2.1 CELL AND ITS FUNCTIONS 2.

2 CELL STRUCTURE
- Our cells have distinct parts, it constitutes Most cells have three major portions, with
our body with more than 100 trillion of it. the exception of the red blood cells.
Though very minute structures, these cells
• The plasma membrane, or cell
determines form and functions of the human
membrane, defining boundaries with gate-
body. No wonder why many disorders,
like properties
through the advent of technology, can now
be attributed to its cellular basis. • The cytoplasm contains organelles and
molecules
If we try to compare the size of a single cell,
most of its size are from 10 to 15 • The nucleus, acts as the control center and
micrometers. For instance, a blood cell contains a cell’s genetic information.
measure 7.7 micrometers and an ovum
measures 100 micrometers. And since
different cell varies, a very unique cell
called nerve cells can have a meter in length
of its extensions.
1. Cell metabolism and energy use –
different chemical processes during cell
metabolism provides energy for muscle
contraction and heat production.
2. Synthesis of molecules – Cells synthesize
various types of molecules, including
proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids. The
different cells of the body do not all produce
the same molecules. Therefore, the structural
and functional characteristics of cells are
determined by the types of molecules they
2.3 CELL MEMBRANE
produce.
- cell membranes or plasma membranes are
3. Communication – Cells produce and
like gatekeepers that manages which does
receive chemical and electrical signals that
and does not enter the cell. Its flexible
allow them to communicate with one
barrier, which is made of two layers of
another. For example, nerve cells
phospholipids referred as lipid bilayer.
communicate with one another and with
muscle cells, causing muscle cells to - Membrane channels and carrier molecules
contract. are involved with the movement of
substances through the cell membrane.
4. Reproduction and inheritance – Each
Receptor molecules are part of an
cell contains a copy of the genetic
intercellular communication system that
information of the individual. Specialized
enables cell recognition and coordination of
cells (sperm cells and oocytes) transmit that
the activities of cells.
genetic information to the next generation.
- Moreover, this barrier permits exchange of ribosomes which contains small units
certain substances such as those substances of RNA.
found outside are called extracellular 2. Ribosomes- In the cytoplasm; Site
substances while those inside the cell are of protein synthesis.
termed as intracellular substances. And 3. Rough ER- In the cytoplasm; Where
because these cell membranes works as a many ribosomes attached; site of
gatekeepers, they determine which moves in protein synthesis.
and out of the cell, proving its capability to. 4. Smooth ER- In the cytoplasm Site
have selective permeability of lipid synthesis; participates in
detoxification.
2.4 CYTOPLASM AND ORGANELLES
5. Golgi Apparatus- In the cytoplasm;
- is the gel-like substance that fills the space Modifies protein structure and
between the plasma membrane and the packages proteins in secretory
nucleus. It consists of the intracellular fluid vesicles.
called cytosol and organelles. 6. Secretory Vesicle- In the cytoplasm;
Contains materials produced in the
Cytosol consists of water plus dissolved cell; formed by the Golgi apparatus;
ions, proteins, amino acids, fatty acids, ATP, secreted by exocytosis.
and gases which provides the avenue for 7. Lysosome- In the cytoplasm;
most chemical reactions to occur. Contains enzymes that digest
While organelles are considered to be the material taken into the cell.
“little organs” found inside the cytoplasm Peroxisomes are small, membrane-
and are bound to perform different tasks in bound vesicles containing enzymes
cellular metabolism. that break down fatty acids, amino
acids, and hydrogen peroxide.
ORGANELLES, THEIR LOCATION 8. Mitochondrion- In the cytoplasm;
AND FUNCTIONS Site of aerobic respiration and the
1. Nucleus- Often near the center; major site of ATP synthesis. The
Cell’s control center; contains DNA folds of the inner membrane are
and Nucleoli; site for RNA synthesis called cristae. On the other hand, the
and ribosomal subunit assembly. The fluid that fills the inside of the
outer part of the nucleus is covered membrane is termed as
by two layers called the nuclear mitochondrial matrix.
envelope which then contains small 9. Microtubule- In the cytoplasm;
openings termed as nuclear pores. Supports cytoplasm; assists in cell
Just like the cell membranes, these division and forms components of
nuclear pores regulates movement of cilia and flagella. The cytoskeleton
different substances into and out of is made of networks of the following
the cells. The nucleolus is a round protein elements. It is like tree-
structure that is made of the DNA, branches that holds organelles in
RNA and proteins. The nucleolus is place and aid them in changing
also the one responsible for making shape. Microfilaments are small
protein strands that provide
 mechanical support and generate Concentration Gradient – the difference in
force for movement. concentration of a substance between two
10. Centrioles- In the cytoplasm; areas
Facilitate the movement of
Cell membranes has the unique capability to
chromosomes during cell division.
only allow certain substances to pass
Centrosome is found near the
through its walls—Selective Permeability.
nucleus and will be later essential for
Because of this, coupled with the transport
cell division called Mitosis.
capacity, cells maintains its concentration of
11. Cilia- On the cell surface with many
molecules. Movement of substances may
on each cell; Move substances over
include two processes:
surfaces of certain cells.
