(Dever / IGCSE PHYSICS NOTES (Course Book) Subject Code: 5054 Article No. 286 M. Arshad Chaudhry Senior Teacher at Ex. Aitchison, LGS JT, LGS 1-4-4, Beaconhouse ALIT, Pak Turk (Boys) READS WRITE PUBLICATIONS urarmo Quonesisa B 3.6, Zt ahi Rone O Sate Pein Shop No. 25-28 Lower Ground Floor readnericon icpablcatons Stop‘All rights ceserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, sored in a retrieval system or transmitted, in any form or by any means, eleconic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, ‘without the prior witen permission of the Author. Cambridge Intemational has not provided these questions or answers and can take no responsibilty whatsoever for their accuracy or suitably forthe examinations. Tie (-Level Physics Notes (Course Book) Author M. Arshag Chaudhry Call: 0300-9412902 E-mail areac9S@[Link] Publishes by Read & Write Publications Printed by ‘Sadaat Printers Urdu Bazar Lahore Composed by Rashid Mehmood, Salman Bukhs Tie designed by Rashid Mehmood Legal Advisor Mian Tariq Ahmad (Advocate Supreme Court) oom No. 10, 1, 12 AlMajoed Centre {-Mozang Road, Lahore. Tel 042-87296146, Fax: 042-97241967 Eaton: 2016-17 Price DISTRIBUTORS Poe ARACHI > READ & WRITE SALE POINT > BURMAN! BOOK CENTRE ‘Shop No. 25-28 Lower Ground Floor, ‘Shop # 6 Hashmi Trust Building Rotson Road Haadia Haleema Centre, Ghazni Street, New Urdu Bazar Karachi Urdu Bazar, Lahore, Ph: 042.957 14038 Telo2t 32212640 > MARYAM ACADEMY PS) > ABDUL RAHMAN BOOKS ‘Abdul Rahman Plaza, Colege Road, Ravalpind. Tel: 051-5551226, .92-315-5818976 > ASIAN BOOK STORE Shop No, 8 Lower Ground, Asian Business Conte, Bahria Town, Phase-7 Entrance, G.T Road, awalpind. Ph +92-51-491 7088, Tayyab Ali Buléing, Urdu Bazar, Karachi Tol 021 92214243 , 021 92694243Preface ‘The First paper of CIE Oxcinary Level Physics Examination containg 40 compulsory Multiple Choice Questions testing knowledge of almost every area of the syllabus. This raises need of a COs book which could help the students to test their knowiedge once they have learnt a particular syllabus area in the class ‘This MCO book includes mutiple choice questions taken fom CIE O level past papers. The book has 23, ‘chapters each covering a specific syllabus area in a separate chapter. All the MCQs have been complied ‘according to the year in which they ware sat in ihe © Level Cambridge examinations. For the better Understanding of ihe questions detailed answers are aso given atthe end of each chapter. Not only this; ‘bt the ist five years papers a the end of the book provide compact questions with given references. “Tho correct answors to the Questions are given in the answer key atthe end of each chapter. This isthe ‘only book in the market containing both topical and yearly content of the paper with thei detaied Constructive criticism and suggestions to make the subsequent editions more useful would be ‘appreciated and thankluly acknowledged. M.A. Chaudhary [Link]. Physics, BEd Gel: +92 900 9412902 malt: arcac95@hotmailcomUnits Unive Units Units Units Units Unit? Units Units Unit-t0 Unita Unitt2 Units Unita Unitas: Unitas Unita” Units: Unitt9 Unit20 Unit24 Uunit22 Unit23 Unit24 Contents MEASUREMENT KINEMATICS. DYNAMICS MASS, WEIGHT AND DENSITY ‘TURNING EFFECT OF FORCE. WORK, POWER AND ENERGY. PRESSURE. KINETIC MODEL OF MATTER MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE. ‘TRANSFER OF THERMAL ENERGY ‘THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER REFLECTION ANO REFRACTION OF LIGHT. LENSES AND DISPERSION OF LIGHT Waves SOUND STATIC ELECTRICITY... (CURRENT ELECTRICITY AND D.C. CIRCUTT. PRACTICAL ELECTRICITY. MAGNETISM. ELECTROMAGNETISM .. MAGNETIC FORGE ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUGTION.. ELECTRONS. RADIOACTIVITY, “4 20 28 20 34 40 48 50 58 62 68 76 ea 2 98 vn 108 112 118 124 130 vs 198 144 150ust 7 assumert Syllabus 2017 - 18 —— 1 Rowe ond Sew se Se Measurement score recipe Pram O Level Physics Teacher’s Notes M. A. Chaudhary Cell: 0300-9412902ust ° assumert ee Se PHYSICS is tho science that deals with idea of matter and energy. ‘The physical quanities are measured in units. Thera are seven SI base quantiles in Physics. The names and ther units are given bolow: Physical Quantit Sim Length mete Wass logram a Time second Current ampere x Temperature Kein K ‘Argun of substance moe | ol ght intensity candela od PREFIXES FOR SI UNIT: Prefixes are multiple and sub mutiple units of Physical quantities. The prefixes are used to express the physical quantity in big or small values. Some commonly used SI prefixes are given below: 0 cet c 1 tan € 07 a 7 70 Fe z a a ol 7a x 0 iege u 0 Giga q L, The instruments for measurement of length T 1: Metre Rule:- Q sr a mete ule a wooden or plastic or see bar of length 1S 100 . Taodisione mated oni are no, mand in \ ©. The accuracy or fast count of lr mm or. G. The rulers deed to mecsure the length of sapht Bec staph tance between ‘two points in cm or in mm. ¢ 2. e. _Theoye sp must be perpen o gov ofa of ero avid prac A cad he saps eg Cail or Chod he se rar etresoaraokegnd cpt 1800" Irecaxatelengh of cect =21.00 2 zeoenorat) object | ised | ‘Roourale measurement 2: Measuring Tapes 2. —Ameasuring tape is aplastic strip of several metres long, b. The divisions marked on tapes are in cm, mm, inches, feet and metres. © The accuracy or least count of tape is 1mm or [Link]. . The