CHAPTER 3

 As the name suggests, in AM, the information signal varies the amplitude of the carrier sine
wave. The instantaneous value of the carrier amplitude changes in accordance with the
amplitude and frequency variations of the modulating signal.
 The carrier frequency remains constant during the modulation process, but its amplitude varies
in accordance with the modulating signal. An increase in the amplitude of the modulating signal
causes the amplitude of the carrier to increase. Both the positive and the negative peaks of the
carrier wave vary with the modulating signal. An increase or a decrease in the amplitude of the
modulating signal causes a corresponding increase or decrease in both the positive and the
negative peaks of the carrier amplitude.
 This imaginary line on the carrier waveform is known as the envelope.
 The circuit used for producing AM is called a modulator. Its two inputs, the carrier and the
modulating signal, and the resulting outputs
 A circuit that changes a lower-frequency baseband or intelligence signal to a higher-frequency
signal is usually called a modulator.
 A circuit used to recover the original intelligence signal from an AM wave is known as a detector
or demodulator.
 the relationship between the amplitude of the modulating signal and the amplitude of the
carrier signal is important. This relationship, known as the modulation index m (also called the
modulating factor or coefficient, or the degree of modulation)
 Multiplying the modulation index by 100 gives the percentage of modulation.
 Here a sine wave information signal is modulating a sine wave carrier, but the modulating
voltage is much greater than the carrier voltage, resulting in a condition called overmodulation.
 Automatic circuits called compression circuits solve this problem by amplifying the lower-level
signals and sup pressing or compressing the higher-level signals.

 These new frequencies, which are called side frequencies, or sidebands, occur in the frequency
spectrum directly above and directly below the carrier frequency.
 A plot of signal amplitude versus frequency is referred to as a frequency-domain display.
 A test instrument known as a spectrum analyzer is used to display the frequency domain of a
signal.
 Recall that voice frequencies occur in the 300- to 3000-Hz range.
 bandwidth of an AM signal is twice the highest frequency in the modulating signal.

 Amplitude modulation by square waves or rectangular binary pulses is referred to as amplitude-

shift keying (ASK). ASK is used in some types of data communication when binary information is
to be transmitted.
 Code transmissions such as this are usually called continuous-wave (CW) transmissions. This kind
of transmission is also referred to as ON/OFF keying (OOK).
 Such harmonic sideband interference is sometimes called splatter because of the way it sounds
at the receiver.

\
 The i rst step in generating an SSB signal is to suppress the carrier, leaving the upper and lower
sidebands. This type of signal is referred to as a double-sideband suppressed carrier (DSSC or
DSB) signal.
 Double-sideband suppressed carrier signals are generated by a circuit called a balanced
modulator.
 One sideband can be suppressed; the remaining sideband is called a single- sideband suppressed
carrier (SSSC or SSB) signal.
 The main disadvantage of DSB and SSB signals is that they are harder to recover, or demodulate,
at the receiver.
 Demodulation depends upon the carrier being present.
 Such a low-level carrier is referred to as a pilot carrier.
1. Give the formula for modulation index and explain its terms.
M = (Vmax – Vmin)/(Vmax + Vmin)
2. An AM wave displayed on an oscilloscope has values of Vmax = 4.8 and Vmin = 2.5 as read from
the graticule. What is the percentage of modulation?

Modulation index: m = Vmax - Vmin/ Vmax + Vmin = 4.8 - 2.5 / 4.8 + 2.5 = 0.3151
The percentage of modulation = 0.3151 x 100 = 31.51%

3. What is the ideal percentage of modulation for maxi mum amplitude of information trans
mission?
100 percent
4. To achieve 75 percent modulation of a carrier of Vc = 50 v, what amplitude of the modulating
signal Vm is needed?

75% means that the modulation index is 0.75We can either say that
m = Vm/Vc or Modulation index = Peak amplitude of modulation signal/Peak amplitude of
carrier.
0.75 = Vm/Vc —> Vm = 0.75 x Vc = 0.75 x 50 = 37.5 V

5. The maximum peak-to-peak value of an AM wave is 45 V. The peak-to-peak value of the

modulating signal is 20 V. What is the percentage of modulation?
85 percent
6. An AM radio transmitter operating on 3.9 MHz is mod ulated by frequencies up to 4 kHz. What
are the maxi mum upper and lower side frequencies? What is the total bandwidth of the AM
signal?
3896 KHz, 3904 KHz : BW = 8 Khz
7. What is the bandwidth of an AM signal whose carrier is 2.1 M Hz modulated by a 1.5 kHz square
wave with significant harmonics up to the fifth? Calculate all the upper and lower sidebands
produced.
Fmax = 5 x 1.5 k Hz = 7.5 kHz
Bandwidth of AM signal = 2(FmaX)
=2 x 7.5 kHz = 15 kHz
Upper side band = Fc + nFm = 1.5 kHz
Lower side band = -Fc - nFm
n = 1,2,3,4,5
8. How much power appears in one sideband of an AM signal of a 5-kW transmitter modulated by
80 percent?
800 W
9. An AM signal has a 12.1-W carrier and 1.5 W in each sideband. What is the percentage of
modulation?
Formula Pt = Pc + 2(Psb) = 12.1 + 2(1.5) = 15.1W
Pt = Pc(1+�㕚 22) ; @Pc =12.1W
15.1W = 12.1(1+�㕚 22) ; m = 0.704178; 0.704178x100 = 70.42 %
10. An AM transmitter puts a carrier of 6 A into an antenna whose resistance is 52 V. The transmitter is
modulated by 60 percent. What is the total output power?

