritize and
summarize the information carefully. Second, your listeners cannot reread sentences they did
not understand the first time; they have to understand the information in a broadcast story as
they hear it or see it. As a result, you have to keep your writing simple and clear. And third, you
are writing for “the ear.” The television or radio news story has the added complexity that it has
to sound good; when a listener hears the story it has to read well to “the ear.” Also, for a radio
news story, listeners cannot see video of what you are saying, so you must paint word pictures
with the words you use in your radio news story so people can “see” images just through your
verbal descriptions. In today’s media landscape, many stories are shared in video, audio, and
text-based formats. It’s important to consider the various ways audiences will be taking in the
information you are sharing. As with any type of news writing, you should try to identify
characteristics of your audience so you know what type of information your audience wants.

Television and radio news stories must have these attributes:

• The writing style should be conversational. Write the way you talk.
• Each sentence should be brief and contain only one idea. We do not always talk in long
sentences. Shorter sentences are better in broadcast news writing. Each sentence
should focus on one particular idea.
• Be simple and direct. If you give your audience too much information, your audience
cannot take it in. Choose words that are familiar to everyone.
• Read the story out loud. The most important attribute for writing for “the ear” is to read
the story aloud. This will give you a feeling for timing, transitions, information flow, and
conversation style. Your audience will hear your television or radio news story, so the
story has to be appealing to the ear.
Television and Radio News Writing Structure

• Be brief. A good newspaper story ranges from hundreds to thousands of words. The
same story on television or radio may have to fit into 30 seconds—perhaps no more
than 100 words. If it is an important story, it may be 90 seconds or two minutes. You
have to condense a lot of information into the most important points for broadcast
writing.
• Use correct grammar. A broadcast news script with grammatical errors will embarrass
the person reading it aloud if the person stumbles over mistakes.
• Put the important information first. Writing a broadcast news story is similar to writing a
news story for print in that you have to include the important information first. The only
difference is that you have to condense the information presented.
• Write good leads. Begin the story with clear, precise information. Because broadcast
stories have to fit into 30, 60, or 90 seconds, broadcast stories are sometimes little more
than the equivalent of newspaper headlines and the lead paragraph.
• Stick to short sentences of 20 words or less. The announcer has to breathe. Long
sentences make it difficult for the person voicing the script to take a breath.
• Write the way people talk. Sentence fragments—as long as they make sense—are
acceptable.
• Use the active voice and active verbs. It is better to say “He hit the ball” than “The ball
was hit by him.”
• Use present-tense verbs, except when past-tense verbs are necessary. Present tense
expresses the sense of immediacy. Use past tense when something happened long ago.
For example, do not say, “There were forty people taken to the hospital following a train
derailment that occurred early this morning.” Instead, say, “Forty people are in the
hospital as a result of an early morning train accident.”
• For radio news stories, write with visual imagery. Make your listeners “see” what you
are saying. Help them visualize the situation you are describing. Some radio news scripts
even include suggestions for environmental noise to help set the scene for the listener.

Television and Radio News Story Format

• Broadcast news stories are typed, double-spaced, and in uppercase/lowercase. Many

years ago, television news scripts were written in all uppercase, but that practice has
changed in recent years.
• Make the sentence at the bottom of a page a complete sentence. Do not split a sentence
between pages.
 • Never split words or hyphenated phrases from one line to the next.
• Do not use copyediting symbols. Cross out the entire word and write the corrected word
above it. This is one reason why broadcast news scripts are double-spaced: so you will
have room to make corrections between the lines.

There are many types of news stories. Hard News is essentially the news of the day. This is the
type of news most frequently read on the front page of the newspaper or at the top of the hour
on a radio or television station. Soft News is news that isn’t time sensitive. This can include
profiles about local individuals, or even companies and organizations. Editorials are personal
opinions about particular topics. Editors and writers often take a side on a topic and write an
argument about why their side is right and the other side is wrong. Features are in depth stories
about a certain topic. Features can be about current events, but they often are best at
discussing a particular issue in detail.

News features typically contain the following elements:

1. A well-researched topic.
2. An introduction or a lead.
3. A main body with a clear narrative pattern.
4. Interviews and/or sound bites.
5. A conversational writing style.
6. The topic’s character and personality.
7. A wrap up that completes the story.

The Topic

Topics for radio news features vary greatly, but the vast majorities are specific topics that are of
interest to the intended audience, and that offer themselves to in depth discussion. It’s not
necessary to choose a topic of interest to the feature’s writer, but it is important to do in depth
research on the topic. Since a feature is not an editorial, the facts must be complete and
accurate, since the story’s integrity relies on them.

Researching a topic in the 21st century can be very easy, but the researcher must be diligent
about selecting information from reputable sources. Features typically use information from
first hand research, as well as second hand research. This means the writer interviews pertinent
individuals and reads original documents, as well as obtaining information already gathered by
others.
The Introduction

The beginning of any radio news feature should contain a brief introduction. This introduction
should tell the listener a bit about this story, but without giving too much away yet. This is also
called the news feature’s hook. The writer’s main objective here is to hook in the listener and
make her want to listen. Keep the introduction short; no more than two sentences.

The Body

The news feature’s body should contain the story’s main details. This is typically referred to as
the “5 W’s and 1 H”. The who, what, when, where, why, and how. The who tells the listener
who the main characters of this story are. The what tells the listener what this story is about.
The when tells the listener when this happened, or if it’s a future event, when it will happen.
The where tells the listener where this event or story takes place. The why tells the listener why
this is happening. The how tells the listener how this happened, or how they can get involved or
attend. These details should be told in the first paragraph, or at most in the first and second
paragraph.

After the listener understands the main points about this story, the rest of the story (another
four to eight paragraphs) should contain further information about the story. The further
information should be more in depth details about the “5 W’s and 1 H”. For example, many
radio news features tend to go into detail about the who, what, and why.

Quotes

Just like any news story published in a newspaper, radio news features should have quotes
from related individuals in order to support the story’s premise. These quotes are sometimes in
the form of interviews with prominent individuals directly involved in the story.

Interviews may be used in at least two different ways within a news feature. The interview can
occur directly after the announcer reveals the story’s main points, or it may occur at the very
end after the announcer has finished his entire written dialogue.

Another form of quote used in radio news features is the sound bite. A sound bite is a short
audio recording lasting no longer than 10 seconds, and revealing a major point in support of the
story’s argument. Sound bites are similar to interviews in that they are quotes taken from
people directly involved in the story. Sound bites differ from interviews in that the sound bites
are typically taken from secondary sources, such as other interviews or press conferences.

Writing Style

When writing the radio news feature, the most important style consideration is to be
conversational. The use of contractions in a radio news feature is not only allowed, but actually
recommended. Writers may also want to avoid long, complicated words, as well as using
parenthetical statements and other writing techniques not ease to announce.

Radio is a broadcast medium in which the announcer speaks directly to each listener. The
announcer must have the ability to relate to the listener directly. This is why conversational
writing is so essential. When in doubt, the writer should try reading the words out loud. If the
sentences are too long or sound like a book, they should consider rewriting.

Another important consideration when determining the story’s writing style is to take the
intended audience and format into consideration. Writing a radio news feature for an audience
of young college students will be much different than writing that same feature for an audience
of retired adults. Understand the station’s demographics, and that demographic’s needs before
attempting to write for them.

Tone and Character

Radio news feature writers should pay attention to the type of story being reported on, and set
the tone appropriately. Different types of stories require different approaches in tone. For
example, when writing a story about clowns at the park, the tone may be much happier, and
the script may even include clown puns and euphemisms. On the other hand, when writing
about a plane crash, anything other than a serious and delicate tone would be inappropriate
and perhaps even offensive.

The Wrap-up

The end of every story should include some sort of wrap up in order to complete the story.
Wrap-ups usually include a quick recap of the story, going over the facts one more time in order
to summarize the story. Some stories even wrap-up the story by looking to the future, perhaps
by including a quote about a future action or event, or with the announcer telling the audience
of future plans.
A radio news script is not for a talk-show. It is for a news show that needs to deliver just the
facts. In order to make sure the listener receives the best quality news program, you need to
remove your opinions completely from the broadcast and keep it entirely focused on the news.

Fact Checking

Before ever bringing it up over the airways, it is vital for you to fact check. The last thing you
want to do is provide inaccurate information. Now, from time to time you might find out that
you provided information that turned out to be not entirely true, even though your sources
indicated it to be true at the time. Should you find this out, it is important to cite the correct
source and provide the correct information when you can. This helps ensure your level of
integrity. News, whether it is radio or television broadcast, is all about integrity.

Different Parts of a Tv News Script:

a) Talking Heads: The most skeletal news story is a 'reader', or 'liner'. This is a story read on
camera by one of the newscasters with no visual appearing on the screen. True stories not
supported by visuals generally have no place in the television medium. Such a story could have
been written for radio. The only difference is that, on television, you see the face of a
newscaster.
b) Super: 'Supers' too are also important elements to every story with video in it. 'Supers' are
names or other bits of information superimposed on the TV screen. Also called IDS, they
identify or explain a person, thing, place or picture. For instance, they are used to identify the
newscasters by supering their names on their images.
c) Voice-over (VO): Visually, the step ahead of lack luster 'talker head' presentation is to have a
talking head plus a visual. A visual may be a photograph, chart, map or graph. It is used to
illustrate a story, identify a place, or simplify a complex economic news items say with the use
of a graph. The narration continues over the visuals. Apart from static visuals like graphics,
illustrations, etc., the voiceover is also carried on video footage. Shortly after the newscaster
begins a story on camera, video coverage appears on the screen while the newscaster
continues to read.
d) Sound-bite: A sound bite, or 'cold bite', is a type of story that includes no interview with
someone knowledgeable about the story. The newscaster begins on camera and reads up to a
certain point in the script; then the expert interviewed on the subject appears on videotape,
making a comment related to the story. At the end of the sound bite, the anchor-person
reappears so as to tag the story before moving on to another news item.
e) Stand-up: It is a story assembled by a staff correspondent/reporter. Like the sound bite, in
this story too, the newscaster begins on-camera and reads upto a certain point and then
introduces the reporter. The latter then speaks from the location. These types of stories are
considered to be the backbone of a newscast. Reporters prefer to read the stand-up while
looking straight into the camera.
ii) Package: The treatment is the same as in the case of stand-up except that the story may
consist of an interview with an expert eyewitness apart from the reporter's footage. It is sound-
bite plus stand-up. The newscaster begins a news item with a brief mention of the highlights of
the story and follows it up by introduce the reporter on location. The reporter then states the
main points of the news and gives details in a concise style, the report may be interspersed
with interviews of the persons in the news. These comments not only fill the gaps in the report
but also lend an air of credibility to the reporter's inferences

The Inverted Pyramid

Reporters give essential information at the top of the story, which is called the “lead.” The lead
addresses the five fundamental questions of who, what, why, where, when, and how in your
story. By putting all the critical facts immediately, the attention of the readers or audience is
captured. The lead will be followed by more details down to supporting information to finish the
narrative. Remember, the readers may stop reading your articles in the mid-section of the story.
Therefore, placing the most crucial information in the lead already serves the news purpose.

Parts of a News Script

Writing for a TV newscast is a challenge and it could be difficult at first. Knowing the main parts
of the script will help.

1. Introduction, or "The Readers"

This is the first 30 seconds, an introduction read by the news anchor in the studio. It is commonly
called RDR or "The Readers". There are no videos included in the script yet, only a photo of the
headline and the anchorperson is seen on the TV screen.

Lead. A lead (spelled lede by journalists) is a one-line thesis statement of the report. It consists
of one sentence. It introduces the main topic of the script.

Five W's and one H. These are the; who, what, where, when, why and how questions. Answers
to these basic questions are briefly written for the RDR and are assessed one by one in the body
of the report.

Writing the RDR. Since the readers or RDR only lasts for 30 seconds, it has to be substantial. But
you do not need to squeeze too much of the message into one paragraph. The lead is the first
sentence that the anchor says, so it has to be inviting. The viewers, upon hearing the lead, should
be hooked to watch the whole report or segment. Use words that appeal to the senses and
interests of the viewers. The viewers will only hear the RDR once. It's vital to keep sentences
short but clear. Limit sentences to 15 words or less because it is easier to digest and reveal the
idea of the story using simple and clear information. Cover only the main thought of the report.
Analyze the story carefully and identify what particular W questions you should provide answers
to in The Readers. It may only need three W's and one H to project the story summary in the
introduction.

Introduce the name of the reporter. Include in the script whoever is the reporter of the story. If
he is reporting live in an area, recognize that so and so is reporting live, from such and such a
place in the script, and if it's an exclusive report, specify this in the script too, because the
reporter deserves a credit.

2. Body
This is the meat of the report. Writing a script for the body is a bit complicated, especially if it is
your first time. The technique for writing this part of the script is to digest the information
mentioned in the RDR. The news report usually has a maximum of three minutes of story-telling
time. Sometimes it is less, sometimes more. The script must explain the necessary details in that
time frame.

3. Conclusion
This last part of the report includes a temporary resolution to the story. Never leave the audience
hanging. Always include a statement that gives a follow-up information or assurance to the
viewers.