measuring tape is used to measure the distance between two points in meters. The {ape can also measure the length or diameter or circumference of curved objects. fe. The parallax error and zero error must ba avoided while using measuring tape. 43: Vernier Calipers 2. Averier caliper consists of main scale, verier scale and two jaws, made up of steel b. The accuracy ofthis instrument is 0.1mm or 0.01em. © The veri caliper is used to measure the diameter of spherical objecs, internal and extemal diameter of tubes in em or mm How to read Vernier calipers ‘+ Check the zer0 error of instrument. Its value must be added to or subtracted from the final reading, ‘+ Grip the object gently between outside jaws. ‘yi jane veer cle al beating cus jas 1+ Rlead the man sae dhisioncecy opposite the ze mark on above, as Main scale reading =3y gs Bi + Reed te Vernier cle dhison wich cote wth yy Gin main sol Prats -man se wg vn Final reading <4 Le. Verrier scale reading ge Ot om 3.1 +004 or Final reading =3.140must 0 assumert 4: Micrometer Screw gauge: a. Aserew gauge consists of ratchet, thimble, sleeve, spindle and anvil b. The accuracy ofthis instrument is 0.01 mm or 0.00tcm ©. The sorew gauge i used fo measure diameter of ball bearings & wires, thickness of coin & paper ete HOW TO READ SCREW GAUGE ‘+ Check the zero error, by closing the spindle without any object. This value is either added to or subtracted from the final easing ‘+ Grip the object be1woon anvil and spindle. The rachot is used to tighton the object inthe grip thimble scale thimble ratchet qosetedion datum line hws ‘+ Read the main scale, by potng the last division seen on the sleeve, For ciagram above: Main scale reading = 85 mm ‘+ Read the thimble scale division, coincicing with the datum tne ie. Thimble scale reading = 40 x LC =40.x0.01 = 0.40 mm The final ceading can be calculated as: ‘+ Final reading = main scale reading + thimble scale reading Final reading = 8.5 + 0.40 ie. Final reading = 8.90 mm PRECAUTIONS OF USING CALIPERS AND MICROMETER: Check zero error and note its value Gloan and wipe the instruments ‘Avoid parallax errr. Grip the object in instruments gently. Fepeat the reading and take average value for more Zo @ ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT: Noe @ ie allax error: & This error is produced due to wrong positioning of eye. ne wat reading. The eye sight ‘must be perpendicular tothe point of reading to a 2 Zeroerror oe ‘The 2210 errar occurs when the veenier 2K fully closed without any abject sro doen gue soe es aor read, ‘The zara errors ether added to or subtractSS al Es —Eo +, a ro wro error Allmessuremens should be reduced Al messurements should be by 008 mm 0.08 mm) Increased by Osram (40.03 mm) 3, Human Reaction error: The error caused by a person in noting the time intervals, due to his/her reaction time. This ecror varies from person to person according fo their age. This error can be minimized by repeating the experiment and taking average values. MEASUREMENT OF TIME: ‘Time is measured in years, months, days, hours, minutes and seconds. Due to wide range of time intervals different kinds of clocks and watches are used as summarized in the table below. [Type oflockwateh | Useandaceuracy ‘Atomic Clock ‘Measure very shor time intervals of about 10"™ seconds. Digital stopwatch | Weasur® short ime interval (in minutes and seconds) to ah accuracy of 30.016 “Analogue stopwatch_| Measures short me intervals (in minutes and seconcs) fo an accuracy of 20.18. Ticker-ape timer Measures shor ime intervals of 0.02 s ‘Watch —WeasuresTonger time intervals in hours, minutes and seconds, Pandulum clock Measures longer ime intervals in hours, minutes and seconds. Rasen decay “Measures in years the age of remains from thousands of years ago ‘THE SIMPLE PENDULUM: A simple pendulum consists ofa metal bob, attached at the end of string, hanging from a support BASIC TERMS OF PENDULUM: Fixed support + Oscillation: ‘One complete round trip of a pendulum is called oselltion:.@; from 0-8-8 ana, back 00. + Time Period (1): Time taken by a pendulum to complete ‘one osclation. + Frequency (f): This numberof oscilations completed in ‘one second. whore f= frequency, measured in Hertz (Hz) How to determine time period of a Pendulum using stop watch? ‘+ Set the pendulum into motion.ust 2 Measurement ‘+ Nota time for 20 oscilations by using stopwatch. ‘+ Find the time for one oscilation by using the formula: Tat Whee {= time noted by watch n= no. of oscliatons. ‘T= time period.unt? UNIT 2 Syll King Kinematics O Level Physics Teacher’s Notes M. A. Chaudhary Cell: 0300-9412902 Pryece OL! jabus 2017 — 18 rematics ‘Basie Dotitions Retardation or Deceleaton Key points of using Kinematestormuiae Key points of Distance-Time graph Calculation trom Distance-Time Graph Calculations tom Speed Time graphunt? 