KEY POINTS

Ethnocentrism: often entails the belief that one’s own race or ethnic group
is the most important or that some or all aspects of its culture are superior to
those of other groups; the tendency to look at the world primarily from the
perspective of one’s own culture.

Within this ideology, individuals will judge other groups in relation to their
own particular ethnic group or culture, especially with concern to language,
behavior, customs, and religion.

Xenocentrism: one’s exposure to cultural practices of others may make one

to give preferences to the ideas, lifestyle and products of other cultures

Cultural relativism: is the belief that the concepts and values of a culture
cannot be fully translated into, or fully understood in, other languages; that a
specific cultural artifact (e.g., a ritual) has to be understood in terms of the
larger symbolic system of which it is a part.

Cultural relativism: is the principle that an individual person’s beliefs and

activities should be understood by others in terms of that individual’s own
culture.

THREE (3) IDEAS OF CULTURAL RELATIVISM:

moral relativism

situational relativism

cognitive relativism

Cultural relativism is a principle that was established as axiomatic in

anthropological research by Franz Boas in the first few decades of the
twentieth century, and later popularized by his students. Boas first
articulated the idea in 1887: “…civilization is not something absolute, but…
is relative, and… our ideas and conceptions are true only so far as our
civilization goes.”

Culture Shock: an experience of personal disorientation when confronted

with an unfamiliar way of life

Cultural Imperialism: the deliberate imposition of one’s own cultural

values on another culture
Ethnocentrism, a term coined by William Graham Sumner, is the tendency to
see and evaluate other cultures in terms of one’s own race, nation, or
culture. This rests on the belief of the superiority of one’s own culture or
ethnic group compared to others which leads to making incorrect
assumptions about others’ behavior based on your own norms, values, and
beliefs. For instance, reluctance or aversion to trying another culture’s
cuisine is ethnocentric. While societies have the tendency to display or
manifest certain amount of ethnocentrism, cultural sensitivity is also
expected especially if one is a visitor. Non-sensitivity to cultural practices of
other groups may be misinterpreted and this may lead to conflict with others
or maybe seen by others as a rude behavior especially when articulated or
expressed in front of others. Learning to take the role of the other person
gives one the ability to see the perspective of the other people articulating or
giving judgment. To do this, it is important: (1) study the cultural context in
which the action occurs, (2) determine the circumstances of place, time and
condition surrounding it, and (3) look into the reasoning behind any cultural
element.

A good example of ethnocentrism is referring to parts of Asia as the “Far

East.” One might question, “Far east of where?”

An example of ethnocentrism in culture is the Asian cultures across all the

countries of Asia. Throughout Asia, the way of eating is to use chopsticks
with every meal. These people may find it unnecessary to find that people in
other societies, such as the American society, eat using forks, spoons,
knives, etc. Since these countries use chopsticks to eat every meal, they find
it foolish for other cultures to not use utensils similar to chopsticks; however,
they do accept the fact that they use different utensils for eating. This
example is not something extreme that could lead to genocide or war, but it
is a large enough gap between these cultures for people to see their way of
eating as the natural or best way to typically eat their food.
Ethnocentrism can be so strong that when confronted with all of the
differences of a new culture, one may experience disorientation and
frustration. In sociology, we call this culture shock. A traveler from Chicago
might find the nightly silence of rural Montana unsettling, not peaceful. An
exchange student from China might be annoyed by the constant
interruptions in class as other students ask questions—a practice that is
considered rude in China. Perhaps the Chicago traveler was initially
captivated by Montana’s quiet beauty and the Chinese student was originally
excited to see a U.S.-style classroom firsthand. But as they experience
unanticipated differences from their own culture, their excitement gives way
to discomfort and doubts about how to behave appropriately in the new
situation. Eventually, as people learn more about a culture and adapt to its
norms, they recover from culture shock.