Organization of a News Story

A story should have a smooth flow and development. There are several styles to writing a news
script, but the basic organization is as follows:

1. Introduction

This is a brief summary of the story and the mention of the thesis statement or lead.

2. Establish the Scene

 Write the basic details that answer the questions to the five W's and one H. What is the
story all about? Who are the people involved? When did it happen? What date or what
time? Where is the setting? Is it a local or international issue?

3. Recognize the Issue

This is the part where you elaborate on the issue or the event. Why did it happen? What
is the issue or the event about? What are the factors that made the issue arise? And how
did it happen?

4. Addressing the Issue

This includes the action items that can be done. A story should present possible solutions
to the problem. The script must reveal that the story is well-researched and, provide
substantial information.

5. Follow-up

The story should be moving forward. There will certainly be another follow-up for the
following day's event. Include in the script that the news team will continue to cover the
issue.

Proper Format in Writing a News Script

The news script is divided into two parts - the audio and the video part.

Audio

This is usually on the right side of the page. It includes everything that is heard on the report,
such as the voice over, natural sound and sound bites.

Video

This is located on the middle part of the page and it complements the audio. What is being
described in the audio must be included in the script.

Timing

This is on the left side of the script and it basically includes the timing of the videos and audio.
Below is an example of a news script.
Live News:

Reporters who are reporting live from a location do not have much time to compose a detailed
and well-structured script, especially when they are covering a historical event. The anchors in
the studio, and the reporters on the field are exchanging details, questions and information live
on television. It's not that easy to come up with a good script while reporting live on camera.
There are times when a reporter forgets their points of discussion. The secret is focus. Remember
that you are reporting for the viewers and that their concern should be your utmost priority. Ask
questions as if you are the viewer. A live reporter, even under pressure, knows what the audience
would want to know or ask from a report. Here are tips on how to make a good live report:

Have your own notes.

If you are a reporter that has been sent to a location to cover a specific event or story, there
won't be a researcher besides you. You need to do your own research and compose your own
report. It's so much easier if you have ample time to write the report, but if not, then you will
have to report the news you've gathered live on TV. Reporters often learn the hard way that
their training is basically being sent to far-away areas just prove their worth. That is why it's
important to take notes, and also to always see the other side of the story, and attempt to
report without a specific slant.

Talk to People in Authority.

There are subjects that are difficult or very technical to explain for a reporter, which is why a
good resource person is necessary. You should familiarize yourself with people from the
government, doctors, specialists, experts and other resource persons who are specialists in
their fields. For more credible information, invite these specialists to be interviewed live on
camera. But make sure you brief them beforehand, and that you have already discussed the
questions you'll ask prior to the live airing. This will help him/her be prepared.

When reporting with a co-host, listen attentively to his ideas and opinions, and react
accordingly.

You are given a partner for a good reason. A good newscast reporter also knows how to
converse well with a fellow news reporter live on camera. The interaction must feel natural.
Humor and wit are also important, especially when discussing light issues.

Do not lead the interviewee on.

Your purpose is to ask questions for clarity. Let the subject lead the story by providing the
correct information. Ask follow up question according to what he/she said, but never assume.
The last thing you want is to be humiliated on national TV.

Keep a balanced opinion.

News reporters are messengers. They report based on facts and they do not necessarily
interpret it according to their own biases, however, there are times that reporters add their
personal views topics. This is fine, provided the views are not prejudiced.

Live reports are seen as the epitome of connecting audiences and events, live reports have an
authenticity that comes from reporters’ real-time proximity to events, the unpredictability of
broadcasting events outside of the newsroom. Live reporting is also logistically challenging,
giving them an ability to demonstrate their technological sophistication.

While for live reporting, it is usually believed that it is unpredicted, unscripted and
spontaneous, the reporting still heavily relies on official sources to frame and interpret
events.
Things to figure out before live reporting:
• There is no script, use bullet points to guide the flow of the information you’re delivering and
practice before you go live.
• Make a game plan for the live shot. Will you be moving around, showing the audience
something or doing something on camera?

5. Radio jockeying / online radio and new trends

Radio Jockeying is a branch of mass communication and media that deals with on-air events on
the radio on various topics, across the world. An individual hosting the same is known as a Radio
Jockey or an RJ, who is responsible for the broadcast spectrum like chat, music and news shows
to name a few.

A radio jockey is a professional in charge of providing entertainment and information through

various radio programmes. Also known as RJs or radio DJs, radio jockeys work for radio stations
and follow their station's direction in the shows they host. They may play a variety of music,
sometimes concentrating on a specific genre. Some of the music genres they may highlight in
their programs are pop, classical, film, devotional, instrumental, R&B, country, rock-and-roll and
rock. During programme intervals, they may discuss cultural, political, local, weather-related and
sports-related matters.
Radio jockeys have to prepare strong, creative scripts and pay attention to their narration,
articulation, voice modulation and timing. To keep their listeners interested and entertained
throughout the programmes, they must be confident, knowledgeable, enthusiastic, passionate
and amusing. They must make music tracks, create infomercials, record advertisements and plan
programme break. Additionally, they must take song requests from listeners and respond to
listener messages and voice calls. Radio jockeys must also have the technical knowledge to
handle radio production equipment.

A radio personality (American English) or radio presenter (British English) is a person who has an
on-air position in radio broadcasting. A radio personality who hosts a radio show is also known
as a radio host, and in India and Pakistan as a radio jockey. Radio personalities who introduce
and play individual selections of recorded music are known as disc jockeys or "DJs" for short.
Broadcast radio personalities may include talk radio hosts, AM/FM radio show hosts, and satellite
radio program hosts. Radio jockeying is a fantastic job choice for those who enjoy talking, creating
and expressing themselves.

A radio personality can be someone who introduces and discusses genres of music; hosts a talk
radio show that may take calls from listeners; interviews celebrities or guests; or gives news,
weather, sports, or traffic information. The radio personality may broadcast live or use voice-
tracking techniques. Because radio is all about voice and words, a Radio Jockey must have a
charming, lively, and engaging personality. Aside from that, there are a few more skill sets needed
to be a competent radio jockey, which are listed below:

Radio Jockeying Skills:

Voice Modulation
Clarity of Speech
Being Expressive and Creative
Keep oneself updated
Spontaneous
Correct Pronunciation
Basic Technical knowledge to handle equipment
Good sense of humor

Announcer: This is one of the most basic radio station's positions. An announcer is someone who
reads commercials and is in charge of introducing stuff on the radio. This is the first position one
holds before being promoted to higher levels.
FM/AM Radio Jockeys: FM/AM radio jockeys interact with the listener via playing music, talking,
or both. Normally, they work for public radio stations.

Talk Radio Jockeys: Talk radio jockeys’ only job is to talk for the duration of the show and to
address various social and political problems. They also interact with the show’s audience and
viewers.

Sports Talk Radio Jockeys: They have to communicate with listeners and discuss various sports
news and events. These jockeys are usually a former athlete, a television anchor, or a columnist.

What do radio jockeys do?

A radio jockey may undertake different duties depending on the show they host and the radio
station where they are employed. Some of their work duties may include:

• brainstorming programme ideas

• writing programme scripts
• recording advertisements
• creating informercials
• selecting music
• making music tracks
• planning programme breaks
• taking song requests
• reading listener messages
• accepting listener calls
• interviewing people
• engaging in debates
• hosting contests
• announcing giveaways
• giving weather reports
• providing traffic updates
• discussing current events
• talking about sports

Online radio and new trends:

Internet radio (also web radio, net radio, streaming radio, e-radio, IP radio, online radio) is a
digital audio service transmitted via the Internet. Broadcasting on the Internet is usually referred
to as webcasting since it is not transmitted broadly through wireless means. It can either be used
as a stand-alone device running through the internet, or as software running through a single
computer.

Internet radio is generally used to communicate and easily spread messages through the form of
talk. It is distributed through a wireless communication network connected to a switch packet
network (the internet) via a disclosed source. Internet radio involves streaming media, presenting
listeners with a continuous stream of audio that typically cannot be paused or replayed, much
like traditional broadcast media; in this respect, it is distinct from on-demand file serving. Internet
radio is also distinct from podcasting, which involves downloading rather than streaming.

Internet radio services offer news, sports, talk, and various genres of music—every format that
is available on traditional broadcast radio stations. Many Internet radio services are associated
with a corresponding traditional (terrestrial) radio station or radio network, although low start-
up and ongoing costs have allowed a substantial proliferation of independent Internet-only radio
stations. Internet radio has lots of choice and great sound quality, and you can listen to your
favorite stations for free with internet radio apps.

Internet radio is accessed online, so you need a broadband connection and home wi-fi network
rather than a traditional aerial to receive it. They tend to be pricier than the average FM or DAB
radio. However, you don’t even need to own a conventional radio to listen to internet radio. It
can be accessed using a media player or web browser on your computer or laptop or via an app
on your smartphone, tablet or smart-enabled TV.

Internet radio services are usually accessible from anywhere in the world with a suitable internet
connection available; one could, for example, listen to an Australian station from Europe and
America. This has made internet radio particularly suited to and popular among expatriate
listeners. Internet radio is also suited to listeners with special interests, allowing users to pick
from a multitude of different stations and genres less commonly represented on traditional radio.

The distribution of audio broadcasts over the Internet. There are thousands of Internet radio
stations that can be streamed to a software media player in a computer, mobile device, stand-
alone Internet radio, media hub or media server. Often called "Webcasts," they come from
myriad organizations as well as traditional AM and FM radio stations. If an Internet radio has
built-in wireless connectivity, it may be called a "Wi-Fi radio."

Internet radio has been around since the late 1990s. Traditional radio broadcasters have used
the Internet to simulcast their programming. But Internet radio is undergoing a revolution that
will expand its reach from your desktop computer to access broadcasts anywhere, anytime, and
expand its programming from traditional broadcasters to individuals, organizations and
government. The first Internet radio service was launched in 1993. As of 2017, the most popular
internet radio platforms and applications in the world include (but are not limited to) TuneIn
Radio, iHeartRadio, and Sirius XM.

Uses and Advantages

There are a number of notable benefits to listening to the radio via the internet.

Firstly, it’s not limited by what signals are broadcast locally, so you can listen in real time to
thousands of radio shows from all over the world. There’s no need to struggle with manually
tuning to a station or have your programme interrupted by dodgy reception or signal problems.
It’s also possible to catch up on programmes that have already been broadcast, and many major
internet radio stations allow you to listen to shows from the past week.

Signal strength is not an issue because the high-speed power of the internet enables fast and
reliable signals to be transmitted, so it’s possible to stream flawless high-quality recordings – as
long as you have a decent wi-fi connection of course. Internet radio has no geographic limitations.
The potential for Internet radio is as vast as cyberspace itself (for example, Live365 offers more
than 30,000 Internet radio broadcasts).

In comparison to traditional radio, Internet radio is not limited to audio. An Internet radio
broadcast can be accompanied by photos or graphics, text and links, as well as interactivity, such
as message boards and chat rooms. This advancement allows a listener to do more than listen.
In the example at the beginning of this article, a listener who hears an ad for a computer printer
ordered that printer through a link on the Internet radio broadcast Web site. The relationship
between advertisers and consumers becomes more interactive and intimate on Internet radio
broadcasts. This expanded media capability could also be used in other ways. For example, with
Internet radio, you could conduct training or education and provide links to documents and
payment options. You could also have interactivity with the trainer or educator and other
information on the Internet radio broadcast site.

Internet radio programming offers a wide spectrum of broadcast genres, particularly in music.
Internet radio offers the opportunity to expand the types of available programming. The cost of
getting "on the air" is less for an Internet broadcaster, and Internet radio can appeal to "micro-
communities" of listeners focused on special music or interests.

Indian Internet Radios

• Boxout.fm
• Radio Maska
 • RadioJoyAlukkas.com
• Hasya Katta Official
• SHOUTcast
• Last.fm
• Mundu Radio
• Grooveshark
• RadioParadise
• Radioverve
• Bellyup4Blues
• SKY.fm
• 977
• MusicIndiaOnline

New Trends:

Although the future of radio has been doubted many times throughout its history, it is still in
existence. The inherent portability of the medium gives it an advantage over other types of media
that require an individual’s full attention, such as television or print. The simplicity of radio has
leant itself to a variety of uses.

In recent years, new technologies have promised to expand the reach of radio and to expand the
kinds of programming it offers. Satellite and HD radio have increased the amount and diversity
of available programming by making more stations available. Internet radio has increased the
accessibility of radio communication, and practically anyone who has access to a computer can
create subscription podcasts to distribute around the world. These new technologies promise to
make radio an enduring, innovative form of media.

Satellite Radio

In 1998, the FCC awarded licenses to two businesses interested in creating a radio version of
cable television—without the cables. This act was the beginning of satellite radio, and the
companies soon became XM and Sirius. These two networks sold special receivers that could pick
up satellite transmissions broadcasting a wide range of formats on different channels to listeners
who paid a monthly fee for the commercial-free programming. Like cable television, satellite
radio was not required to censor its disc jockeys or guests for profanity.