4 Pryece OL! BASIC DEFINITIONS: Displacement: “The shortest and straight ine cistance between two points travelled in a spect dction, Unit: m Speed:- Distance travelled per unit time. Formula: Unit: mis or ms" ‘Types of Speed: a) Its the total aistance travelled in total time Formula: Average Speed = Me oOo ee Where u = initial speed, V = final speed -2V> = average speed. )Unitorm Speed: It the object is moving with constant speed, then its speed is uniform, ©) Non-Unitorm speed: ifthe speed of an object changes with time, then it ie maving with non-uniform ar variable speed Acceleration: Its increase in velocity per unit time, Formula: ange Ta VaR coloration = SES Bway | Vier na voy \ win er SS ts Lpouderton Unit: nvs* orms® RETARDATION OR DecELERATION: “SG? Itis decrease in velocity per unit time.unt? 5 Prysce OL ‘Types of acceleration: 2) Uniform acceleration: If velocity of an object changes in equal amounts in equal time uniform, tervals, then acceleration is 'b)_Non-Uniform accelerator lt velocity ofan object changes unequally in equal time intervals, then ‘acceleration is non-uniform Formulae in Kinematics ie a SE gg SEL teme. ie 8 (1 Where u «inital speed Vm final speed even average speed t= time, a = acceleration. S = distance, KEY POINTS OF USING KINEMATICS FORMULAE: Ha body stats from rest, then Ital speed Ifa moving body comes to rest, then final speed v Ifa body is thrown upwards, at highest point, final speed v = 0 Ma body fals freely, at staring point, intial speed =u =0 Time taken to reach max. height =Time taken to retum to orginal positon, Distance-Time Graphs ‘A Retizofal ind indicates spBed po, as the body ot moving rom ts rie wes aw -Atralghtijge 8h untorm speed since elstance increas 2S” with time.unt? 6 Prysce OL ‘The distance-time curve is that of non-uniform speed. From O-rA, speed decreases gradually 2zer0, from A-B, speed increases. KEY POINTS OF DISTANCE-TIME GRAPH:- > The gradient of distance-time graph isthe speed ofa body. > gradients zero, dy i a rest. > lf gracientis constant, body is moving with uniform speed. >If gradient varies, body is moving with non-uniform oF variable speed. >If gradient is negative, body is moving in opposite or reverse direction. CALCULATION FROM DISTANCE-TIME GRAPH: 4. Speed = gradient of ine change in dstnce ty Speed = iene taken 2. Average speed ‘Speed-Time Graphs Object i a rst Speed of object i increasing uniformly with ‘constant acceleration I oe crete © © * ©7 Prysce OL ‘Speed of object is decreasing uniformly, with ‘constant retardation, ‘+ From A-:8, spoed is constant with zero ‘acceleration, ‘+ From B-»C, speed decreases uniformly with ‘constant retardation, + From A-sB, speed is decreasing uniformly with ‘constant reiardation, ‘+ ALB, objects at rest. ‘+ From B-+C speed is increasing uniformly with ‘constant acceleration. ‘+The acceleration decreases gradually, because rato of change of speed is decreasing with time. ‘+ The acceleration increases gradually because rate of change of speed is increasing wth tie. + ALB, aoceleration is uniform 6 . BG, sccleration far <6 a + CD, retardation is un waunt? 8 Prysce OL CALCULATIONS FROM SPEED-TIME GRAPH: 1)Acceleration gradient of ine 2)Distance rea under a speed time graph. ‘Area ofa tiangle = Yebase « height ‘Acoa of rectangle _=length « breadth ‘Acea ofa trapezium = (sum of parallel sides)height le Ye(asbyn where a length of one side. b= length of othe side hh S height between a and b. Acceleration of freefall or acceleration due to gravity “The uniform acceleration produced fo the feely fang body, due to gravity is called acceleration of free fal ts value is approximately 10ms°. The acceleration due to gravity is crected towards contre of the earth. ‘The acceleration due to gravity does not depend on masses af the faling bodies, Inthe presence of air resistance, the acceleration due to gravity decreases. For upward motion, the acceleration due to gravity fs g = 10ms" and for downward motion, g=+10ms Motion of bodies in air resistance The air resistance has the folowing effects: 1. ltalways opposes the motion of moving objects 2. increases with he inerease of speed of the objects. 3. Winereases with the size ofthe object Terminal velocity:= When the air resistance on an object fang in gravitational filed becomes equal fo the force of graviy, then object moves. with uniform velocity, called as terminal velocity. aS awh ogy ‘+ Object fais with an inital acceleration of toms" i.e. with acceleration al GPavityD\ +The acceleration gracvaly decreases {When aiesstance and gravity forces become equal then actelrtion 3gust-9 1° UNIT3 Prysce OL Syllabus 2017 - 18 Dynamics O Level Physics Teacher’s Notes M. A. Chaudhary Cell: 0300-9412902 )ynamies Forces Effet of Force Types of Forces Elis of ricion on the maton ofa vehicle Braking, thinking & stopping distances Examples of eular mation Balanced and Unbalanced Forces ‘Newton’ aw of motion Metods to determine resultant vector Detrmation ‘Arangoment & Procedureuai-9 » Prysce OL Unit-3__ DYNAI EJ SECTION-1 = FORCES Force: Itis pull or push on an object that changes or tends to change the state of rest or uniform motion ‘ofthat object. EFFECT OF FORCE: Force can change the shape of a body. Force can stop the moving body. Force can set the body into motion Force can accelerate the body. Force can decelerate the body. Force can change the direction of a maving body. Pra 1. Force of Gravity, "The pull of earth acting on an object. 2. Force of gravitation Its fore of attraction between any two objects in the universe, 3. Tension Iti the force experienced by stretched or compressed objects. 