Culture shock may appear because people aren’t always expecting cultural
differences. Anthropologist Ken Barger (1971) discovered this when

he conducted a participatory observation in an Inuit community in the

Canadian Arctic. Originally from Indiana, Barger hesitated when invited to
join a local snowshoe race. He knew he’d never hold his own against these
experts. Sure enough, he finished last, to his mortification. But the tribal
members congratulated him, saying, “You really tried!” In Barger’s own
culture, he had learned to value victory. To the Inuit people, winning was
enjoyable, but their culture valued survival skills essential to their
environment: how hard someone tried could mean the difference between
life and death. Over the course of his stay, Barger participated in caribou
hunts, learned how to take shelter in winter storms, and sometimes went
days with little or no food to share among tribal members. Trying hard and
working together, two non-material values, were indeed much more
important than winning.

OVERCOMING CULTURE SHOCK, an example

During her summer vacation, Caitlin flew from Chicago to Madrid to visit
Maria, the exchange student she’d befriended the previous semester. In the
airport, she heard rapid, musical Spanish being spoken all around her.
Exciting as it was, she felt isolated and disconnected. Maria’s mother kissed
Caitlin on both cheeks when she greeted her. Her imposing father kept his
distance. Caitlin was half asleep by the time supper was served—at 10 p.m.!
Maria’s family sat at the table for hours, speaking loudly, gesturing, and
arguing about politics, a taboo dinner subject in Caitlin’s house. They served
wine and toasted their honored guest. Caitlin had trouble interpreting her
hosts’ facial expressions, and didn’t realize she should make the next toast.
That night, Caitlin crawled into a strange bed, wishing she hadn’t come. She
missed her home and felt overwhelmed by the new customs, language, and
surroundings. She’d studied Spanish in school for years—why hadn’t it
prepared her for this?

What Caitlin hadn’t realized was that people depend not only on spoken
words but also on subtle cues like gestures and facial expressions, to
communicate. Cultural norms accompany even the smallest nonverbal
signals (DuBois 1951). They help people know when to shake hands, where
to sit, how to converse, and even when to laugh. We relate to others through
a shared set of cultural norms, and ordinarily, we take them for granted.

For this reason, culture shock is often associated with traveling abroad,
although it can happen in one’s own country, state, or even hometown.
Anthropologist Kalervo Oberg (1960) is credited with first coining the term
“culture shock.” In his studies, Oberg found that most people found
encountering a new culture to be exciting at first. But bit by bit, they became
stressed by interacting with people from a different culture who spoke
another language and used different regional expressions. There was new
food to digest, new daily schedules to follow, and new rules of etiquette to
learn. Living with these constant adaptive challenges can make people feel
incompetent and insecure. People react to frustration in a new culture, Oberg
found, by initially rejecting it and glorifying one’s own culture. An American

visiting Italy might long for a “real” pizza or complain about the unsafe
driving habits of Italians compared to people in the United States.

It helps to remember that culture is learned. Everyone is ethnocentric to an

extent, and identifying with one’s own country is natural.
Caitlin’s shock was minor compared to that of her friends Dayar and Mahlika,
a Turkish couple living in married student housing on campus. And it was
nothing like that of her classmate Sanai. Sanai had been forced to flee war-
torn Bosnia with her family when she was fifteen. After two weeks in Spain,
Caitlin had developed a bit more compassion and understanding for what
those people had gone through. She understood that adjusting to a new
culture takes time. It can take weeks or months to recover from culture
shock, and it can take years to fully adjust to living in a new culture.

By the end of Caitlin’s trip, she’d made new lifelong friends. She’d stepped
out of her comfort zone. She’d learned a lot about Spain, but she’d also
discovered a lot about herself and her own culture.

Reluctance or aversion to trying another culture’s cuisine is ethnocentric.

Social scientists strive to treat cultural differences as neither inferior nor
superior. That way, they can understand their research topics within the
appropriate cultural context and examine their own biases and assumptions
at the same time.

This approach is known as “cultural relativism.” Cultural relativism is the

principle that an individual person’s beliefs and activities should be
understood by others in terms of that individual’s own culture. A key
component of cultural relativism is the concept that nobody, not even
researchers, comes from a neutral position. The way to deal with our own
assumptions is not to pretend that they don’t exist but rather to
acknowledge them, and then use the awareness that we are not neutral to
inform our conclusions.