The total output power of the AM transmitter, when modulated by 60 percent and putting a
carrier of 6 A into an antenna with a resistance of 52 Ω, is 2208.96 Watts. OR 2031.25W

11. A ham transmitter has a carrier power of 750 W. How much power is added to the signal when the
transmitter is 100 percent modulated?

Therefore, the maximum power added to the signal is: Padded = 750 x (1^2/2) = 375 W So, when the
transmitter is 100 percent modulated, 375 W of power is added to the signal, making the total power of
the signal 1125 W (750 W carrier power + 375 W power added).

12. An SSB transmitter has a power supply voltage of 250 V. On voice peaks, the final amplifier

draws a current of 3.3 A. What is the input PEP?

825 w

13. The peak-to-peak output voltage of 675 V appears across a 52-V antenna on voice peaks in an SSB
trans mitter. What is the output PEP?

1095 W

14. What is the average output power of an SSB transmitter rated at 100-W PEP?

P avg min = 25 W

P avg max = 33.333 W

15. An SSB transmitter with a carrier of 2.3 MHz is modu lated by an intelligence signal in the 150-Hz to
4.2-kHz range. Calculate the frequency range of the lower sideband

2.29 to 2.30 Mhz

CHAPTER 4

 Another way to generate the product of the carrier and modulating signal is to apply both signals
to a nonlinear component or circuit, ideally one that generates a square-law func tion.
 A common nonlinear component is a diode that has the nonlinear parabolic response
 A square-law function is one that varies in proportion to the square of the input signals.
 Diodes and transistors whose func tion is not a pure square-law function produce third-, fourth-,
and higher-order harmon ics, which are sometimes referred to as intermodulation products and
which are also easy to i lter out.
 Amplitude modulators are generally one of two types: low level or high level. Low-level
modulators generate AM with small signals and thus must be amplii ed considerably if they are
to be transmitted. High-level modulators produce AM at high power levels, usually in the i nal
amplii er stage of a transmitter.
 One of the simplest amplitude modulators is the diode modulator
 A differential amplii er modulator makes an excellent ampli tude modulator.
 The output voltage can be taken between the two collectors, producing a balanced, or
differential, output.
 One example of a high-level modulator circuit is the collector modulator
 Demodulators, or detectors, are circuits that accept modulated signals and recover the original
modulating information. The demodulator circuit is the key circuit in any radio receiver. In fact,
demodulator circuits can be used alone as simple radio receivers.
 The simplest and most widely used amplitude demodulator is the diode detector
 The crystal component of the crystal radio receivers that were widely used in the past is simply a
diode.
 Synchronous detectors use an internal clock signal at the carrier frequency in the receiver to
switch the AM signal off and on, producing rectii cation similar to that in a standard diode
detector (see Fig. 4-19.)
 Synchronous detectors are also referred to as coherent detectors, and were known in the past as
homodyne detectors.
 A balanced modulator is a circuit that generates a DSB signal, suppressing the carrier and leaving
only the sum and difference frequencies at the output.
 One of the most popular and widely used balanced modulators is the diode ring or lattice
modulator
 A typical example, the popular 1496/1596 IC balanced modulator,
 The 1496 IC is one of the most versatile cir cuits available for communication applications.
 Another type of IC that can be used as a balanced modulator is the analog multiplier. Analog
multipliers are often used to generate DSB signals.
 A crystal oscillator pro vides the carrier signal, which is also applied to the balanced modulator.
The output of the balanced modulator is a double-sideband (DSB) signal. An SSB signal is
produced by passing the DSB signal through a highly selective bandpass i lter that selects either
the upper or lower sideband.
 The phasing method of SSB generation uses a phase-shift technique that causes one of the
sidebands to be canceled out.

1. A collector modulated transmitter has a supply voltage of 48 V and an average collector

current of 600 mA. What is the input power to the transmitter? How much modulating signal
power is needed to produce 100 per cent modulation?
28.8 W, 14.4 W
2. An SSB generator has a 9-MHz carrier and is used to pass voice frequencies in the 300- to
3300-Hz range. The lower sideband is selected. What is the approximate
8.9982 Mhz
3. A 1496 IC balanced modulator has a carrier-level input of 200 mV. The amount of
suppression achieved is 60 dB. How much carrier voltage appears at the output?
200uV