HD Radio
Developed around 2001 to help terrestrial radio stations compete with emerging satellite radio
technology, HD radio is essentially a digital transmission of radio signals resulting in less static
and better sound quality, even for AM stations. Upgraded quality is not the major benefit of HD
radio, however; the technology allows signals to be compressed so that one station can air so-
called shadow stations on the same frequency as its regular broadcast. Although listeners need
an HD radio to receive these channels, they pay no subscription fee, as independent stations
provide their own programming as they deem necessary.

HD radio allows current broadcasters to provide content that they would normally put aside in
favor of more commercial programs. The innovation of HD radio allowed the station to
reintroduce the programs without risking its financial stability. With this financial freedom, HD
radio offers a host of programming possibilities for traditional radio.

Internet Radio and Podcasting

Broadcasting is both a strength and limitation of broadcasting. Although technological advances

of the past 50 years, such as audio recorders and microphones, have made creating a radio
program simple, finding a way to broadcast that program presents difficulties for the average
person. The expansion of the Internet, however, has changed this limitation into a manageable
hurdle for both businesses and individuals alike. At its core, Internet radio is simply the streaming
of audio programs through the medium of the Internet.

As radio embraces more digital strategies to remain relevant to their existing advertisers, a
positive side effect will be that digital agencies will turn their attention to radio. This will be a
huge boon for the industry as ad revenue continues to erode from traditional agencies and move
to digital. Key drivers will be the continued growth of streaming, local digital initiatives like daily
deals, improved user-level targeting, and direct digital marketing via things like email and texting.

Community radio

Community radio is a radio service offering a third model of radio broadcasting in addition to
commercial and public broadcasting. Community stations serve geographic communities and
communities of interest. They broadcast content that is popular and relevant to a local, specific
audience but is often overlooked by commercial or mass-media broadcasters. Community radio
stations are operated, owned, and influenced by the communities they serve. They are generally
nonprofit and provide a mechanism for enabling individuals, groups, and communities to tell
their own stories, to share experiences and, in a media-rich world, to become creators and
contributors of media. Community radio is a world-wide phenomenon. Its roots date back to the
late 1940s when it was introduced as a way to offer media access to union members and their
families during a labor strike in Bolivia.

Storyboarding for Television Commercials

Storyboarding is a planning convention used in television, film, cartoons and even advertising.
It is the part of the pre-production process in which artists draw comic book-like is a visual
outline for the ad. It’s made up of a series of thumbnail images that convey what representations
of what the advertisement will look like – a series of panels that represent the planned shots
that will eventually be filmed. In advertising, writing an ad storyboard is not always a necessary
step, but it may prove useful when you finally reach the production stage of filming.
A storyboard happens in your video, from beginning to end. It also includes notes about what’s
happening in each frame. A finished storyboard looks like a comic strip. Storyboards can be
simple or complex. They’re usually hand-drawn, although some people prefer to use
storyboarding software to create their images. A storyboard is similar to a script, but the two
aren’t quite the same – storyboards are visual, while scripts are text-based. The ad storyboard
can include details like the type of shot (e.g., single shot or close up), character movement,
camera movement, voiceover, camera placement, POV (point of view), and more.

Sequential Outline

A storyboard for a TV commercial function similarly to an outline of a story; it is a shorthand

version of the final product that you can use to plan ahead. Commercials, for example, work
with limited time frames that are often no longer than 30 seconds. When you review the
storyboard, you are able to estimate how much time you have to convey your information. The
storyboard breaks down the commercial shot by shot, so you can determine how much time
you can spend on each shot to keep the commercial within its time constraints.

Visual Guide

Storyboards also are used as a visual reference guide throughout the filming process. Since
each frame of the storyboard represents a shot in the advertisement, you can refer to the
storyboard to ensure two things. The first is that you get each shot that you need for the
commercial without accidentally leaving anything out. The second is that you frame and shoot
each shot in the manner you had planned. You are able to determine ahead of time how you
will frame the subject, capture any movement and move the camera, and then simply do so
according to your own instructions on the storyboard.
Time to Review

The storyboard serves as your final opportunity to review your concept and make any changes
before production happens. After the storyboard is approved, you can always make changes,
but doing so during the filming process may cause delays. With your storyboard, you can ensure
that you have everything you need, like props, set dressings and on-screen talent, as well as
ensuring that the advertisements message comes across strongly through your visual
storytelling. It is your way of visualizing the final product before going through the motions of
actual production.

Steps for Creating a Storyboard:

1. Establish a Timeline

Storyboarding is all about structure. Figure out the sequence of events for your video and the
narrative. Make sure to follow the order of opener – problem statement – solution – call to
action.

2. Identify Key Scenes

Besides the ending call to action, determine the pivotal points in the video. Perhaps it’s a zoom-
in on a differentiating feature of your product, a montage of customers using the product, or a
grand opening shot. Essentially the key scenes are those that are engaging the viewer and driving
them to take action.

4. Write Your Script

The script should be the outline for all the spoken words for the video, the dialogue, voiceovers,
or a combination of both.

5. Make a shot list

First up, pick a scene from your script and make a shot list. Think about how you can use different
camera angles to bring out the story, reveal things about characters, or make certain moments
pop onscreen. At this stage, it’s important to plan how many panels your storyboard will have
and number each one to ensure there is no confusion in the timeline of your video.
 6. Choose Your Storyboarding Tool

You can choose the retro option, and use a pen, colored markers or pencils, and paper. Or you
can go high-tech with any of these:

• Presentation software like Microsoft PowerPoint or Google Slides

• Graphic design software like Adobe Illustrator and Adobe InDesign
• iPad software like Adobe Photoshop Sketch (often requires a stylus)
• Storyboarding software like Amazon Storyteller or Storyboard That
• Storyboard templates for Google Slides or Vidyard
• Toon Boom, Storyboard Pro, Storyboarder, Plot, Boords

As you set up your storyboard template, make sure your thumbnails are approximately the same
size as the dimensions of your video (i.e., square, 4:3, 16:9).

7. Sketch out Your Thumbnails/ Draw

Choose the type of storyboard that will work best for your project and start drawing. Start
sketching out the scenes. Depending on artistic ability and bandwidth, one might draw out fully-
formed characters and backgrounds, or could use stick figures for people and simple geometric
shapes for objects. If your video is live-action, then sketch storyboard on paper. If it’s animated
then create a digital storyboard with software like Adobe Illustrator or an equivalent, such
as Inkscape or Gravit. Determine the visual style; it’s a good idea to create a list of things you
need to draw. It also allows you to think about the extra details you want to include in your video
before you start recording or animating.

8. Annotate Each Scene with Details / Add text descriptions

A storyboard is a visual tool, but you need to add in the non-visual details to get the best result.
Add the dialogue and/or voiceovers from your script to each thumbnail. Add directional notes
for the people who will be working on the video, such as desired lighting and camera angle.
Number your thumbnails so they don’t get jumbled up.

9. Include animator/ videographer notes

A “cut’ is whenever the video zooms in closer to highlight the action. Indicate in the storyboard
where you want cuts, as well as any other directions regarding transitions or flow of your video.
It’s also important to add notes that will direct your animators or videographers. For example, if
you want to see a zoom, a pan, a tilt, or a specific transition, add this to your storyboard to inform
 your team. These notes can be quick annotations or even just simple arrows that point in the
direction you want the camera to move.

10. Review / Feedback

The final step in creating a storyboard is to review it with all stakeholders. One of the most
important functions of a storyboard is to prevent costly or difficult changes at later stages in the
production, so feedback is very important here. Gather feedback from everyone involved and
then apply any necessary changes to the storyboard.

Types of Storyboards:

Storyboards have always been a part of filmmaking and video production, and it has evolved over
the years. There are now different types of storyboards that can be used depending on your skill
level and type of video. Here are some different types of storyboards to take your video from
script to screen:

• Traditional Storyboards
Traditional storyboards are a series of pencil or ink drawings that help to visualize
the video before filming begins. They can be sequentially arranged on a wall or in a spiral-bound
book for easy reference. The drawing itself can be as detailed as you want it, and you can use it
to sketch each shot to a few scenes in your script. Many traditional storyboards also have written
notes that describe what is going on in the scene. The best thing about this type of storyboard is
that it is easy to edit.

• Thumbnail Storyboards
Thumbnail storyboards involve making small sketches – the size of a postage stamp – of the shots
in your video on a few pieces of paper. Due to the small size, they are less detailed and take less
time than traditional storyboards. You can use it to quickly draft your ideas before making
drawing a more detailed version, like a traditional storyboard.

• Animated/ Digital Storyboards

Technology has made it possible to create more complex storyboards that are animated and have
some dialogue and music. Essentially, animated storyboards are different sketches that are
filmed to show the proposed timing, pacing, and overall visual flow of the scene. Such details
may be hard to convey with sketches. A digital storyboard is perfect for animated videos because
you can use the exact graphics that will be shown in the final video. This allows everyone involved
to get a sneak peek into what the end-product will look like. This ensures that there are fewer
 changes later down the line and it also allows our clients to have more of an input into how their
video will look.

Must-haves for every storyboard:

• Project Name
Name your project accordingly from the start. Use a working title if you haven’t decided on a
name.

• Scene Number
Include a scene number for every scene you illustrate to make it easier to match it to the script
when you start shooting.

o Page Number
Your video may be short, but the storyboard can span pages of individual or binded sheets of
paper. Each page should have a number to preserve your order.

o Shot Number
Keep track of each shot by assigning a number. You can reference the shot number later, during
production or editing.

o Description
The storyboard should include:
• Indications of movement in the scene
• By which side the character enters and where it leaves
• The trajectory a given object will take
• The camera angles
• Cuts
• Duration of each take
IV. EVALUATION OF CONTENT

1. Checking spelling and grammar.

Check news/magazine copies for headlines (types, appeal), sub heads,
Use of graphics and illustrations for construction and information flow in Newspapers.
2. Rewriting leads
3. Achieving fitment with spacing requirements at any newspaper, magazine or webpage.
4. Checking Advertising agency copies, checking headline/sub headline (types, appeal) and
maintaining sequence and flow in body copy.
5. Online editing: editing requirements; content, layout, clarity, style, conciseness, online
headlining -website design

1. Checking spelling and grammar:

Proofreading

Proofreading is the reading of a galley proof or an electronic copy of a publication to find and
correct reproduction errors of text. Proofreading is the final step in the editorial cycle before
publication. Once you’ve done one pass of proofreading, make sure it all flows together
logically, with easy-to-follow transitions. Try reading your work slowly out loud to notice any
issues with how your writing sounds.

Here are some reasons why spelling and grammar is important:

Clarity and Understanding: Proper spelling and grammar help convey your ideas clearly. When
words are spelled correctly and sentences are grammatically sound, it is easier for readers to
understand your message without confusion.

Credibility: Errors in spelling and grammar can undermine your credibility. People may question
your attention to detail or the accuracy of your information if your writing is riddled with
mistakes.

Effective Communication: The goal of communication is to convey your thoughts and ideas to
others. Proper spelling and grammar facilitate effective communication by reducing the chances
of misinterpretation and misunderstanding.
Avoidance of Ambiguity: Correct spelling and grammar help prevent ambiguity. Ambiguous
sentences can be interpreted in multiple ways, leading to confusion. Clear and accurate language
reduces the risk of miscommunication.

Avoiding Distraction: Poor spelling distracts the reader and they lose focus. It’s hard to read a
text for comprehension when it’s full of spelling errors.

Reader Engagement: Well-written content is more likely to engage readers. Poor spelling and
grammar can be distracting, leading readers to focus on the errors rather than the content itself.

Professionalism: Good spelling and grammar are often associated with professionalism. Whether
you're writing a business email, a report, or any other document, presenting well-constructed
and error-free content enhances your professional image.

How to check spelling and grammar?

The software/ tools that checks and corrects spelling errors in emails, texts, word processing and
more is called spell check. Some programs have built in spell and grammar check features.

• Microsoft Word: A widely used word processing software, includes a built-in spell-check
tool.
• Grammarly: A popular online writing assistant that provides grammar and spell checking,
as well as suggestions for improving writing style and clarity.
• Google Docs: A cloud-based document editor, includes a spell-check feature that helps
users identify and correct spelling errors.
• ProWritingAid: An online grammar and style checking tool that provides suggestions for
improving writing.
• Ginger: It offers a spell-checker and grammar checker to help users correct their writing
in real-time.
• Hemingway Editor: A tool that helps users improve the readability of their writing by
highlighting complex sentences and suggesting simplifications.
• LanguageTool: An open-source grammar and spell-checking tool that supports multiple
languages, including English.
• WhiteSmoke: An online writing tool that offers grammar and spell checking, as well as
style suggestions.
• Online Spell Checkers (Generic): Several websites offer basic online spell-checking tools
that allow users to copy and paste text for quick checks.
Spell Check Options

In Microsoft Word documents, you can choose which spell check features you want to use. These
options are often found in the 'Proofing' window, located under the 'Review' tab, depending on
the version of Word that you use. Word's spell check function is set to automatically check your
spelling while you type. Errors in your document will have color-coded underlines reflecting your
choices, like red for spelling errors, green for grammar errors, and blue for contextual spelling
errors. The contextual errors let you know when a word is used in the wrong context.