An example of cultural relativism might include slang words from specific

languages (and even from particular dialects within a language). For
instance, the word “tranquilo” in Spanish translates directly to “calm” in
English. However, it can be used in many more ways than just as an
adjective (e.g., the seas are calm). Tranquilo can be a command or
suggestion encouraging another to calm down. It can also be used to ease
tensions in an argument (e.g., everyone relaxes) or to indicate a degree of
self-composure (e.g., I’m calm). There is not a clear English translation of the
word, and in order to fully comprehend its many possible uses, a cultural
relativist would argue that it would be necessary to fully immerse oneself in
cultures where the word is used.

The Cross-Cultural Relationship is the idea that people from different cultures
can have relationships that acknowledge, respect and begin to understand
each other’s diverse lives. People with different backgrounds can help each
other see possibilities that they never thought were there because of
limitations, or cultural proscriptions, posed by their own traditions

HUMAN CULTURAL EVOLUTION

It is a saying that “human has no contentment”. As the environment

changes, we continuously grow and find ways to make maximize our effort
as we live. It is very evident in the different stages of human cultural
evolution: Palaeolithic Period, Neolithic Period, and Age of Metal.

The term “Palaeolithic” was coined by archaeologist John Lubbock in 865. It is

derived the from Greek word, palaios, which means “old"; and, lithos,
"stone", In short, the Palaeolithic Period, which happened 2.5 million years
ago, is also known as "Old Stone Age".

In the Palaeolithic period, the Earth was extremely cold and ocean levels
were much lower than they are now. Due to the cold climate, much of the
Stone Age is also called the Ice Age.

During these years, people were nomads and able to use simple tools and
weapons made of unpolished stone. The caves served as their shelter.

Similarly, this was the time when people discovered to

use the fire, through the use of stone, for their protection against cold
temperature and to cook their own food.
Human beings in this time were grouped together in small societies such as
bands, and subsisted by gathering plants and fishing, hunting or scavenging
wild animals. Also in this era, according to study of Dr. Jesus T. Peralta of
NCCA, respect is given to age, and individual prowess and ability are
recognized. There are no leaders that could be said to be above everybody
else and whose commands are obeyed without question. In some cases, one
who is known for good decisions is consulted when a problem arises; or well-
known hunter will be asked to lead a hunting group.

Likewise, the term “Neolithic” also comes from the same archaeologist and
from the Greek word “neo” which means new and “lithos” meaning stone or
in short, the “New Stone Age” which was happened for about 10,000 B.C.In
this period, the Cro Magnon disappeared and the new people who are
considered the modern man appeared.

The Neolithic Revolution is also called as the First Agricultural Revolution.

During this period, there was a wide-scale transition of many human cultures
from a lifestyle of hunting and gathering to of agriculture and settlement
kind of society which eventually led to population increase. People depend
on domesticated plants and animals. They learned to create such crafts as
pottery and weaving. They likewise developed boat as means of
transportation and for fishing as well.

From being nomads during the early stage, human began to develop a
sedentary type of society of which they built-up villages and towns.

Furthermore, they were never contented of their accomplishments. They

kept on discovering things for their own convenience. So, they discovered
metals, and they gradually abandoned stone as the basic element for their
instrument and tools

This period was known as Age of Metals (4000 B.C – 1500 B.C). The used of
metal such as bronze, copper, and iron produced a new historical
development from the cradle civilization of Egypt, Mesopotamia, Persia
including the India, and China which later spread throughout Asia.
There were three stages distinguished within this Age due to the different
types of metals that were used: The Copper Age, the Bronze Age and the Iron
Age; copper was the first known metal, it is of a low hardness and it was
used to make ornaments; bronze is an alloy of copper and tin and it is harder
and stronger than copper. Several eastern Mediterranean peoples discovered
this metallurgy and progressed rapidly.