12. Flagella On the sperm cell surface; 1. Passive transport – no cellular
with one per cell; Propel sperm cells. energy required during transport.
13. Microvilli- Extensions of cell Examples includes Diffusion,
surface with many on each cell; osmosis and facilitated diffusion
Increase surface area of certain cells.  Osmosis involves the diffusion of
water down the concentration
2.5 CELL TRANSPORT
gradient through a selectively
Intracellular fluid - inside the cell permeable membrane.
- sample substances that can be found are
enzymes, glycogen and potassium ions Isotonic —The solute concentration
outside the cell is the same as that
Extracellular fluid - outside the cell
inside the cell. Therefore, water
Interstitial fluids – fluids between cell concentration is also the same on
within tissue. both sides of the cell, and the net
movement of water is zero.
Plasma – fluid within a blood vessel Hypotonic- The solute concentration
Lymph – fluid within lymphatic vessel outside the cell is less than the
concentration inside the cell.
Cerebrospinal fluid – fluid that surrounds Therefore, the water concentration
brain and spinal cord outside is greater than that inside,
As they move across cells and within the and water flows into the cell.
cells substances including gases, nutrients Hypertonic- The solute
and ions are dissolved in the various fluids. concentration outside the cell is
Certain terms in concentration also applies: greater than the concentration inside
the cell. Therefore, the water
Solute – a substance that is being dissolved concentration is greater inside the
in the various fluids cell than outside, and water flows out
Solvent – a. fluid or gas in which solute is of the cell.
being dissolved  Diffusion is the process wherein
solutes moves from an area of high
Concentration – the amount of solute concentration to areas of low
dissolved in given volume of solvent concentration.
  Facilitated diffusion is a carrier- 2.6 CELL DIVISION
mediated transport process that
Cells transport materials and make proteins
moves substances across the cell
as part of their normal functions. They grow
membrane from an area of higher
and, at some point, divide to produce new
concentration to an area of lower
cells. Cell division is the way your body
concentration of that substance.
grows and how it replaces worn-out cells
and cells damaged by disease or injury. Most
2. Active transport – certain amount of of the cells in your body are somatic cells
cellular energy is needed to help transport to and divide through a process called mitosis.
be Successful. Includes itself, secondary Somatic cells are cells other than sex cells
active transport, endocytosis and exocytosis (sperm and egg). During mitosis, one
starting cell divides into two identical cells.
Secondary active transport- involves the
Each cell has exactly the same genetic
active transport of one substance, such as
makeup as the parent cell.
Na+, across the cell membrane, establishing
a concentration gradient. Mitosis is one part of the cell’s normal life
cycle, called the cell cycle. The cell is
continually changing from the time it forms
 Endocytosis involves ingesting until it divides. Although the cell cycle is
material by forming a vesicle from continuous, it is commonly divided into
the plasma membrane. The sac of interphase and mitosis
ingested material buds off inside the
During interphase, the cells goes through
cell and usually fuses with
three stages:
lysosomes. There are three types of
endocytosis: G1—a growth phase in which proteins are
synthesized. The cell performs the tasks for
Phagocytosis. The cell “eats” large which it was created (such as carrying
particles such as bacteria, viruses, oxygen, secreting digestive enzymes, etc.). It
and dead cells. accumulates the materials it will need to
replicate its DNA.
Pinocytosis. The cell periodically
S— when DNA is replicated.
“drinks” by forming small vesicles
around droplets of extracellular fluid. G2—another growth phase in which
proteins are made.
Receptor-mediated endocytosis.
When hormones bind to receptors on Interphase, which may take 20 to 22 hours,
the plasma membrane, the hormone– is followed by mitosis.
receptor complex is often ingested by
endocytosis after the hormone has
produced its effect.
Mitosis itself consists of four phases:
• Prophase - each chromosome consists of
two chromatids joined at the centromere.
• Metaphase - chromosomes align at the
center of the cell. • Anaphase - chromatids
separate at the centromere and migrate to
opposite poles
• Telophase - the two new nuclei assume
their normal structure, and cell division is
completed, producing two new daughter
cells.
As a result of mitosis, each cell contains 23
pairs of chromosomes. This make-up, which
is identical to that of the starting cell, is
called diploid
Specialized cells called gametes undergo a
different process of cell division called
meiosis. During meiosis, a starting cell
undergoes two rounds of cell division to
produce four cells. Each cell has one-half
the genetic material of the starting cell (only
one set of chromosomes).
Meiosis is very similar to mitosis. In fact,
the two are so similar that their stages are
rather confusingly referred to by the same
names. One difference is that, in the first
prophase of meiosis (prophase I), pairs of
homologous chromosomes (that is, pairs of
chromosome #1, pairs of chromosome #2,
and so on) remain close together in tight
groups called tetrads. During this phase, the
chromosomes may exchange pieces of DNA
in a process called crossing over. Crossing
over “shuffles” the genetic material, which
allows genetic variation from one generation
to the next. In the first anaphase of meiosis
(anaphase I), the tetrads get pulled apart.
Ultimately, the two stages of meiosis divide
the chromosome complement of the parent
in half, a status called haploid.