4. Fiction The contac force which opposes the maton of body, de othe roughness of 5. Resistance \Whon a body is draggod through a fluid (air or liquid), there is a friction between body and fui called as resistance or vious force 6. Contact Force or Normal When an object is made in contact with a surface, then the reaction force of reaction Force ‘that surface is called contact force or normal reaction force, 7. Electric Force ‘The push or pull between electric charges. Magnetic Force “The push or pull between magn Effects of Friction: Friction is @ contact force that slows down moving objects. Friction has both positive and negative effects. x negate tect soa 1. Foce REO tan var an arn. Foe of Hee RES NB ecto ‘ona ats tae nroons 2, Force of Friction reduces the engine power. ‘Force of friar Relpgcin Stopping the moving Mods of Reicing Fon Og Using highly polished sutace for moving pans pee aera (Gs Using bal earns io ene surtaceiorokovpe © Making the aerodynamic shapes of moving B32 Dy, 6?ust-9 a Prysce OL EFFECTS OF FRICTION ON THE MOTION OF A VEHICLE 1. Tyre surtace: I tyre surface is in good condition then there is more friction between the tyre and the road. The moving vehicle can be stopped easily within the stopping distance. 2. Road Condition: If toa is wet, the friction between tyres and road reduces, resulting in increase to the stopping distance. The vehicles can also skid at turns, due to weiness of road. 3. Braking Force: If braking padsidscs are in good condition, then braking force causes more friction and siopping distance reduces, BRAKING, THINKING & STOPPING DISTANCES. 1. Braking distance: The cistance traveled by a moving vehicle curing the time thatthe brakes are ‘applied. 2. Thinking distance: The distance travelled by moving vehicle during the reaction time of driver, ibefore appiyng the brakes. 3 Stopping distance: The total distance travelled by moving vehicle, between thinking the distance and stopping the vehicle, Le. ‘Stopping distance = thinking distance + breaking distance. ‘The braking, thinking and stopping distances are not equal due to folowing factors. a) The road condtion ) The tyres condition ©) The brakes condition 4) The speed of moving vehicle ©) The vehicle is loaded or unloaded. 4) The human reaction of criver, Circular motion I the distance of an object remains constant from a fixed point, throughout its motion, then abject isin ‘cecular motion. The circular motion has folowing characteristics. >>I speed of object in circle is constant, its direction keeps on changing, so velocity isnot constant. > The direction of veloty at any instant in circular motion is determined by the tangent to circle at that point. » Tho frea whieh Koop i objet movingn seat path i cals conrpea reg This force i always directed towards conite of cicle. AN EXAMPLES OF CIRCULAR MOTION: 1. Motion of cron: Meeps tote exer by he evs on sectn,provieSEGal les o estore The ceatons tooven ting eben to mci monalerne rt 2. Motion of Satelite: neat ‘he force of gravy of earth provides centipotalforep {Theft The saoitokoops on Tourg aura abet checar meme ue Oo 3. Motion of Planets: & ee The bevels move around te sun due w grS@Ga tre. The grvtaonal force provides centripetal force tothe planets. Each planet in the’solar system is directed towards sun, due to senutetal tre andadpe on mown bred okust-9 2 Prysce OL BALANCED AND UNBALANCED FORCES: Balanced Forces: Two equal forces acting in opposite directions cancel each other out. These forces ‘are balanced forces. The balanced forces produce two effects 1. Objectis ether at rest or 2. Moving ata steady speed, Unbalanced Forces: Two forces of different values acting in opposite directions, on an object are unbalanced forces. “The unbalanced forces 1. Either accelerate the object or 2. Decelerate the object NEWTON'S LAW OF MOTION: First Law: A body continues is state of rest or uniform mation untl an extemal force acts on it Second Law: When a force acts on a body, then acceleration is produced such that ‘= axF Le. acceleration cirecty proportional tothe force applied ‘= as 1/m i, acosleration inversely proportional tothe mass of body. The acceleration, force and mass are related by the formula: Fema The unit of force is Newton (N). ‘Third Law: To every action there is equal and opposite reaction, Scalar and Vector 4. Asscalar quantity is that which has magnitude ony. 2. A vocior quantity has magnitude as wall as diction. Examples: Displacement Terai ‘Speed Velotiy Tine ‘Roceeration| Force Weight Densiiy ea Voiume Enerey Pressureust-9 2 Prysce OL Resultant Vector: The combined etfect of two vectors i called resultant vector. METHODS TO DETERMINE RESULTANT VECTO! 1. By addition: If two vectors are in the same direction then their magnitudes are added up to find resultant vector. 2. By Subtraction: If two vectors are in opposite direction, then they are subtracted from each other toind resultant voctor. allelogram method: If two vectors are at certain angle, then Parallelogram method is used to find resultant vector. “Complete the parallelogram joining the given vectors at their angle. The length of diagonal determines the resultant vector.” Fig. Parallelogram A&B vectors resultant vector. 