During this age, agricultural tools were developed with bronze, such as plows
and sickles, military weapons like swords, spears and shields, as well as
household utensils like jars, bowls and cups. Likewise, a more developed
social, cultural, political, and economic system were improved. Tribes,
empires, and state were recognized

EARLY CIVILIZATION and RISE of the STATE

Ancient State and Civilization

One of the earliest states and civilizations was found in the Fertile Crescent
which is known as the Mesopotamian civilization. The word Mesopotamia is a
Greek word for “Land between two rivers” which is often referred to as the
cradle of civilization. It is the region of the Western Asia located between the
Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. It is known as the Fertile Crescent where the first
evidence of agriculture was also found.
Here the first human civilizations were taking the earliest steps from hunter-
gatherer society into settled community.

Moreover, it is in Mesopotamia that the history writing appeared as early as

over 5,000 years ago. This invention was so important that it marks the end
of the Prehistory, and the beginning of history. One of the first writing
systems, the Cuneiform, is one of the most important civilizations in the
history of Mesopotamian culture.

Every city in Mesopotamia had its own government, rulers, warriors, patron
god, and functioned like an independent country. Mesopotamian cities were
Ur, Uruk, Kish, Lagesh. There is a temple at the center of each city called a
ziggurat (a massive, tiered, pyramid-shaped structure).

There was also what we called Mesopotamian warrior-gods(2.400-2.500

B.C.)who govern and protect the people under its government. Military
commanders eventually became monarch creating a new structure of
government called a Dynasty. It is a series of rulers descending from a
single-family line. The Akkadian Empire lasted about 200 years. In the year
2350–2150 B.C, Babylonian Empire overtook Sumerians around 2000 B.C.,
and they built capital, the Babylon, on Euphrates River.

Another ancient states and civilizations was the Egyptian civilization. It

emerged more than 5,000 years ago along the River Nile in the north-east
of Africa. The Ancient Egyptians lived near the River Nile because of its
fertile land suitable for growing crops and domestication of animals. Each
year, water from the Nile rose and flooded the area. When the water went
back, it left mud that made the fields fertile.

Egyptians called their king a pharaoh. The pharaoh was all- powerful: He
passed laws, He ruled the country, He owned most of the land, and He
controlled trade and led the armies. Egyptians believed that the pharaohs
were gods.
Modern State and Civilization

In the European continent, several states and civilization grew tremendously

over centuries. In England, around 1500s, most of the people lived in small
villages. They paid tithes to their feudal landlords. Henry VII won the War of
the Roses in England, which led into what is known as the Tudor dynasty,
and begun the development of the English nation-state.

In Spain in the year 1492, Spanish monarchs Ferdinand and Isabella took
Spain back from the Muslim. It became the era of Spain as a global power.

In France, Louis XIV of France created an absolute monarchy. France became

the dominant power in Europe. When The French Revolution broke out, it
created the modern French nation-state, which sparked nationalism around
Europe.

In 1914, when various nation-states started to claim their power and

superiority over all the nations in the world, the World War I begununtil1918.
In 1919, Treaty of Versailles ended the World War I. It divided several
multinational empires that led to the creation of several new nation-states.

In 1939, the World War II started until 1945. The end of World War II led to
the formation of United Nations in 1945.

The State of the People: Democratic State

In the recent decade after the two World Wars, people are becoming more
active in their government and state affairs, in which people become the
source of political power and government rules. This evolution in the
government is known as the process of democratization, or simply
democracy – the rule of the people.
Democratization is the transition to a more democratic political regime,
including substantive political changes moving in a democratic direction. It
may be the transition from an authoritarian regime to a full democracy, a
transition from an authoritarian political system to a semi-democracy or
transition from a semi- authoritarian political system to a democratic political
system. What is a democracy? Moreover, a democracy is a form of
government where the citizens of the nation have the power to vote.

Types of Democracy

There are several different types of democracies.

Representative democracy is a system where citizens choose government

representatives among their citizens,

Direct democracy is when the citizens form a governing body and vote
directly on issues,

Constitutional democracy limits the powers of government through the

nation’s constitution.