Spell Check Documents

If you prefer, you can make corrections when you've completed your essay or research paper. To
do this, select 'Spelling and Grammar' in the 'Proofing' window, and spell check will scan all words
in the document and suggest corrections for errors. Another handy spell check feature is the
'Replace' option. If you know you've misspelled a name, for example, you can enter the
misspelled version under the 'find' field and the corrected version in 'replace' field. This will
correct every instance throughout the document.

Spell Check in Email

Email programs also have spell check software. Like in Word documents, misspellings will
typically show up with underlines so you can correct words on the fly. If you'd rather correct the
whole email message at once, go to the icons above and sometimes below the text windows,
which appear when you're responding or composing, and select 'spell check.'

A misspelled word, bad grammar or pitiful punctuation can ruin that first impression quickly.

How to check spelling and grammar

1. Beware the homonyms.

Words that sound the same but are spelled differently -- homonyms -- are a real stumbling block
for writers in all areas, from student papers to blogs to marketing. Some prime examples are:
ads/adds/adz
peak/peek/pique
pedal/peddle/petal
rain/reign/rein
4. Keep your possessive nouns straight.

Most possessive nouns will have an apostrophe -- but where you put that apostrophe can be
confusing. Here are a few general rules to follow:
If the noun is plural, add the apostrophe after the s. For example: the dogs' bones.
If the noun is singular and ends in s, you should also put the apostrophe after the s. For example:
the dress' blue color.
On the other hand, if the noun is singular and doesn't end in an s, you'll add the apostrophe
before the s. For example: the lizard's tail.”

1. Basic Spelling and Grammar

Tiny spelling and grammar mistakes can seriously tarnish the impression of whatever you’re
sending. So, begin by carefully making sure you’ve put periods in their places, you’ve used the
correct version of commonly confused words, and you haven’t accidentally misspelled something
that spell check doesn’t recognize. Check out Grammar Book or Grammarly for help. Or, if it’s so
confusing that you have to look it up, it may be worth simplifying the sentence to remove the
issue entirely.

2. Proper Nouns

Take a look at proper nouns to make sure they’re spelled correctly. If an executive has a long and
complicated name do a quick search on Google or in the employee directory to make sure you’ve
spelled it correctly. Do the same thing for company names, job titles, and locations.

3. Verb Tenses

Read over your sentences again to make sure you’re not mixing up verb tenses or using multiple
tenses within the same sentence (this often happens in sentences where you’re listing out
multiple actions).

4. Sentence Structure

Take a look at the length of your sentences. Some of your sentences might be run-ons, so see if
you can clean them up by making them shorter. Sometimes it’s better to break things up and
know everything is readable than to try hard to sound impressive and end up confusing your
reader.

5. Formatting

Look at your document as a whole, and critique how it looks. Never use more than two formatting
tricks (bold, italics, underlining, funky margins, small font) in the same document. Speaking of
bold, italics, and underlining, never use more than one at a time.

6. Consistency

Make sure that your writing is consistent throughout, especially if you’re using numbers, symbols,
or contractions.

7. Idioms

If you’re using figures of speech, make sure you’ve actually used them correctly.

8. Spelling and word choice confusions

● Confusions between homophones (e.g. there/they’re/their)

● Misuse of definite and indefinite articles (the/a/an)
● Misuse of prepositions

9. Misplaced punctuation

● Missing or misused commas

● Confusion between hyphens, and dashes
● Incorrect use of apostrophes

10. Stylistic inconsistency

● Switching between UK and US conventions

● Inconsistent capitalization of terms or titles
● Inconsistent treatment of numbers

11. Formatting issues

● Incorrect formatting of quotations and citations

● Inconsistent paragraph indentation and spacing
● Missing or misplaced page numbers, headers and footers

12. Overall Flow

Once you’ve done one pass of proofreading, make sure it all flows together logically, with easy-
to-follow transitions. Try reading your work slowly out loud to notice any issues with how your
writing sounds.

Proofreading is the reading of a galley proof or an electronic copy of a publication to find and
correct reproduction errors of text. Proofreading is the final step in the editorial cycle before
publication.

1. Check news/magazine copies for headlines (types, appeal), sub heads

Headline:

A headline is text above an article that summarizes its overall content. Its purpose is to quickly
capture the attention of readers. Because headlines are titles that appear before an article, they
are often the deciding factor regarding whether a reader clicks on an article and, therefore, are
most enticing when they're persuasive. Writers use headlines for news articles, blog posts,
advertisements, social media posts and press releases.
Types of headlines

1. Direct headline

A direct headline clearly states the purpose of an article. It usually involves facts in the article to
summarize the overall idea. Readers know exactly what they are going to read or see when you
use a direct headline.
Example: "15 Puppy Pictures to Cheer You Up"

2. Indirect headline

An indirect headline takes a subtle approach by hinting at the main point of an article. Since it
doesn't directly state the key idea, it targets a reader's curiosity to discover what the article is
about.
Example: "Shoe company floats on in 2021"*

3. News headlines

News headlines make important announcements about a company or its products. Journalists
often use these types of headlines in news articles to efficiently share recent information with
the public.
Example: "Beach Cove Taffy Announces New Location Near Myrtle Beach"

4. How-to headline

This type of headline teaches readers ways to learn a new skill or solve a problem through an
outline of steps. To write a how-to headline, writers start with the phrase "how to," followed by
the action they want their readers to learn. It also helps highlight why that particular article might
benefit them.
Example: "How to Drive in a Foreign Country Like a Local"

5. Question headline

A question headline poses a question to readers with the intention of providing the answer within
the article. These tend to be topics consumers may be interested in regarding a company's
products or brand.
Example: "Do You Know Which of Our Vegetables Has the Most Vitamins?"

7. The "reason why" headline

This headline tells an audience why certain situations occur. This type of headline typically results
in a list article format, which readers often prefer over other types of articles since it's easier to
skim.
Example: "8 Reasons Why Your Outfit Is Affecting Your Interview"

8. Emotional headline

Emotional headlines typically target either a positive or negative feeling to encourage an

audience to read an article. To do this, writers use powerful words such as affordable or stressed.
Example: "Ways You Can Prevent Work Burnout in the New Year"

Tips for writing successful headlines

● Be clear: When writing your headlines, be clear about what information your article
covers so readers know what to expect.
● Use keywords: Try to incorporate a highly searched keyword into your headline to help
generate traffic to your article through search engine optimization (SEO).
● Know your audience: In order to attract readers with your headlines, it's helpful to know
the target audience you want so you can emotionally appeal to them and their interests.

Headlines are becoming increasingly important in the internet age. Not only do they capture the
reader's attention, they serve as source material for search engines. Today a reader is just as
likely to come across an article by reading a list of search engine results as by scanning a
newspaper page. Headlines should be clear and specific, telling the reader what the story is
about, and be interesting enough to draw them into reading the article.

● 5-10 words at the most

● should be accurate and specific
● Use present tense and active verbs, but don't start with a verb
● Use infinitive form of verb for future actions
● Do not use articles - a, an, the
● Do not use conjunctions like and - you can substitute a comma
● Should be complete sentences or imply complete sentence
● Avoid repetition - Headlines summarize; they don't repeat the lead.
● Don't use unidentified pronouns
Subhead:

Subheadings are important because you can't say everything you need to say in just a single
headline. Subheadings have the power to reel the reader in. While the headline may grab the
user's attention, you need to do more than that in order for the user to stay. You want to compel
the reader to look, to click, to sample, to scroll, or to do whatever it is you want them to do. That
usually takes more than just 10-20 words

• Explain more. If your product or service needs a bit more explanation, then try expanding
on it with your subhead line.
• Talk about benefits. Benefit-focused headlines are great. By emphasizing how a product
or service will improve the user's life, you can dramatically advance the page's power.
• Encourage action. A subhead line is also a great way to get users to do something. If you
successfully encourage action, it's only a short hop for them to click the call-to-action
button below.

The nature of your subhead line depends on your headline. You can choose one of the techniques
above, or split test different varieties to see which one is best for your users.

Use of graphics and illustrations for construction and information flow in Newspapers.

A lengthy story of an interesting topic and a high journalistic standard may go unread by readers
because of its bad presentation. But a story that deals with a topic which is not that serious may
generate interest in the readers by presenting it graphically well.

A reporter's on-site reconstruction of the incident in words may be better understood by the
readers with visual support. Though photographs obviously can serve the purpose in a very
effective way, nothing like translating the events into sequential graphics.

In many situations, graphics provide more information in the given space than words alone can.
A tiny illustration or sketch can sometimes be more effective and communicative than words. A
general tendency as is seen in many publications is that graphics are used as ornamental visuals
to stories. An average reader will definitely have the capacity to understand that a long story
presented with such gimmicks is not worth reading. For him, the graphic should be informative
and useful. It should not be there on the page just for the sake of having a visual.
Visual presentation of an event would not only make for an attractive presentation of the story
but also enhance the overall design of the page. In the modern-day situation where brevity in
terms of constraints on time prevails, it is essential to offer the reader a choice. A well-thought
illustration, for instance, can convey the essence of the story while offering the reader the option
of either browsing through the entire report or merely capturing the essence of it by just taking
in the illustration.

The illustrations were used to amplify the text, adding emphasis and emotion to the accompanied
textual account. The use of illustrations not only advanced and relied on the literacy of the
readers of daily newspapers but also provided visual aid to illiterate consumers. Illustrations,
being a visual medium. Using visuals in journalism gained popularity from the late 1800s. This
was the period during which printed magazines were at the top of popularity. This created new
opportunities for journalists and they used visual information in different ways. Some of these
include:

● Photojournalism.
● Comics journalism.
● Animated illustrations.
● Visualized data.
● Caricatures and memes.

Why do print media need graphics and illustrations?

• Visual Appeal:

Eye-catching visuals, such as images, infographics, and illustrations, can make the publication
visually appealing, attracting readers and encouraging them to engage with the content.

• Attention Grabbing:

Strong visuals help capture the reader's attention, making it more likely that they will stop and
read the accompanying text. This is particularly important in a competitive media environment
where attention spans are limited.
 • Storytelling:

Graphics and illustrations can be used to tell a story or convey a message more effectively than
text alone. They can simplify complex concepts and make them more accessible to a broader
audience.

• Information Hierarchy:

Graphics can help establish a clear information hierarchy, guiding the reader through the
content. Headlines, subheadings, and accompanying visuals work together to prioritize and
organize information.

• Data Visualization:

Infographics, charts, and graphs are powerful tools for presenting data in a digestible format.
They can quickly communicate trends, statistics, and comparisons, making information more
comprehensible for the audience.

• Brand Identity:

Consistent use of specific graphic elements, such as logos, colors, and fonts, helps reinforce the
brand identity of the newspaper or magazine. This creates a cohesive and recognizable look
that readers can associate with the publication.

• Enhanced Understanding:

Visual aids can enhance the reader's understanding of complex topics. Maps, diagrams, and
illustrations can provide context and clarity to articles, ensuring that readers grasp the main
ideas more easily.

• Break up Text:

In a dense sea of text, graphics and illustrations serve as visual breaks, preventing reader
fatigue. They break up long articles, making the content more approachable and easier to read.

• Promotion and Advertisements:

Graphics are often used in advertisements to capture attention and convey the message
succinctly. This is essential for both editorial content and advertisements in maintaining a
visually cohesive design.
 • Cross-Platform Integration:

As publications expand to digital platforms, graphics can be repurposed for online use, creating
a seamless experience for readers across different media.

What are the types of graphics?

• Photographs
• Drawings, Caricatures, Comics & Illustrations
• Infographics
• Memes
• Maps
• Graphs & Charts
• Pull Quotes and Callouts

Visualized data

Infographics is part of data visualization that also includes maps, infographics, heatmaps, etc.
This area lies between usual storytelling and displaying big data. This is what makes data
understandable for ordinary people who have nothing in common with big data analysis.

Memes

Memes are a virally transmitted social idea; it is a modern trend used by newsrooms both for
entertainment and sometimes even to misinform readers. Anyway, they are engaging, emotional
and humorous. In a nutshell, every type of visual format can work great and glue people to your
articles or news. Accompanying long text stories with visuals, boosts readers’ interest and keeps
them reading any story to its end.

Maps

For a foreign news story, this can be a map showing the location of the country where the news
is happening. For a national story, it can be a map showing whereabouts in the country the town
is, where the news is happening. You can even use a street map, showing whereabouts in the
town the news event happened. The best maps for use in newspapers contain as little
information as is necessary, and have all the lines drawn boldly. All the lettering on the map must
be easily readable, even after the map has been reduced in size for publication. The usual rule is
that no lettering on a map (or other graphic artwork) as it appears in a newspaper should be
smaller than 9 points.

Graphs and charts

When the story depends on comparing sets of figures, it may be easier for the readers to
understand if they are presented in graph or chart form. All lines should be drawn boldly, and
that the chart or graph should not be crowded with too much unnecessary information.