4. Triangle method: If wo vectors are at 90°, then the resultant vector is obtained by head to tail ule “Join the head of first vector with the tall of second vector. The resultant vector is obtained by joining the , le tall withthe tao frst vector and head with the head of second vector.” A&B— vectors F— resultant vector. SECTION -3=DEFORMATION Etasticty or Elastic deformation When a force is applied thon shape of an object can be changed. On releasing the force i object rogains is original shape then this effects called elasticity o elastic deformation Elastic limit or limit of proportionality: AN Mite maximum engoe nan os obje alt wich au rake 6 dolor. wx Hooke's Law: Ef ‘Within elastic it, the sion produced in an elastic object is directly pr ee the force applied. force A extentionust-9 2” Prysce OL Point A =Hooke's law is vald Point B = Elastic limit or limit of proporionalty Experiment to verify Hook's law. ‘Apparatus: Spring, metre rule, stand, weights or loads. ‘ARRANGEMENT & PROCEDURE: ‘Altach a spring withstand and measure its original length (,) with rule. ‘+ tach a load or woight atthe end of spring. Measure stretched length of sping (mith ule, ‘+ Similary, attach diferent loads at the end of spring and measure the stretched lengths of spring for each load ‘+ ecord the results in the table Spring} | Stand | mere rule a) Load [Link]] Original length (€] Final length (© oe ‘ ri Extension(¢st;) | Loadiweight Gm Gm Gm W 7 2 3 4 3 a * Spyro esse eg mame pa t ww) LSEunt 25 UNIT 4 Pryece OL! Syllabus 2017 - 18 Mass, Weight : And Density O Level Physics Teacher’s Notes M. A. Chaudhary Cell: 0300-9412902 Weight and Density favatonal Fie Gravitational Field Srength Procedure To determine density of Regular object To determine densiy of iegulr objectunt 2» Prysce OL |Unit-4 MASS, WEIGHT AND DENSITY GRAVITATIONAL FIELD: Gravitational fields a region in which a mass experiences a force due to gravitational attraction GRAVITATIONAL FIELD STRENGTH: Its the gravitational force acting per unit mass. Its value is approximately 10 NKg" ie. force of gravity ‘acting on an object of mass Tkg is about 10N, on the Earths surface. Difference between Mass and Weight: or “The amount of substance in a body i called 2, The mass remains constant everywhere, 1. The pul of gravity on a body is called weight The weight ofa body varies fom place to place. ‘The weights directed towards centre of earth 3. Maas has no dren. scalar quant scala quantiy. |” fs vector quantiy Tis measured in Ke tis measured in Its measured by bam balance or eacon 5 Wis measured by sping Balance or Newon balance mtr Calculation of Weight: ‘The mass and weight are related by the formula: w ‘Where m = mass of abject weight of object (gravitlional field strength or acceleration o graviy. The value of g is 10NKg" or ome". Inertia: Itis the ability f a body to resist when its state of resto uniform motion tends to be charged. The inertia depends on mass of a body. The massive bodies offer more resistance, when ther state of rest or motion is change i.e. they have higher inertial values than lighter bodies. Examples:- Se Cireton of tur, due to inertia 2, Spore ting on meee sun kes ae applet 10)PNoward eo nea FQ Density @ 4 ve & The mass pr unit woume ofa substances called densiy. NG Forma: Dea orp=® Unit: Kgm’* or go" Methods to determine density of a a) Liquiduate 2 Prysce OL ) Regularly shaped object. ©) regularly shaped object. To determine density of Liquid: ‘Apparatus: beam balance, burette, beaker and stand, PROCEDURE: 1. Find the mass (m,) of an empty beaker with beam balance. 2. Shia known volume (V) ofthe liquid trom ourete into beaker. 3. Find the mass (ms) of beaker and the quid with beam balance. Burette Calculation: The mass ofiguid = m = mem, Use the formula Density vohume to find density of given Fauie. ‘TO DETERMINE DENSITY OF REGULAR OBJECT: Apparatus: beam balance, ruler, regular shaped object Procedure: 41. Determine the mass of regular object with beam balance. 2. Measure the lengin (0, breadktn(b).and height (a) by using @ meter rule. & Calculation: The volume of object = Use the formula, Density 5 to find density of regular object.uate 2 Prysce OL ‘TO DETERMINE DENSITY OF IRREGULAR OBJECT: ‘Apparatus: Beam balance, measuring cylinder, iregulaty shaped object Procedure: 1. Find the mass of irregular object with Beam balance 2. Fil measuring cylinder with water up to volume (V;) 3. Completely immerse the abject into water. Find the new volume (V3). He -- > small abject Calculation: Tho volume of regular objec= Ve Usethefomula: densi = co determine dens freq Shaped obec Precautions: > Avoid parallax error. > Place the measuring cylinder on a flat surface. > Read the volume from bottom of meniscus. > The object must be completely immersed into qui. > Measure mass of object, before measuring its volume, Note: > If object oats in water, then te a sinker to object. Subtract the volume ofthe sinker from the final reading > dregs SPE EET Ce Coe” determine volume of sold OS SY reassinaunt-s UNITS Syll Tun Turning Effect Of Force O Level Physics Teacher’s Notes M. A. Chaudhary Cell: 0300-9412902 Pryece OL! jabus 2017 — 18 ning Effect of Force Tuning Ettect Moment of Force Equisiom CCenire of mass (cm) or Cente of gravy (a)uai-5 ” Prysce OL Unit-5 TURNING EFFECT OF FORCE ‘TURNING EFFECT: When a force is applied then object may tun round a fixed point. This is called turing elfet of force. The point around which object tune is called pivot or hinge or fulrum, “The turing effect depends on '8). Magnitude of force (F) applied b) The perpendicular cistanced (A) from the line of action of force tothe iva. Examples of Turning Effect: 2). Opening of ahinged door. 