SOCIALIZATION

Do you see the picture? What do you have in mind?

Very good! If you think that socialization is very important in our lives, you
are absolutely correct. But what is meant by socialization really?
Socialization simply means the process of learning one’s society and its
culture. It is moreover the same as interacting, mingling and being with other
people or groups within/ outside of your society.

How do you feel in a situation when it seems that you don’t belong and you
are being isolated? Good thinking! Of course, you will feel sad and lonely.
That kind of feeling only shows that socialization is important to you --- and
to all of us.

Through socialization, one learns the culture’s language, their roles in life,
and what is expected from them. Without socialization, a person will develop
different physical and mental disabilities. It is sad to know that individuals
with no successful socialization develop mental illness, abnormal or odd
behavior and self - isolation. Do you know that there are different groups of
people that influence your orientations and perspectives to life?

These groups are called agents of socialization. These agents play a crucial
role in developing yourself as a person and a member of the society.

Family is the first agent of socialization. Most of the habits, manners, beliefs
and the way we think are develop in the family. A huge part of your
personality is molded by your family because this is where you spent your
childhood. Your family influences you on the way you behave and act as a
person. This is when socialization process is crucial and intense. Do you still
remember your happy moments in school? Of course, you do.

School is another agent of socialization. Here, you interact or socialize

with other people- your classmates, teachers, administrators, and others
which are outside of your family but within a society. Your socialization with
them has made a lot of experiences in you. It is in the school that your
behavior and attitude are shape to become a better member of society. So, a
part of your personality is developed by this agent. Do you agree?

In school, he/she learns to be socially educated person as he/she observes

and adapts the behaviour of other people (e.g. singing the National Anthem,
paying respect to the flag, showing respect to teachers and valuing
friendship among friends and classmates). A person becomes more civilized
as he learns more of culturally accepted behaviour and knowledge in school.

Your circle of friends is also an agent of socialization. It is called peer group.

Your peers usually have similar ages, social status and share interests. Your
peer group influences you on the way you can accept yourself. It is with your
peer group that you find yourself belonged.

I’m sure you learned a lot from your friends, didn’t you? So, you are right
when you think that they are also important agent in shaping your
personality.

A teenager learns to clothe himself/herself like his/her friends or in great

chances, adapts how they behave and act. He / She appreciate the value of
friendship, learn to find joy in sharing commonalities and accepts
differences in choices and decisions. His / Her confidence in dealing with
people can be rooted from a well-maintained relationship with friends

Social media as agent of socialization plays a crucial role in shaping your

personality as well. Majority of us, young and old, are connected through
social media. Much of our waking time is spent on using social media.

In his/her dealing with religious affiliations, a person’s belief in Omnipotent

Being is strengthened. This cultivates the idea that everyone like a brother
and a sister. Thus, respect towards one another is valued. He or she learns to
respect differences in faith.

Another agent of socialization is the government. The government upon its

imposition of law refines a person’s way of living. Through which, he/she
learns his civil rights and exercises them righteously. Likewise, he/she learns
to respect government policies and abides to them, knowing that every
action has limitation.

So, this agent of socialization influences your way of life intensively thus
doing large part in your personal development. There are other socialization
agents who are also important in molding you as a person: the community,
the church and the government.
You see? What you are now is a product of socialization. You have been
socializing from the time you were born until now. Socialization is a
continuing process until we die. Socialization is really a necessity for it
develops you as person.

ENCULTURATION

We are living in a society of many cultures. Culture is the customary

beliefs, social forms, and material traits of a racial, religious, or social group
(merriam-webster. com). These cultures make people different from one
another. A group has a set of shared attitudes and practices which are
partially or even totally apart from what others have.

As an individual grows up in a social group, he/she learns to understand

his/her identity. This is where enculturation comes in. Enculturation is the
process by which people learn the requirements of their surrounding culture
and acquire values and behaviours appropriate or necessary in that culture

(https://www. definitions.net/ definition /Enculturation).