Drawings

Sometimes a drawing can illustrate a story more effectively than a photograph can do. Drawings
can also be useful in illustrating features. If the feature can be given to a good artist several days
in advance, it may be possible for the artist to create a drawing which captures the point of the
feature in a way which no photograph can do.

Most print media use a combination of words and pictures to tell the news, but some only
use words. If you have ever seen a newspaper with no pictures, you will know that it does not
look attractive; it does not make you want to read it. It looks as though it will be hard work, and
readers are therefore put off. It is also limited in its ability to tell the news accurately.

What makes a strong news picture?

A strong news picture has to be about the news. That is, it has to be about something which is
new, unusual, interesting, significant and about people. To that extent, it is no different from a
news story. However, news pictures also need three other qualities:

• Life

If the people being photographed look alive and involved in the subject of the photograph, then
the photograph will have life.

• Relevant context

News pictures should always try to capture this context, the job which the person does, or the
reason why they are in the news.

• Meaning

Every news picture must earn its space on the page. That means that it must tell the story clearly,
without needing people to read the story first in order to understand what the picture is all about.
In other words, every news picture must have meaning.
2. Rewriting Leads:

A lead corresponds to the opening sentence found under the title of an article. Its role is crucial:
it must contain all the information that you are about to develop in your article. It’s a tool to get
the reader’s attention, so he or she reads your work — this is writer-centered

It’s a way to make sure that your reader can quit reading at any time after the lead, without
misunderstanding the information or missing a crucial point. He or she will leave with all the key
information needed to make his or her own opinion — this is reader-centered

To write a lead, start with reading the press wire, several times. If you’re writing an article without
a press wire, you can skip this point. Write down all the crucial information, using bullet points.
Start with the basics: who, what, where, when, why and how.

Now, you have to organize all these pieces of information into one sentence. Two is also
acceptable. Start with a first draft. Write your lead as it comes to your mind, without focusing on
the length. Just write all the key information in as many sentences as you want and need.

A little tip for this point: try to use meaningful words. You can only use very few words, so use
words that matter. To help you, think about words as little suitcases, each surrounded by a nebula
of meaning. Each word evokes different things in people’s subconscious. Use this to your
advantage in order to bring specific ideas to life in just a few words.

Read what you’ve written. And rewrite it a little more concisely, paying attention not to lose any
piece of information. Read again. Re-rewrite.

Writing a lead is all about rewriting, at least five times. Each time, cut through the text a little bit
more. In order not to lose any information, this part will require you to shorten your sentences,
while choosing more meaningful words and more concise structures. Do this until you end up
with one (or two) sentence(s) containing all the information. So much that you could hand
someone the lead and the reader would understand everything that he or she needs, without
having to read any further.

Rewriting is the process of going through a rough draft and fixing things that don’t work for you,
whether that’s changing the word choice in a single sentence or cutting entire sections that feel
like fluff. Rewriting is the part of the editing process that usually refers to the larger changes that
comprise a whole new draft. If you put real work into your rewrite, a good piece of writing can
become great.

A lead is an opening paragraph that gives the audience the most important information of the
news story in a concise and clear manner, while still maintaining the readers' interest. If a reader
does not read beyond your first paragraph, they should still have an idea of what your article is
about and the most important information from that article. There are many different strategies
for writing a good lead as well as many differing opinions, but the strongest opinion is that they
are hard and take time. Don't plan on rushing a good lead.

Writing a Lead

The Five W's and H. Before writing a lead, you need to ask the fundamental questions of
newswriting; who, what, when, where, why, and how. Be sure to answer these questions in your
lead and leave the less important information for later in your article. Remember the inverted
pyramid.

Keep it Simple: The best lead is one that is concise and clear. Think about your story and then
write a simple but powerful way to reflect it. Don't bog your reader down with overly complicated
language or extra words. You must be clear and concise.

Don't bury your lead: Your lead is your hook (the thing that makes the reader interested in your
story). If you bury it, then their interest might be buried along with it! They shouldn't have to ask
themselves what the story is about, you should be telling them upfront.

The ABCs of journalism: Remember your ABCs which are Accuracy, Brevity, and Clarity. Though
these should be incorporated throughout your article, they are especially important in the lead.

Different Types of Leads

1. Summary Lead

A summary lead is the most common and traditional lead in journalism. It is meant to give a quick
summary in as few words as possible and is usually one sentence. It contains most of the 5Ws
(who, what, when, where, why) and the H (how). Summary leads are commonly used in news
reporting, especially for breaking news or situations where conveying the core details quickly is
essential. They provide a quick overview of the story's main elements and help readers decide if
they want to continue reading for more in-depth information
Example: "In a landmark decision, the city council voted unanimously yesterday to allocate $10
million in funding for the construction of a new public library. The project, slated to begin next
month, aims to address the growing demand for educational resources and community spaces in
the area."

2. Single-Item Lead

This lead focuses on just one or two elements of a summary lead. The purpose is to pack a bigger
punch than a summary lead. It is a concise and direct approach where the lead highlights one
specific aspect, fact, or event to immediately grab the reader's attention. Single-item leads are
often used when the primary focus or impact of the story can be distilled into a single point.
Single-item leads are effective in situations where there's a clear and impactful central point that
can quickly capture the audience's interest. They are particularly useful for breaking news stories
or situations where brevity and immediacy are essential.

Example: "Breaking: Scientists Discover Water on Mars"

3. Delayed Identification Lead

A "delayed identification lead" is a type of lead in journalism that intentionally withholds or

delays the identification of a person, place, or key element in the news story. This technique is
employed to build suspense, intrigue, or curiosity in the reader before revealing crucial
information. It adds a narrative or storytelling element to the reporting, prompting readers to
continue reading to find out the details. Delayed identification leads are often used in feature
stories, profiles, or investigative pieces where the narrative structure can enhance the
storytelling aspect of journalism. They are a creative way to engage readers and make them eager
to learn more about the unfolding events or individuals in the story.

Example: "In the heart of the bustling city, a figure moved through the shadows, orchestrating a
plan that would change the course of history. Little did the unsuspecting citizens know that this
enigmatic individual held the key to a secret that would soon be unveiled."
 4. Creative Lead

A "creative lead" in journalism refers to an opening or introduction in a news article or feature

story that employs a creative, imaginative, or unconventional approach to capture the reader's
attention. Unlike traditional leads that follow a straightforward and factual structure, creative
leads often incorporate elements of storytelling, vivid language, or unexpected angles to make
the content more engaging and memorable. The focus is on creating an atmosphere and sparking
the reader's imagination, providing a unique entry point into the narrative. Creative leads are
often used in feature articles, lifestyle pieces, and profiles where the goal is to entertain, inspire,
or evoke emotions.

Example: "As the morning sun painted the sky with hues of pink and gold, the sleepy town awoke
to an unexpected visitor. Nestled among the mundane storefronts and cobblestone streets was
a peculiar little shop, its windows adorned with whimsical trinkets that seemed to whisper tales
of forgotten enchantments and everyday magic."

5. Analogy Lead

An "analogy lead" in journalism involves opening a news article or feature story with a
comparison or analogy that helps readers understand the subject matter by relating it to
something familiar or more easily comprehensible. This technique uses similarities between the
known and unknown to create a bridge of understanding, making the content more relatable and
engaging. Analogy leads are effective in breaking down complex or unfamiliar subjects by
drawing parallels to something within the readers' realm of understanding. They can be
particularly useful when introducing technical concepts, scientific advancements, or intricate
processes, providing readers with a relatable context that aids in comprehension.

Example: "Like a skilled conductor orchestrating a symphony, the chef deftly moved around the
bustling kitchen, each motion deliberate and precise. In the heart of the culinary masterpiece
being crafted, ingredients danced together in harmony, creating a sensory experience that
transcended the boundaries of a mere meal."
When rewriting a lead:

1. Take time away. You’ve finished the first draft of your lead, and yet there’s something
overall that is unsatisfying for you—one of your central points is uninteresting to you. It
can be very hard to determine if something is actually boring or if you’ve just grown sick
of it, which is why it’s important to take some time away from a project before editing it.
Try putting it aside for some time before you do start rewriting. Even a little break can
give you a fresh eye later.
2. Break your work and put it back together. Don’t be afraid of “breaking” your piece.
Chances are a rewrite will make you work better, not worse. Expect the first draft to need
major retuning. Often all of the ingredients of a good piece are there. Sometimes a
revision is less a matter of rewriting and more a matter of reordering, digging deeper,
slowing down here, speeding up there, etc.
3. Get feedback from an editor or writing partner. At some point, you’ll need to show your
work to other people. A new reader can provide valuable feedback, but finding a good
one can be difficult. You’ll want to choose someone who likes the type of writing you’ve
done and who isn’t going to be inclined to praise your work just because they love you—
in other words, you need someone relatively objective. Other writers are often a great
choice as readers. Listen to your editors and readers and try what they suggest.
4. Look for places that need rephrasing. Once you’re happy with your draft, do a line edit,
looking at language, formatting, and style. Look especially for sections where the writing
seems different—maybe it’s too sloppy, or something is overwritten—or sequences
where someone acted out of character. Search for sections that are too heavy on
dialogue, or too dense with exposition, and try to balance them out.
5. Read your work aloud. As you move into the more polished drafts of your work, read the
text aloud. This will train your ear to edit and fine-tune your own writing. Reading your
work aloud is a great way to catch grammatical errors, awkward sentence structure, and
typos that your eyes skim over when reading your own words on a computer screen or
piece of paper.

The different levels of editing

Tier 1: Proofing

Proofing involves spell and grammar-checking, in minute detail. You focus on technical specifics,
and trust the original writer has done a bang-up job with style, structure and tone. The job is to
meticulously comb for errors (typos, missing words, inconsistency in product naming or
punctuation, etc.).

Tier 2: Copyediting

Copyediting involves getting a bit more hands-on with the text. It asks for further stylistic edits
to make the writing more pleasing, or more in keeping with a specific tone or voice. This still
shouldn’t involve any major structural changes, but it can demand chunks of text are rewritten
or stripped entirely to create a more cohesive piece.

Tier 3: Rewriting

The final stage is completely rewriting a piece. This involves changing the copy right down to the
structural level, and often means going back to the drawing board and rebriefing entirely. This is
the most involved level of editing, and essentially turns the first draft into an extended brief,
rather than an actual piece of content.

3. Fitment with Spacing requirements at Newspaper, Magazine, Webpage

Newspaper:

• Column Width and Length

Newspapers as you may have observed have a typical layout and the pages are divided vertically
into what is known as columns. The column size in different newspapers also vary, newspapers
are generally around eight columns of 4cms width each. The divisions are made by line spaces
left blank between two sets of texts; these are called gutters. These help to separate the news
items as well as aid readability. If you closely notice the advertisements, you will notice that, they
also confirm to the columns. The width is measured by columns, while the height is measured in
centimeters. These are important as they not only form the basis of the layout, but also, help in
calculating the cost-in terms of column/ centimeters. In some newspapers there are less number
of columns whereas, the width of each column may be more. All text rendered by the formatter
uses soft fonts, also known as fuzzy fonts, ant aliased fonts or grayscale fonts. Grayscale fonts
introduce a new way of thinking about text on computer displays. Soft fonts don't improve
resolution, but rather, improve addressability of the existing resolution.
 • Headlines & Sub headlines

The purpose of the headline font is to attract attention and to give an indication of the
importance of an article. For a headline to work as intended the font plays a vital part. There
exists no easy algorithm to select the right font automatically.

When choosing the best headline font, the formatter takes into account the following factors:

* Article priority: important articles need bigger font sizes to attract deserved attention.

* The width of the article (i.e., the number of columns): there has to be room for the selected
font, but the white space should be kept to a minimum.

* Content: articles with a "soft" content often get a serif font as headline, while "hard" news
stories use sans. This rule is not absolute and is not enforced by all publications.

* Variety: using only one headline font in a newspaper would result in a boring page and the
headlines would fail to attract attention.

Besides selecting the font, the formatter also selects the number of lines to split the headline
string into. Most newspaper headlines occupy one or two lines--sometimes three or four. Studies
show that upper-case text is less legible than lower-case text, and this is also true for headlines.
Lower-case words contain more distinct forms and uses less space. Readers are also more familiar
with lower-case text.

• Body Text

1 Columns

Columns is another technique newspapers use to squeeze more text onto a page. By making lines
shorter, leading can be minimized without the reader losing vertical position when retracing
lines. Also, columns make layout easier by increasing the horizontal resolution of a page.
Together with the nameplate and front page, columns are the most distinct feature of the
newspaper metaphor.

2 Paragraphs

The formatter treats each paragraph as a unit and will not split a paragraph in parts.

3 Alignment and Hyphenation

Most newspapers and magazines set the body text justified (flush-left / flush-right). Uneven
spacing between words, coupled with hyphenation, minimizes white space and maximizes word
density. On the other hand, left-aligned text (flush-left / ragged right) is by most considered easier
to read. The irregular line endings create a ragged margin that leaves some white space and gives
the text an "open" look.