'b) Paddling ofa bicycle. ©) Opening of a bale cap. 4) Turning the steering wheel MOMENT OF FORCE: “itis the product of force and perpendicular distance from the ine of action of the force tothe pivot” Formul (Moment of Force = Fd Where F = Magnitude of Force, d= perpendicular distance. Unit: Ne Clockwise and Anticlockwise Moments: > Ifthe object tums clockwise, then turning effects called clockwise moments, > object turns anticlockwise, then turning effec is called anticlockwise moments, EQUILIBRIUM: “Abody at rest or moving with uniform velocity is sald to be in equixium The two conditions of equilibrium ace: 1. Sum of forces in one direction is equal to sum of forces in other direction 2. Sum of clockwise moments is equal o sum of anticlockwise moments x9 Principle of moments: g Foran object equi, mot dokae omens egal io uf ane Gye spots. ce Gacwse moments = Anicackwse nomen. Serre Ae ve aah Pde > Oa x 4 —+/\— 4, SS 4 on & ‘ee aS Experiment: To investigate the Principle of Momento oo» Apart: Unfom mere os) wad) See pe, eto sonuai-5 a Pryscs Oto Procedure: 41). Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure with the knife edge at the 50 cm mark 2) Balance the system by adjusting the distances d, and do. '3)_ Vary d; and change d. so that the system is balanced for sets of dy and d=. 44) Calculate the anticlockwise moments Wx) and the clockwise moments Wexde and tabulate as fallows: Table: Wi or “a Wx ‘Observation: From the table, the anticlockwise moments given by (Wxd;) are found to be equal to the clockwise ‘moments given by (Wd) for each set of d; and do principle of moments is verified. CENTRE OF MASS (C.M) OR CENTRE OF GRAVITY (C.G) ‘The point through which whole mass or weight of an object appears to act i called ks contre of mass (erm) or conte of gravity (29). To locate c.g. of regular objects: The c.g of regular objects can be determined by balancing them on a knife edge or pivot. The c.9. of some regular objects are described below with diagrams. 0G. of arecangie 0G. tatianauai-5 w Prysce OL ‘To determine position of c.m or c.g of plane lamina of Iregular shape by plumb line. Apparatus: Irregular lamina, Stand, Plumb line, Cork and Pin, Plum line j plane lamina Fig, Plumb fine Fig. regular Lamina 1. Make three small holes near the edges ofthe lamina. 2. Suspend the lamina through one ofthe holes using a pin ‘8. Hang a plum ine on the pin in front ofthe lamina. 44. When the plum line is steady, draw a line on the lamina along the plumb line. '5. Repeat the above procedure fr the remaining two holes. 6. The point of intersection ofthe three lines an the lamina isthe position of centre of mass ar centre of gravity Precautions: 41. The lamina should be free o swing about its point of suspension. 2. The parallax error must be avoided. Stability of Objects: “The ability an object to regain is original posilon after it has been tited sight" datermines the stability of that object. The stabilly ofan object depends on: 4) Base area of object: The area ofthe base of an object should be as wide as possible, for more stabilty 0. the household objects ike desk lamps have wide and heavy basas for more stably. b) The position of emm or cg: ‘The centre of oravity (6.9) of an object should be as fow as possible, for more 2g, the Bus is not as stable as racing Car, when they come [Link]'a cory ad bigh speed. For salaty reasons, the cg ofa vehicle should therelore be as low as possble. Gunt w Pryece OL! UNIT6 Syllabus 2017 - 18 Work, Power and Energy ‘Base Dotiions inet Eneroy (Gravitational Potential Energy Ditrent ors of energy Prinople ot Conservation of energy Work, Power and Energy eps Emironmental issues of power generation Fenewable and Nonenewable energy Einstoin's mass energy equation ‘Nuclear Flsion and Nucear Fusion O Level Physics Teacher’s Notes M. A. Chaudhary Cell: 0300-9412902unt w Pryece OL! Unit-6 WORK, POWER AND ENERGY BASIC DEFINITIONS: ‘Work: Work is said to be done, when a force acts on a body and body covers some distance. jk = Foreo » distance Unit oF 8.1 Unit of work is Joule (J). Power: Rate of oing work Unit: $1 unit J of power is watt (W). Energy: tis the ability of doing work. Unit: Joule KINETIC ENERGY: The energy possessed by a body, due to its motion is called Kinetic energy, Eo vem Where m = mass of body. = speed of body. = Kinetic energy GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY: Itis the energy possessed by a body, when itis vertically elevated in gravitational fl. Em Where m = mass of boo. @ = gravitational fel strength eight to which body is raised,unt 6 Prysce OL DIFFERENT FORMS OF ENERG’ ee SE Fuels such as ol, w00d, coal, elecric calls, food and explosives. ‘Atomic bombs, nuclear reactors Radiant The electromagnetic (E.M.) spectrum such as visible light, racio waves, inra-red (IR), Ula Violet (UV), X-rays andy: rays. Electrical The energy associated withthe current in an electric cil, ower tools and an immersion healer, and electrical appliances. Internal Energy The energy possessed by the atoms or molecules of ‘matter in the form of kinetic energy ard potential energy. (@) kinetic energy: Mechanical all abjecis in mation. (KEaPE) (b) potential energy: ‘a waterfall, raised objects. \ Hi Compressed or stretched springs, the bent ‘condition ofa diving board, the stretched band of acatapull PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY: Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, however it can be converted from one form tothe other and total amount of energy remains constant Example: A Swinging pendulum obeys law of conservation of energy, + Atpoint A, E, is maximum and Es 200, ‘+ -Atpoint O, Eis maximum and E, is minimum. + At point B again Eis maximum and E, is zero, Therelore E,-+E,-+€, and 60 on, but at every point sum of E, and Eis always constant Major energy conversions: Disouss the major energy changes inthe following cases, 1 {An object falling from certain height on g{flogr ‘Ane: Graviabonal Ey "+E, = Sound & heat eye 2 A oyelist riding the bicyele up the hil ‘Ans: Chemical energy +E, — E,uai-6 eo Prysce OL a. ‘An object released from a catapult hitting the target. ‘Ans: Elastic E, +E. sound and heat energy. 