According to Stephen A. Grunland and Marvin K. Mayers (1988) (as cited

from Hoebel, 1982), enculturation is both a conscious and an unconscious
conditioning process whereby man, as child and adult, achieves competence
in his culture, internalizes his culture and becomes thoroughly enculturated.
Socializing with people plays a great part in achieving it. He/she deals with.
An individual also learns from observing the surrounding he/she is in.

As a child lives with his family and the community, he/she adapts socially
accepted values (e.g. attending to religious obligations, respecting the
elders, etc.) At a very young age, a child is instilled with values by his/her
parents and family. He / She sees the importance of being together as
respected when they eat. Also, he/she learns the foundations of learning; be
it reading the alphabet and counting of numbers.

In a community, a person may be inspired to practice social duties and

obligations as observed and learned from those who do great contributions
for the welfare of most people. In these practices, one may also become a
steward of goodwill.

Parents and other authorities are called the initiators of enculturation. As one
is enculturated by those initiators, the process is manifested in his/her
actions, choices and decisions. If it is not because of enculturation, a person
will not become the way he/she in the society. One will not be able to discern
what is right from wrong or even make actions to handle problems
encountered. Because of enculturation, an individual knows the boundaries
of his/her actions, words and ideals. As a learned individual, one becomes
accepted by the group he/she belongs with. Enculturation teaches a person
of his/her roles in the society. True enough, he/she becomes functional
member of the society.

Status and Roles

Each individual in the society has its own status and roles. Status and Roles
are important concept of socialization because the behavior of young
members of society is controlled by assigning them a certain status which
they will enact. “We can deal with anyone; we need to know who the person
is.” Statuses and roles make individual more unsurprising or predictable
(O’Neil, 2006).

Status refers to a social position that a person holds. In general, it is

associated with prestige. It may be because of an individual’s (a)lifestyle,
(b)education, (c)vocation. Status can be ascribed or achieved, given or
accomplished respectively.

a. Ascribed status - A social position receives at birth or takes on

involuntarily later in life.

b. Achieved Status - Social position a person takes on voluntarily that

reflects personal identity and effort.

Role refers to the behavior expected of someone who holds a particular

status: it is what the individual is expected to do, given his status. It is asset
of norms, values, behaviors and personality characteristics attached to a
status. An individual may play one or more roles.

According to sociologists, STATUS describes the position a person occupies in

a certain situation. We all engage in various statues and play the ROLES that
may relate to them. Role conflict stems out from the challenging an opposing
pressure of two or more roles that struggle for our time.

Conformity and Deviance

Social Control is the process of creating and maintaining stability; in simplest
terms, the power of society over individuals. It is important to have social
control because it elicits certain behavior which empowers individuals to
conform to the norms. Given this, society is known to be a collection of
harmonious relationships between individuals. Without harmony, there would
be no existing relationship and there would be no society (Pujari, 2015).
Furthermore, the idea of rewards and punishments are used in social control.
Rewards are given to individuals who exemplified the values and follow the
norms. Usually those who conform. In contrast, punishments are given to
those individuals who deviate from the social norms.

•Conformity – Behavior which involve change in order to fit in; adjusting

one’s behavior or thinking to correspond with a group criterion.

--The “Chameleon Effect” - A Social Psychology phenomenon wherein people

tend to make themselves blend into the environment.

Why do people confirm?

The need for acceptance and approval of others

Fear of embarrassment, ridicule, or rejection by group

•Deviance – behavior that violates social norms. A behavior, a trait, belief,

or other attributes that defies or violates a norm and triggers an undesirable
outcome.

Functions of Deviance (Macionis 2012:197).

According to Emile Durkheim (1858-1917), deviance performs the following

functions:

• Affirms cultural norms and values. Defiance is needed to define and

support morality. There can be no good without evil and no justice without
crime.

• Clarifies the boundaries. By defining some individuals are deviant, people

draw a boundary between right and wrong.

• Brings people together. People typically react to serious deviance with

shared outrage, and in doing so reaffirm the moral ties that bind them.
• Encourages social change. Deviant people suggest alternatives to the
status quo and encouraging change.