• Gutter Space

Gutter space is the empty area between columns, and its primary purpose is to prevent the text
from looking crowded. Without sufficient gutter space, adjacent columns of text might visually
blend, making it difficult for readers to distinguish one line from another. Ample gutter space
contributes to comfortable reading by providing a visual buffer between lines of text. Readers
can follow the flow of the content more easily when there's a clear separation. Gutter space is
crucial to prevent visual clutter. It ensures that text from one column doesn't visually merge with
another, enhancing readability. Proper alignment with gutters maintains a clean and organized
appearance in the newspaper layout.

Gutter space is the empty area between columns, and its primary purpose is to prevent the text
from looking crowded. Without sufficient gutter space, adjacent columns of text might visually
blend, making it difficult for readers to distinguish one line from another. Ample gutter space
contributes to comfortable reading by providing a visual buffer between lines of text. Readers
can follow the flow of the content more easily when there's a clear separation. Gutter space is
crucial to prevent visual clutter. It ensures that text from one column doesn't visually merge with
another, enhancing readability. Proper alignment with gutters maintains a clean and organized
appearance in the newspaper layout.

Magazine:

• Page Layout

Magazines often have more creative freedom with page layouts. Designers consider factors like
margins, bleed (content that extends to the edge of the page), and gutters for an aesthetically
pleasing design. Use consistent margins for a cohesive and professional look. The page sizes are
defined and the print area is also fixed and artwork or layout must adhere to that. Usually reading
matter of articles and stories in magazines is set in columns but advertisements do not confine
themselves to these divisions. Advertisements in popular magazines mostly come in full page,
half page or double page.

Margins and Bleed: Designers need to consider margins, the space between the content and the
page edge, and bleed, which is content extending to the edge of the page. Proper margins ensure
a clean and polished look, while understanding bleed is essential for images or graphics that span
the entire page.

Grid Systems: Magazines often use grid systems for layout. This involves dividing the page into
columns and rows, providing a structured framework for content placement. A well-designed
grid ensures consistency and coherence throughout the magazine.

• Whitespace

Margins and Padding: Adequate whitespace, including margins and padding, is crucial for visual
balance. Margins around the page and padding within content blocks create a clean and
organized appearance.

Between Elements: Ensure proper spacing between images, text blocks, and other design
elements. This prevents overcrowding and helps readers focus on individual components.

• Typography

Font Selection: Choose fonts that align with the magazine's overall aesthetic and readability.
Headlines, subheadings, and body text should have a cohesive style while being easy to read.

Line Spacing and Kerning: Adjust line spacing to enhance readability, and pay attention to kerning
(space between characters) to maintain a harmonious visual flow. Well-spaced lines and
characters contribute to a comfortable reading experience.

Headings and Subheadings: Adequate spacing around headings and subheadings helps establish
a clear hierarchy. Readers should be able to easily distinguish between different levels of
information.
Webpage

• Responsive design

Adaptability: Webpages need to be responsive to different screen sizes, including desktops,

tablets, and mobile devices. A responsive design ensures that content adjusts dynamically to
provide an optimal viewing experience. Having a responsive site is important not just so your
visitors have the best possible experience, it also affects your search engine ranking.

Breakpoints: Designers use breakpoints to define how the layout should change at different
screen sizes. This includes adjusting the size and arrangement of elements to maintain readability
and usability.

• Whitespace and Readability

Whitespace Distribution: Whitespace, or negative space, is crucial for a clean and organized look.
It helps separate different elements and prevents visual clutter. Adequate spacing contributes to
improved readability.

Padding and Margins: Use sufficient padding and margins around text, images, and other
elements. This not only enhances readability but also provides a comfortable buffer between
content and the edges of the screen.

• Headings and Subheadings

Hierarchy and Spacing: Establish a clear hierarchy with headings and subheadings. Adequate
spacing around these elements helps users quickly identify sections and understand the structure
of the content.

Consistent Styling: Maintain consistent styling for headings and subheadings throughout the
website. This includes font size, color, and spacing.

• Interactive Elements

Button Spacing: If your webpage includes buttons or interactive elements, ensure they have
enough spacing to prevent accidental clicks. This is especially important on touch devices.

Form Fields: In forms, provide enough spacing between input fields and labels. Cluttered forms
can be confusing and frustrating for users.
Proportional Sizing: When incorporating images or multimedia, ensure they are proportionally
sized. Use responsive techniques to adapt media for different screens.

• Other Specifications

o Body fonts/ Text input sizes should be about 16px in San Serif
o Secondary text should be about 2 sizes smaller than your paragraph text
o Line spacing should be at least a space-and-a-half within paragraphs. So around
150 percent or 1.5 times the font size.
o Limit the number of typefaces per website to 2
o Size your text appropriately. On the subject of hierarchy, headings should always
be larger than body text and decrease in size by H1, H2, H3, etc.
o Don’t use all caps
o Use colors carefully and intentionally. Combine color with other styling (like
bolding, italics, or underline) to emphasize a text snippet.
o Stay between around 40 and 80 characters per line.

4. Checking Ad agency copies

Checking Headlines/ sub headline (types, appeals) and maintaining sequence and flow in body
copy.

Ad copy is a very specific type of content. It is designed to get the reader to respond or take
action. In a standard sales setting, salespeople spend several minutes to several hours answering
prospective customers' questions and addressing their concerns. Without this interaction, many
of the customer’s objections would go unanswered. If a customer has unanswered objections,
they will not buy the product or service. Ad copy is a sales letter that addresses the possible
objections a customer might have. It also highlights the key features and benefits the customer
will receive by making a purchase.

The goal of ad copy is to increase conversion rates and profits. There are three ways to make a
business more profitable. You can increase the traffic to the sales page, increase the value of the
product or service, or you can increase the percentage of web traffic that converts to customers.
Increasing the conversion rate is the most effective way to increase the profitability of a business.
Ad copy achieves this by highlighting the key components of a product or service and
communicating them to potential customers in a way they can relate to. When used properly, ad
copy is very powerful and effective.

Effective ad copy is easy to identify. Good ad copy will open with a powerful headline. The
headline will do one of two things. It will either appeal to a fear or desire, or it will inspire
curiosity. The goal of the headline is to stop readers in their tracks and inspire them to read the
rest of the copy.

Properly written ad copy will appeal to both the logical reasons and emotional reasons that a
customer would want to buy the product or service. Therefore, it is vital to take the key
motivating factors of the customer into consideration when writing ad copy.

“Ad copy” refers to the copywriting of advertisements—the combination of headline, main body,
and call to action written to form an ad. The effectiveness of advertisement lies in how well the
advertising mes-sage is developed. Advertising copy may be defined as all the written or spoken
matter including figures etc. which are made to convey desired message of advertiser to target
customers. It includes headings, sub-headings, pictures, slogans and body etc.

In the words of Schew and Smith, “Advertising copy includes all the written or spoken elements
of the message in advertisement to target customers.” Message is the heart of advertising
campaign. Therefore, the message that has to be conveyed in an advertisement copy should be
emotional, descrip-tive, narrative and factual. It is the collective effort of copywriters, artists and
layout men.

The main characteristics of a good advertisement copy are:

i. Attention Value – An advertising copy must attract the attention of the prospective customers,
otherwise all the efforts and expenses on advertisement will go waste. For holding attention use
of illustrations, colors, novelties and display are useful.

ii. Interest Value – Only gaining attention of the prospects will not induce them to buy the
product. Therefore, an advertising copy must be such that it arouses interest value in the
customer.

To be more effective, the statements in the advertisement must be genuine and accurate.
Misrepresentation or exaggerative words must be avoided. Simple and plain facts have more
effect on the readers to convince them than colorful or flattering wordings.
iii. Suggestive Value – The third essential of a good advertising copy is its suggestive value. For
this purpose, the advertising copy must include the merits of the product. For example, “Problem
Chal hat” used in Dabur Red toothpaste. For this purpose, slogans pictures, phrases and
suggestions can be used.

The message advertised should have some suggestive and useful value to those who go through
the advertisement. The words or pictures in the advertisement should have commanding power
on the readers. Repetition has good effect. When one comes across the advertisement every
time, he begins to consider the product.

iv. Reception Value – All three values stated above i.e., attention, interest and suggestive cannot
give desired result of advertisement if people forget it. Therefore, the advertising copy layout
should be such that it makes permanent impression in the mind of the public.

v. Sentimental Value – Sales of certain product heavily depend upon the sentiments of the
buyers. It is especially true in case of food products. People patronize the place where they find
good and clean food with satisfactory service. For example – McDonald.

The sentimental feelings or the prejudiced attitude of the reader should not be affected by the
advertiser; but rather, they must be respected. The likes and dislikes, habits and customs etc., of
the readers may be highly considered. It must appear that the advertiser is doing it for the
readers.

vi. Educative and Creative Value – Another important essential of a good advertising copy is that
it must be educative and creative. Educative and creative value of an advertising copy is
particularly important in case of products which are meant for replacing existing products.

When products are manufactured for the first time, it is the duty of the producer, through
advertisements, to draw the attention of the people and to tell them the use, merits, ingredients,
special features etc., of the products. All people are alike, but their behavior is different.

When the advertisement is able to change their habits and mold the tendency to use the
products, the market for the products increases. People must have a feeling to see the
advertisement through bearing eyes. It gives new information, suggestion and knowledge to
people and directs them to go for the product.

vii. Other Characteristics – Besides above stated characteristics a good advertising copy should-
a. Contain language and words which the target audience can easily understand.

b. Be brief and to the point.

c. Be clean, unambiguous and self-explanatory.

Structure of Advertising Copy:

Attainment of advertising objectives largely depends on the way the advertisement copy is
designed. The advertising copy should be designed in such a way that it is in position to attract
the attention of the prospective buyers.

The following are the basic elements of the advertising copy:

i. Headline:

The most important element of the advertising copy is its headline. If headline fails to attract the
prospects, remaining part of the advertisement are wasted. Thus, the main purpose of the
headline of every advertising copy is to attract attention and create curiosity in the prospects.
For e.g. – Desh Ki Dhadkan (Hero Honda).

ii. Sub-Heading:

After the headline the next is sub-headline. If the headline has rightly suggested the value of
product, the job of sub-headline becomes quite easier. Sub-headline helps the reader to have
more knowledge about the product. For e.g. – sub-headline used in Horlicks ad – Dudh Mein
Horlicks Milao, Dudh Ki Shakti Badhao.

iii. Slogans:

A slogan is the group of words regularly used by the advertiser to impress prospects about the
product and producer. It is one of the most popular methods to attaining and holding attention
of the customers. For e.g. – McDonald – I’m loving it.

iv. Text or Body:

After headline, sub-headline and slogan comes the text of advertising copy. In the text, both the
rational and emotional reasons are put forward to persuade customers to buy the particular
brand. Facts and figures about the product, guarantee of satisfactory performance, testimonials,
etc. are given in the text of the advertisement copy depending upon the nature, competition,
market, etc.

v. Closing Idea:

Last but not the least, advertising copy should close the idea with enough information, direction
and motivation for the customer to act. Various types of closing idea are “buy now”, “visit the
nearest store today”, etc.

Advertising copy must arrest, inform, impress and impel the reader.

A well-defined advertising copy must perform the following functions:

(a) Attract Attention

(b) Command Interest

(c) Create Desire

(d) Inspire Conviction

(e) Provoke Action.

Qualities of a Good Advertisement Copy:

1. It Must Be Simple:

It must be simple and easy to understand. A copy writer must use short, simple, understandable
words and sentences. The words or sentences used must be remembered by intelligent persons
and non-intelligent persons. It must make people to see it, i.e., it should arrest their attention.

2. It Must Be Informative:

The copy must give the information which the reader wants to know about the products, in order
to buy. Hence it must give the real fact. The information must be natural and straightforward. It
must make people read it, i.e., people should be informed.

3. It Must Be Concise and Complete:

The copy must be complete and brief. If it is incomplete, it fails. Brevity is essential
(condensation). Completeness should never be sacrificed for brevity. It must make people to
understand it.

4. It Must Be Enthusiastic:

Salesman’s talk in the written form is the copy. The copy must tell the reader what the product
or merchandise will do for him.

5. It Must Be Honest:

It must be honest and truthful towards the public. If the copy is untrue, then the confidence and
the value of publicity go down. The public should not be cheated. The public, who are the final
users of the products, are the witness of the product quality.

If inferior products are sold through false advertising, they have a short life. If the firm is hiding
the facts, not exposing the real position, the product tells its own weakness to the users. If the
advertisement is not honest, then the products will disappear from market and the firm will be
closed down within a short span of time.

6. It Creates an Urge:

It must reveal unknown or unseen features of the products. The public should be informed about
the product’s use and merits by the advertiser. It must create a goodwill in the minds of the
public. Its aim must be to trust the firm and its products. It should have an effective salesmanship
in absentia.

A Good Advertisement Copy:

1. It must make people to see it.

2. It must make people to read it.

3. It must make people to understand it.

4. It must make people to believe it.

5. It must make people to buy the product.

Elements of an Advertisement Copy:

There are certain principles, which an advertisement should have. That is it must aim to arrest,
inform, impress and urge the readers to act on the advertisement.

Headline:

The headline is the most important part of any print ad. Most people will only read the headline,
and the people who choose to read the entire ad will do so based on the headline. A headline is
a short, bold phrase that appears at the top of your home page, product pages, and other landing
pages to capture visitor attention. A subhead line appears right below your headline, expanding
on its message and providing complementary information:

Types of headlines.