4 To switch on filament lamp connected to battery. ‘Ans: chemical energy ~-lectrical energy ~slght & heat energy. 5. {Adiver on a spring board, jumping into pool. ‘Ans: Chemical energy-» Elastic E, — E, ~»Sound eneray. 6 ‘A person knocking the nail into wooden block with hammer. ‘Ans: Chemical energy-» E, -» Es —ss0und & heat energy. ENERGY CONVERSIONS IN THE PRODUCTION OF ELECTRICITY: ‘Burning of Goa "hom energy heat nergy + tea energy ~ Knte energy -+ lee! energy. 2. Hydro-electric Generations: Gravitational potential energy ~» Kinetic energy —> Electrical Energy. 3, Windmil Wind energy ~» Kinetic Energy > electrical eneroy 4. Nuclear Power Generation: ‘Nuctoar Energy -+ heal energy — steam energy — kinetic energy ~ elactical energy. 5. Solar Energy: Solar energy’ — electical energy. 6. Geo-thermal Energy: Heat energy steam energy — kinetic energy — electrical energy. Block Diagram of Electricity Generation: Fuel such as coal, oll and natural gas are stored forms of chemical energy. The burning of felis used to heat up water which produces steam. The sieam energy then converted to K.E of turbine, which produces ‘lectcity. The major energy conversions, Irom burring of fuel ar: Chemical energy — Heat energy — steam energy + KE. — electrical energy - Gm = ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES OF POWER GENERATION: = Tebuog in acct at sen nd rosion hays ng > The construction of huge dams cause destruction of forests of hi ce > The Nuclear power generation produces radioactive wast hich remains harmful for long time. RENEWABLE AND NON-RENEWABLE ENERGY ES 1. Asoutee of energy which is infinite and will never 108n 2s the renewable source of ey oo €€g. wind, tidal, geothermal, hydroelectric, so 2. Atourc of energy which i tite and eS eee ety whan fru ou is known a sce ee te eeuai-6 w Pryscs Oto EINSTEIN'S MASS ENERGY EQUATION: ‘The mass can be changed into energy and energy can be changed into mass Le. mass and energy are interchanged by the equation. where m = decreases or loss in mass. E = energy produced. = speed of light = 2x10ms"* NUCLEAR FISSION AND NUCLEAR FUSIO! Nuclear Fission is the spliting up of heavy nucleus into two lighter nucle with release of energy. ‘The thermal energy released from nuclear fission can be used to heat water to produce steam. The steam Is then used fo drive turbines to praduce electric. 2. Nuclear Fusion is the combining up of wo lighter nuctl to produce a heavy nucleus with release of ‘energy. This reaction occurs only into sun because extremely high temperature is required for this, reaction, We have to invent a usable Fusion Reactor. Efficiency: itis the rato of power output to power input Formula: ficiency = SAEOUPHE , 199 or Efficiency = SAE OMPHE 99) ‘The efficiency of a machine can never be 100% because some ofthe energy is lost in the surroundings in the form of heat, sound etcust? 2 UNIT7 Pryece OL! Syllabus 2017 - 18 Pressure Pressure O Level Physics Teacher’s Notes M. A. Chaudhary Cell: 0300-9412902 Pressure of Laud ‘Aimospherc Pressure Experiment to demansvate Atmosphere pressure ‘Tho Simple Morcury Barometer ‘The Menometer Transmission of pressure through quisust? “ Prysce OL Unit-7 _PRESSURE PRESSURE: Pressure is the force acting per unit area, Formula Pressure = Unit: SI unit of prossure is Pascal (Pa). 4P = Nim? Factors on which pressure depends: 1. Force or Weight of Obiect: ‘The greater isthe weight of an abject, the larger the pressure. ie. PaF. 2. Area in Contact with the object {Greater is the area in contact with the object, lesser is the pressure. ie Pat Examol > Suppose a single brick is ing on the tabla, If another brick Is placed an the first one, then pressure increases, because force or weight incroasas, > Abrick lying vertically on the table exerts more pressure than horizontally, because there is lose area in contact with table in vertical position, > Ail woaring heel shoes exerts more pressure than flat sole shoes, because area in contact ‘with hee! shoes is less. PRESSURE OF LIQUID: The pressure ofa qui s defined by the relation fStsaL) Where p= density fiquid 9 = gravitational etd strength. Fh dopth of fui P= Prossure of liquid Conclusion: BP? cas a 1) Tho greater ho doth h, he greater isthe quid pressure. ie. pan Ap 2} The pressure Increases wih he deny o auc at ven depth he, Pe pC 3) Taber udnases win Me nese erie strength [Link] q wb ATMOSPHERIC PRESSUR Ss The pressure exerted de tothe collsion or wmnenati present in atmosphere is called atmospheric pressure, a The atmospheric pressure decreases with height. Ag-keight inches, concentration of air molecules decreases, so less collision occurs and almosph sum