A new study shows that gossiping and ostracism has its own hidden benefits.
Robb Willer and Matthew Feinberg, the Stanford professors played with the
idea of gossip and ostracism in groups. They concluded that these behaviors
elicit positive effects. According to Feinberg, gossiping and ostracism in their
groups were able to reform bullies, encourage cooperation and thwart
exploitation of nice people (Parker,2014)

CONCEPT OF SOCIAL GROUPS

Everyone belongs to a group; your race, gender, favorite sports team, your
college, even the place where you were born were all examples of groups.
Sometimes groupings are determined by factors related to who we are (sex,
age, race/ethnicity) but in many other cases, they arrive in a somewhat
arbitrary fashion. In school, you would likely associate with classmates who
share the same interests as you do like having a common hobby or sports
affiliation or even fashion sense or even love of a certain type of music.

What is a Group?

A group is composed of two or more persons interacting with each other and
guided by a set of norms. It is also defined as specified number of individuals
where each recognizes members as distinct from non-members.

Basic Classifications of Social Groups

Primary Groups

Primary groups are marked by concern for one another, shared activities and
culture, and long periods of time spent together. They are influential in
developing an individual’s personal identity. The goal of primary groups is
actually the relationships themselves rather than achieving some other
purpose. The examples of a primary group but not limited to be your family
and childhood and close friends.

The concept of the primary group was introduced by Charles Cooley in his
book, Social Organization: A Study of the Larger Mind. (Contreras, Antonio P.
et al. “Social Groups”. Understanding Culture, Society and Politics. Quezon
City: Phoenix Publishing House, Inc. 2016)

Sample Groups: Family, Play group, Village/Neighborhood, Work-team

Secondary Groups

Secondary relationships involve weak emotional ties and little personal

knowledge of one another. In contrast to primary groups, secondary groups
don’t have the goal of maintaining and developing the relationships
themselves. These groups are based on usual or habitual interests or affairs.
It includes groups in which one exchanges explicit

commodities, such as labor for wages, services for payments, and such.

Sample Groups: Nation, Church Hierarchy, Professional Association,

Corporation, University classes, Athletic teams, and groups of coworkers.

In-group

Belonging to the same group as others who share the same common bond
and interests who are more likely to understand each other refers to an in-
group. Sample Groups: Sports team, Unions and Sororities

Out-group

Those who do not belong to the in-group are part of the out-group, which
exist in the perceptions of the in-group members and takes on social reality
as a result of behavior by in-group members who use the out group as a
negative point of reference.

Reference Groups

A reference group is a collection of people that we use as a standard of

comparison for ourselves regardless of whether we are part of that group. We
rely on reference groups to understand social norms, which then shape our
values, ideas, behavior, and appearance. This means that we also use them
to evaluate the relative worth, desirability, or appropriateness of these
things.

By looking to reference groups--be they those of race, class, gender,

sexuality, religion, region, ethnicity, age, or localized groups defined by
neighborhood or school, among others-- we see norms and dominant values,
and we choose to either embrace and reproduce them in our own thoughts,
behavior, and interactions with others; or we reject and refute them by
thinking and acting in ways that break from them. Sample of these groups
are parents, siblings, teachers, peers, associates, and friends.

Network

A network is a collection of people tied together by a specific pattern of

connections. They can be characterized by the number of people involved, as
in the dyad (by twos) and triad (by threes), but also in terms of their
structures (who is connected to whom) and functions (what flows across
ties). Networks indeed, are able to do more things and different things than
individuals acting on their own could. Networks have this effect, regardless of
the content of the connections or persons involved.

Nowadays, the giving of information and establishing of connections and

various relationships can be done through social networking sites. In this
manner, it is easier to form connections, relationships, and linkages.
Example: Family Members, Friends, Work Colleagues, Classmates

There is another strong example of a network that has boomed since the
beginning of the 21st century. Since 1979, electronic forms of social
networking have boomed, starting with CompuServe and My Space, and
moving to other networking applications such as Facebook, Snapchat,
Twitter, and Instagram.