Headlines are often considered to be one of the most important aspects of copywriting.
Headlines are the first thing a reader will see and can therefore make or break the reader’s
impression of the article and strongly influences their decision to continue reading the article or
not. More than simply grabbing the reader’s attention, a great headline can communicate the
whole message of the article in a five-word sentence!

● Direct Headline: these headlines shun any type of cleverness or figures of speech to go
straight to the heart of the issue. These are often best used for selling propositions, such
as “25% off ladies’ perfumes” or “Clearance Sale – everything must go!”
● Indirect Headline: these headlines may be used in copywriting to take a more subtle
approach. While the heading may not make the content of the article clear, it uses
curiosity to grab the attention of the reader by asking a question, which the body of the
article will then answer. Often puns or double meanings are used to employ humour.
● How-to Headline: this is one of the most basic and most used headlines. It is simple and
straightforward and catches readers’ attention by clearly stating what the intention of the
article is. Some examples might be “How to choose the right light bulb” or “How to save
money on your water bill”.
 ● Question headline: this headline is used to do much more than simply ask a question.
Rather a copywriter uses such a headline to ask a question which the reader will
empathize with or would want to see answered. Examples include “Do you suffer from
road rage?” or “Who wants to get rich quickly?”
● Reason-why Headline: this headline is used often used when the body of an article
contains a list of features or tips of a product, or a comparison, which is then incorporated
into the headline. Examples of this headline are “10 reasons to switch from petrol to
diesel” or “100 reasons why open-source software is better than Microsoft”.
● Testimonial: This headline uses your customers’ words to sell your products or services.
This works because people see proof up front that your product or service does what it’s
supposed to do.

1. Write it last. Create a placeholder headline when writing your landing page copy, then
save your real brainstorming until after you write your content. Then you can come up
with a long list (20+) of potential headlines to test out with your page copy.
2. Make it targeted. Especially when writing for your homepage, it’s easy to come up with a
generalized headline that’s relevant to all sorts of site visitors. But don’t! Instead, make
your headline targeted to a specific subgroup of site visitors who are interested in your
products and are likely to convert. Refer back to your buyer personas and other market
research to brainstorm conversion-driving headline ideas.
3. Highlight features and benefits. Instead of illustrating what your product/service does, try
to focus on how it benefits your audience with your headline. Explain the problem your
product solves and what features help achieve that.
4. Invoke curiosity. If you want site visitors to stay on your page and keep reading, develop
a headline that inspires curiosity. Do so by posing a question or highlighting an intriguing
feature that visitors will want to know more about.
5. Use power words. Headlines are supposed to be attention-grabbing and impactful. So
spice up your headline vocabulary by switching out plain language for power words.

Subhead line:

Here are the most important points you should follow to write a subhead line that converts:

1. Make it longer. Marketing research tells us that the most effective headlines are short
(less than 10 words). Subhead lines are different. Here you have more real estate to
 expand on your message. As a general rule, your subhead line can be twice the length of
your headline.
2. Complement your headline. Write your subhead line after choosing a headline so they
can complement each other. Your subhead line is an opportunity to expand on the
message delivered in your headline. Provide more detail for curious readers.
3. Include your USP. In order to convert, people need to know more than how your
product/service is beneficial. They also want to know why they should choose your
business over a competitor. Answer this question by including your unique selling
proposition (USP) in your subhead line.
4. Don’t overinform. If necessary, it’s possible to write several subhead lines to complement
your headline. But make sure you’re not overinforming your audience. You have space in
the rest of your page copy to go into detail about your product/service. Just focus on the
most important/beneficial points in your subhead lines.
5. Encourage action. You have a much better chance of getting a site visitor to convert if
they’ve read through your headline and subhead line. So do everything you can to make
sure they do convert by encouraging action within your subhead line.

Advertising Appeals:

Advertising appeals refers to the approach used to attract the attention of customers or to
influence their feelings towards a brand, product or service. It is the central idea of an
advertisement and speak to an individual’s need, wants or interest and entice her to take the
desired action which generally is “Buy me”.

1. Emotional appeals - Emotional appeals relate to the consumers social or physiological needs
for purchasing a product or a service. Many consumers’ purchase decisions are emotional and
are made on what they feel about a particular brand more than its features. They are designed
to make an audience associate positive feelings with your brand. These appeals generally focus
on trust, joy, love, loyalty and happiness, which you can leverage through the use of powerful
music and imagery. Examples – Jewelry ads, Ariel share the load ads:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DA64FF7MR58

2. Sexual Appeals - Sex appeals relate to a person’s natural desire to experience romance and
appeal to others romantically. The goal of this appeal is to make people feel like they will be more
attractive, more desirable, and more likely to get the person of their dreams if they use a certain
product or take certain actions. Sex appeals capture attention, but seldom promote product
consumption. Although history has shown that sex does indeed sell or at least gets attention.
Examples – Fragrance product ads, condom ads

3. Humor Appeals - Who doesn’t like something that’s funny? Humor appeals make consumers
laugh and create an emotional link with the product. It is a proven appeal type for grabbing
attention. When consumers find something humorous, it has value because is causes them to
watch, laugh and, most importantly, remember. By capturing the viewer's attention, humor
appeals cut through advertising clutter and allow for enhanced recall and improved moods of the
viewers. The challenge with humor however is to keep the brand in the humor – so your market
associates the humor with your brand. Often, it’s the humor that is remembered more than the
product. Examples – Mentos ads, Center shock ads, Fevicol ads.

4. Musical Appeals - Like humor, music is a great way for brands to get noticed and make an
audience remember their products. In addition, musical appeals can bring up positive memories
whenever someone hears a catchy tune in an ad, which goes a long way toward making them
feel good about the product being presented. The use of musical appeals allows for a connection
between the product or service and a catchy jingle or piece of music. Examples – Airtel jingle ad,
Lifebuoy “Lifebuoy hai janah tandaroosti hai wahan”, Washing powder Nirma.

5. Rational appeals - Rational appeals use logic, facts, and data to convince consumers to buy
products, and are often found in advertisements for medications, cookware, and cleaning
products. They focus on the consumers practical, functional need and utility for the product or
service. It emphasizes on either product features or its functional benefits or its problem removal
or problem avoidance attribute. Examples – mobile phone ads showing features, detergent ad
showing superior stain removal property.

6. Fear Appeals - Fear appeals focus on the negative outcomes that can happen because of an
action or inaction. Another fear tactic involves isolation. People will purchase a product to avoid
isolation from others because of bad hygiene for example in the case of toothpastes and
Deodorants. Fear appeals fit particularly well with certain types of goods and services,
particularly those products that can eliminate threats or provide a sense of personal security. For
example, fear is often used in insurance company ads, focusing on the consequences of an
untimely death. Examples – anti tobacco ads, toothpaste ads focusing on germ fighting property.

7. Scarcity appeals - Scarcity appeals tap into people’s fear of missing out, so they’re a great way
to convince people to take advantage of a sale or a limited-edition product. However, make sure
that scarcity actually applies to what you’re selling and sale is indeed a sale and is not a
permanent offer. Examples – Toothbrush Free with Toothpaste ads, ads giving gifts or lucky
coupons.
8. Bandwagon appeals – Bandwagon appeals, also known as FOMO appeals (Fear of missing out
appeals), make consumers believe that they are missing out by addressing the consumer’s need
to belong. This type of message says buy this product because everyone does. Examples – ads
showing “India’s no. 1 or most preferred brand”, “Desh ke 80% logon ne ise chuna”.

9. Favorable Price appeals – Favorable price appeals make price as the dominant point of the
message. It can be used to announce a lower price product, low prices every day. Examples – 5
Rs. Chhota coke, Vodafone’s 10 ka chhota recharge, Mc Donald’s “I’m Loving it” ads

10. Competitive advantage appeals – Competitive advantage appeals make either a direct or
indirect comparison to another brand and usually claim superiority on one or more attributes.
This is also known as comparative advertising. Examples – Detergent ads showing a particular
product cleaning a cloth better than competition product, health drink ads showing more or
higher nutrients than the competition product.

Body Copy:

Body copy is known as the main text in an advertisement, print matter, company literature or
any website which is distinct from logo, headline, sub-headline and graphics. This provides two
most important purposes. This portion will help readers develop interest and secondly it will help
them remember the product name and the reasons why they liked the particular product or the
news item. The first sentence of the body copy should flow the headline and is the main text of
any marketing communications vehicle.
Body copy is one of the main reasons why a product sell. It motivates the reader to act, gives
importance on how the product will provide benefits to the customer and also contains the
product details within it. Emotional and logical appeal is used in the text to develop a desire for
the products or services. Sometimes, the marketer purposefully uses imperfect grammar in a
body copy, but can still be easily understood; it commonly imitates spoken word in order to make
an intimate feeling for the reader. Like the headline, sentences in a body copy usually contains
the word ‘you’, uses active voice, exciting verbs-based content which are more action oriented,
and colloquial vocabulary. This simulates personal communication between a company and its
customer.
One of the main functions of the body copy is to fulfil the expectations set by the other elements
in the advertising. This means that whatever promises are made by the headline or the graphics,
the main text of the advertisement must provide readers with information that confirms those
promises. In order to accomplish this goal, the body copy will usually begin by clear and concise
details about the product, including what it is and how it is used. The copy will go on to address
issues such as the benefits of choosing this product over all similar products, an idea of how
expensive the product happens to be, and what type of consumer can make use of this product
and improve their quality of life.

Effective body copy holds the attention of consumers long enough for them to form an opinion
of the product and make a decision of whether it is worth their time and resources to give the
product a try. When the copy is detailed enough to explain what the product is, how it is used
and why it is a great deal, the chances of generating sales are greatly enhanced. By the same
token, an advertisement may attract attention based on provocative headlines and eye-catching
graphics, but if the body copy fails to provide data that consumers find helpful and interesting,
the ad will ultimately fail to reach the right consumers and the effort will produce little to no
results in terms of revenue.

What should be included in body copy?

• Focus on the conversion goal of the page.

• Speak to your target audience.
• Address them where they are in the buying cycle.
• Highlight the benefits of your offer.
• Use keywords and/or key phrases.

5. Online editing: Editing requirements; content, layout, clarity, style, conciseness, online
headlining, website design

Content editing describes reviewing a piece of online writing, so it's clear, concise and tailored to
what the reader wants to find out. It’s an emerging skill for writers who spend a lot of time
producing articles, blog posts, social media posts, guides and any type of content that exists
online.

1. Checks for Grammar and Spelling Mistakes

A content editor may scan some text meant for a webpage and fix any obvious mistakes. They
often use a good grammar checker. Copy editing refers to the revision of written materials, , so
it's engaging, clear and concise. A copy editor will rewrite the text, a process also known as line
editing.
Similarly, proofreading describes checking a piece of writing for punctuation mistakes, common
grammar and factual errors. A proof-reader includes relevant citations and confirms statistics and
other sources, something a content editor rarely does unless you pay them extra and provide
specific instructions.

2. Edits for The Web

A content editor breaks up long chunks of text with line breaks, paragraph breaks and sub-
headings. They also use formatting techniques like bold and italics as well as sub-headings.

Breaking up long blocks of text like this ensures web articles are easy-to-read, as web visitors
mostly scan rather than read a web page. It also ensures the readability of this text on tablets
and mobile devices. A good content editing uses a self-editing checklist.

They also scan the entire web page before publication and check for any obvious formatting
errors, visual oddities and broken links. They'll also sometimes use copyediting software.

4. Sources Relevant Media

A professional content editor knows how to sift through the wealth of web content and finds the
best stock images and video their clients can legally use.

They also sometimes use an editing tool or special software to create these images, for example,
Canva. And they will know where to go for help, for example, a content creator (podcaster,
YouTuber etc.).

5. Adds Media

A professional content editor doesn't think solely in terms of words. They also add images, video,
audio and various forms of multi-media so that the webpage in question is engaging.

8. Adds Relevant Internal and External Links

A good webpage connects to other resources on the same topic, either on the same website or
elsewhere. Similarly, a webpage may lead visitors further down the funnel towards buying a
product or service.
9. Optimizes A Web Page for The Primary Keyword

If a content editor is working on an article, they will check the article in question surfaces the
primary keyword appropriately. For example, they will add keywords to the:

URL

Headline

A sub-heading

In the body copy

Optimizing an article for search is a particular skill set that typically requires someone with SEO
knowledge. However, a content editor can follow the basics once they have a checklist and some
relevant information.

Editing and proofreading are essential parts of the writing process. They help with the
effectiveness of your writing style and the clarity of your ideas. Editing requires you reread your
draft to check for more significant issues, including organization, paragraph structure, and
content. However, when you proofread, you are focusing on finding and correcting errors in
writing, grammar, and language.

The Editing Process

● Organization
○ A clear introduction and conclusion are needed.
○ Paragraph Structure
■ You need to include clear transitions between paragraphs.
■ Each paragraph needs a topic sentence to introduce its central idea.
○ Main Idea
■ A clear, focused thesis statement is needed.
■ The main ideas need to be supported by clear evidence.
○ Clarity
■ Providing definitions and evidence when needed can improve the clarity
of your manuscript and ideas.
■ Look for the repetition of words, sentence structure, and the correct use
of technical terms.
The Proofreading Process

Proofreading with a more focused eye will help find errors and make the necessary revisions to
improve the manuscript. Like editing, proofreading requires a systematic approach.

● Take your time.

○ If you think you will find all errors on the first read, you are mistaken.
○ Reading the manuscript out loud can help slow down the process and increase
your focus.
● Divide the Manuscript into Sections
○ This will increase your focus and decrease the overwhelming feeling of tackling
the entire manuscript in one read.
● Highlight Common Errors.
○ This helps with current and future writing assignments. The more familiar you are
with your mistakes, the easier it will be to avoid them in the future.

Digital content

Content is information: the sum of fresh, readable, relevant, and useful information for a reader
on your site. A great place to start would be to confirm the outcome you’re looking to reach with
your content, a direct goal that you want to achieve.

There are four outcomes to strongly consider:

To entertain – this will have a strong emotional appeal to an audience, making it very shareable.

To educate – this will allow for a wide reach especially for those who might not be in the know
about products or services just yet. Again, this is often very shareable.

To persuade – This is slightly more emotionally charged; content that gradually changes the mind
of the consumer (I say consumer as persuasive content will often be used in a product sense).

To convert – Content that is more often than not rational rather than emotional as you will need
a decision-making brain when considering what a conversion piece has to offer you.
Digital content is any content that exists in the form of digital data. Also known as digital media,
digital content is stored on digital or analog storage in specific formats. Forms of digital content
include information that is digitally broadcast, streamed, or contained in computer files. Viewed
narrowly, digital content includes popular media types, while a broader approach considers any
type of digital information (e. g. digitally updated weather forecasts, GPS maps, and so on) as
digital content.

Digital content has increased as more households have accessed the Internet. Expanded access
has made it easier for people to receive their news and watch TV online, challenging the
popularity of traditional platforms. Increased access to the Internet has also led to the mass
publication of digital content through individuals in the form of eBooks, blog posts, and even
Facebook posts.

Website design

Web design encompasses many different skills and disciplines in the production and maintenance
of websites. The different areas of web design include web graphic design; user interface design
(UI design); authoring, including standardized code and proprietary software; user experience
design (UX design); and search engine optimization. The term "web design" is normally used to
describe the design process relating to the front-end (client side) design of a website including
writing markup. Web design partially overlaps web engineering in the broader scope of web
development.

Web design is the process of planning, conceptualizing, and arranging content online. Today,
designing a website goes beyond aesthetics to include the website’s overall functionality. Web
design also includes web apps, mobile apps, and user interface design.

Web Design Elements

When designing a website, it’s important to consider both the site’s appearance and
functionality. Integrating these elements will maximize the site’s overall usability and
performance. Your site’s usability includes elements such as an easy-to-navigate interface,
appropriate use of graphics and images, well-written and well-placed text, and a color scheme.
Your site’s performance refers to its speed, ranking, searchability, and ability to capture your
audience.
 • Visual Elements

Written copy

Fundamentally, your website’s appearance and text go hand-in-hand. It’s important to have your
content writers and designers work together in order to create a cohesive design with balanced
elements. Focus on creating chunks of text (using text blocks) in order to compliment your
graphics and images.

Fonts

Choose a font that compliments your overall design. Font should pair with your color scheme,
graphics, images, and strengthen the overall tone of your website. Tools like Canva’s Font
Combinator can help you find a perfect match for your font. Web design tools like PageCloud
even include numerous font pairings within their app.

Colors

Colors are one of the most important elements to consider when designing a website. Keep in
mind there are many misconceptions about the psychology of color, and it’s more important to
focus on colors that compliment your overall design and tone of your website. Align your color
scheme with your brand and the messages you want to convey to your audience.

Layout

How you decide to arrange your content will have a dramatic impact on both the usability and
functionality of your site. There are no specific rules to follow when choosing a layout, however,
there are a few main principles to keep in mind. Make sure to consider the needs of your target
audience and avoid using an overstimulating layout that might detract from the messages you
want to convey.

Shapes

The use of graphic elements in web design can help seamlessly integrate text and images, and
help with the site’s overall appearance. Combining beautiful colors and shapes can help direct
the attention of your sites visitors and contribute to your site’s overall flow.
Spacing

Spacing is a key element to creating visually pleasing and easy to navigate websites. Every
element in your design will incorporate spacing in one way or another. Appropriate use of
whitespace is crucial in creating a design that perfectly balances text, photos, and graphics.
Keeping your spacing consistent can help your users navigate your website with ease. The
concept of whitespace is definitely a priority of modern web designers.

Images & Icons

Amazing designs can communicate a lot of information in just a few seconds. This is made
possible with the use of powerful images and icons. Choose images and icons that support and
strengthen your message.

Videos

Integrating videos into web design is becoming increasingly popular amongst designers. When
used properly, videos can help your users experience or understand a message that can’t be
properly conveyed through text or image. Keep in mind that like having a TV screen on in a
restaurant, visitors’ eyes will be drawn to moving images. Make sure your videos don’t compete
with or detract from other important elements.

• Functional elements

These functional elements are imperative to consider when designing your website. A website
that functions properly is crucial for ranking highly on search engines, and giving your users the
best possible experience.

Navigation

Your website’s navigation is one of the main elements that determines whether your website is
functioning properly. Depending on your audience, your navigation can serve multiple purposes:
helping first time visitors discover what your site has to offer, giving easy access to your pages
for returning visitors, and improving every visitor's overall experience.
User Interactions

Your site visitors have multiple ways of interacting with your site depending on their device
(scrolling, clicking, typing, etc.). The best website designs simplify these interactions to give the
user the sense that they are in control. Here are a few examples:

● Never auto-play audio or videos

Never underline text unless its clickable
● Make sure all forms are mobile-friendly
● Avoid pop ups
● Avoid scroll-jacking

Animations

There are tons of web animation techniques that can help your design grab visitor’s attention,
and allow your visitors to interact with your site by giving feedback. For example, adding “like”
buttons or forms can keep your site’s visitors engaged. If you’re new to web design, we’d
recommend keeping your animations simple to avoid developer intervention.

Speed

No one likes a slow website. Having to wait more than a few seconds for a page to load can
quickly deter a visitor from remaining on or returning to your site. Regardless of how beautiful,
if your site doesn’t load quickly, it will not perform well in search (i.e. won’t rank high on Google).
Top site builders typically compress your content for faster load times, however, there are no
guarantees. Make sure to research which site builders will work best for the content you will have
on your site.

Site structure

A website’s structure plays an important role in both user experience (UX) and search engine
optimization (SEO). Your users should be able to easily navigate through your website without
encountering any structural issues. If users are getting lost while attempting to navigate through
your site, chances are “crawlers” are too. A crawler (or bot) is an automated program that
searches through your website and can determine its functionality. Poor navigation can lead to a
poor user experience and site ranking.
Cross-browser & cross-device compatibility

A great design should look polished on all devices and browsers (yes, even Internet Explorer). If
you’re building your site from scratch, we’d recommend using a cross-browser testing tool to
make this tedious process faster and more efficient. On the other hand, if you’re using a website
building platform, the cross-browser testing is typically taken care of by the company’s
development team allowing you to focus on design.

References

https://www.masterclass.com/articles/script-writing-explained#15-elements-of-screenplay-
formatting
https://www.studiobinder.com/blog/writing-for-television/
http://www.journogyan.com/2017/03/broadcasting-of-radio-and-tv-strengths.html
https://smallbusiness.chron.com/strengths-weakness-radio-communicating-message-
47017.html
https://www.britannica.com/topic/radio
https://www.indianmediastudies.com/characteristics-of-radio/
http://frndzzz.com/Advantages-and-Disadvantages-of-Radio
http://frndzzz.com/Advantages-and-Disadvantages-of-Television-TV
http://www.ijcrar.com/vol-3-11/Subhash%20Kumar%20and%20Romica.pdf
Strengths and limitations of various media - Agility PR Solutions
https://www.cloudrad.io/internent-radio-challenges
http://www.ijcrar.com/vol-3-11/Subhash%20Kumar%20and%20Romica.pdf
https://smallbusiness.chron.com/advantages-limitations-television-advertising-medium-
26148.html
https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/57128/1/Unit%202.pdf
https://thewritepractice.com/write-tv/
https://raindance.org/the-10-key-rules-of-writing-for-tv/
https://www.careersinfilm.com/script-template/
https://www.masterclass.com/articles/how-to-write-a-tv-script-a-guide-to-starting-your-
career-in-television-writing#9-tips-for-breaking-into-tv-writing
https://www.wikihow.com/Write-a-Television-Show-Script
https://www.studiobinder.com/blog/writing-for-television/
https://www.movieoutline.com/articles/television-script-format.html
https://writersstore.com/blogs/news/how-to-write-a-screenplay-a-guide-to-scriptwriting
https://www.masterclass.com/articles/how-to-conduct-a-great-television-interview#how-to-
conduct-a-tv-interview
https://owenspencer-thomas.com/journalism/media-tips/radio-and-tv-interviews/
https://work.chron.com/write-interview-script-17478.html
https://www.prnewsonline.com/tv-radio-interview-step-step-guide-prepare-success/
https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/WC193
https://www.thebalancecareers.com/how-to-write-a-news-script-for-tv-news-2315281
https://understandmedia.com/topics/media-production/68-writing-radio-news
https://visihow.com/Write_a_TV_News_Script
https://www.techopedia.com/definition/3108/internet-radio
https://www.lifewire.com/how-does-web-radio-technology-work-2438430
https://www.rnib.org.uk/practical-help/technology/resource-hub/guides-
entertainment/online-radio
https://electronics.howstuffworks.com/internet-radio.htm
https://www.which.co.uk/reviews/radios/article/what-is-internet-radio-adRoC9H4jc6s
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=82E71arjYG0
https://www.socialketchup.in/most-loved-indian-rjs/
https://strategiccontent.co/how-to-write-subheadings/
https://thewritelife.com/creative-subheadings/
https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/how-to-write-subheadings
https://blog.hubspot.com/marketing/craft-subheadlines-click
https://www.k5learning.com/blog/why-spelling-important
https://www.forbes.com/sites/steveolenski/2015/10/19/5-grammar-and-spelling-content-
marketing-lessons/?sh=2781ce083a55
https://www.themuse.com/advice/8-things-to-check-when-proofreading-anything
https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/57120/1/Unit%209.pdf
https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/types-of-headlines
https://spcollege.libguides.com/c.php?g=254319&p=1695321
https://www.angelfire.com/nd/nirmaldasan/journalismonline/graphics.html
https://blog.iotechnologies.com/visual-storytelling/
https://www.thenewsmanual.net/Manuals%20Volume%202/volume2_47.htm
https://www.thenewsmanual.net/Manuals%20Volume%202/volume2_46.htm
https://writingcooperative.com/how-to-write-a-lead-a-journalistic-technique-9c64affba535
https://nmu.edu/writingcenter/writing-leads
https://www.masterclass.com/articles/how-to-master-the-rewriting-process#10-tips-for-
rewriting-your-manuscript
https://www.w3.org/People/howcome/TEB/www/hwl_th_10.html#HEADING58
https://www.commontonguezine.com/formatting-a-magazine-submission-in-modern-
standard-format/
https://learnui.design/blog/mobile-desktop-website-font-size-guidelines.html
https://blog.hubspot.com/website/website-typography
Ad Copy and How Is It Used in Marketing (thebalancesmb.com)
What is Ad Copy? (+ PPC Ad Copy Examples!) | Compose.ly
Advertising Copy: Essentials, Types, Structure and Testing | Marketing (artofmarketing.org)
Advertisement Copy: Classification, Qualities and Elements (yourarticlelibrary.com)
4 Types of Advertising Headlines That Get Attention | ZenBusiness Inc
Different types of headlines in copywriting (wsioms.co.za)
Everything you need to know about writing effective headlines and subheadlines
(contentsnare.com)
Top 10 Advertising Appeals that really work (linkedin.com)
Body Copy Meaning & Definition | MBA Skool
https://www.smartcapitalmind.com/what-is-a-body-
copy.htm#:~:text=Body%20copy%20is%20a%20term,to%20the%20product%20or%20service.
https://becomeawritertoday.com/what-is-content-editing/
https://www.enago.com/academy/the-importance-of-editing-and-proofreading-before-
manuscript-submission/
https://www.constant-content.com/content-writing-service/2018/12/online-content/
https://www.zazzlemedia.co.uk/blog/digital-content-types/#gref
https://www.pagecloud.com/blog/web-design-guide
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/334167548_Fake_News_in_Digital_Media
https://www.npr.org/sections/alltechconsidered/2016/12/05/503581220/fake-or-real-how-to-
self-check-the-news-and-get-the-facts
https://www.theverge.com/21276897/fake-news-facebook-twitter-misinformation-lies-fact-
check-how-to-internet-guide
https://blog.hubspot.com/marketing/craft-subheadlines-click