decreases. The value of atmospheric pressure is approximately 100000 Pa. This stancart\bessite Sometimes caled one atmosphere of ‘one ar. Sust? a Prysce OL EXPERIMENT TO DEMONSTRATE ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE: Fig. shows a thin-walled metal can, atlached to a vacuum pump. Before the air was pumped out, the pressure inside the can is equal fo that ouside. As the ai is pumped out, a partial vacuum of very low ’ressure forms inside the can and immediately the great external atmospheric pressure crushes the can, Itis assumed that the material ofthe canis thin or flexible. —> Vacuum pump <— Partial vacuum inside i : Spor | lowest a uid 8 ievel @ © Calculation: The height h to which quid rises in the longer end is measured. The gas pressure can be calculated by the relation. ‘Gas pressure = atmospheric Pressure + Pressure due to liquid column, ie. Py= Pst poh where, = gas pressure, P= atmospheric. Pressure gh = liquid column pressure Note: The height ho liquid in manometer can be changed by 1. Roplacing the given liquid with another af diferent density. 2 Changing ether gas pressure or almosphiric pressure. No change occurs on height hi ameter of U-tube is changed, ‘TRANSMISSION OF PRESSURE THROUGH LIQUIDS Pascal's Principle: “The pressure is equally transmitted in all directions through the bi . S piston 1 with area ‘.ust? 6 Prysce OL Suppose a force FIs applied on piston 1 of Area A,. The pressure of piston 1 at point X is equally ‘ransmited at the same level 0. Le. Pressure at X= Pressure at y area of piston 1 rea of piston 2 force on pision 1 force on piston 2 Hydraulle System: ‘The application of transmission of pressure in liquids Is used in hydraulic brakes. The pressure on the brake padel is transmitted to the large piston on each side of a large disc on the wheel axle. This pressure causes the pistons fo come into contract with disc. Due to free of rcion between them, the car ‘slows down “The other applications of transmission of pressure in quids are car jacks and car tits. Pressure-Volume relationship of a gas: ‘The Intermolecular forces between gas molecules are negligible. The gas molecules are at large distances from each other. I pressure on a gas is increased, then gas molecules come close and the ‘spaces betwoen them reduce. Therefore as the pressure on’a gas Is increased, the volume of gas is educed, provided that temperature remains constant “his concept ist was stated by Boyle, Boyle's Law ‘The volume ofa gas is inversely proportional fo the pressure it temperature is Kept constant ie, vac! T= constant “The formula for Boyle's law is PVPs Where Py = Initial Pressure = Intl Volume Py Fal Pressure VED Brat Vote A Pressureuat-8 “ UNITS Pryece OL! Syllabus 2017 - 18 Kinetic Model of Matter Kinetic Model Of Matter O Level Physics Teacher’s Notes M. A. Chaudhary Cell: 0300-9412902 Properts of sods, lquids and gases Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases Elect of temperature on molecuay motion Pressure ofa gas Factors efecing evaporation cooing etlecto evaporationuat-8 “ Prysce OL UTE SE Se om fe) el is PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS, LIQUIDS AND GASES: Solids: > Fixed shape and volume. > Normally hard and rigid. > Incompressible. > Large force needed to change shape. High density Liquids: > Fixed volume, occupy shape of container. > Can tlow easly, > Incompressible. > High densiy. Gases: > Neither fied shape nor fixed volume. > Can flow more easly, > Compressible > Low density ‘The distinguishing properties between solids, iquids and gases can be summarized inthe table below. 7 = co | meee Ty [Maco Skengatacton | Weak atracon ®) | Tnierparteie Close T Farapart Very Tar apart noes wae Fraahape | ake sarap Eas | ae it coe! | Gamprssion Tor easiy Not asly taal compressed comgresed comprare | homer Virajor abou | Ranger etson =x, Radom oon aries eda rotation ro rslaton KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY OF GASES: Key Pine > AG > The gas particles are always in continuous and random motion, EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON MOLECULAR MOTION: a “The increase in temperature causes the following changes in the moti Atigh temperate molecules nave higher nate oneay, Go ‘tig omperatremauls nav restr pee. nig onpeairemeloouss Deo mere go Ang pertae lols cote mate reat seg Dor pessue © y So?uat-8 ” Pryscs Oto PRESSURE OF A GAS: ‘According to kinetic molecular theory, gas molecules are always in continuous and random motion. They Colide with each other and with the walls of container. Due to colisions they exer a force per unit surface ‘area of container and pressure is produced, Evapor ‘The liquid molecules are always moving randomly at diferent speeds. When the molecules gain heat ‘energy, their average ke. increases. The molecules which are more energetic are able to overcome force ff attraction of liquid and escape trom the surface of liquid into atmosphere. This effect is called ‘evaporation FACTORS EFFECTING EVAPORATIOI 1. Increase of Temperature: ‘This makes the molecules more faster so that they have enough energy to escape from the liquid and rate of evaporation increases. 2. Inorease of Surface area: ‘The rate of evaporation increases with the exposed surface area of the liquid. A large surtace ‘area means more molecules can escape from the surace. a 3 humidity: IT there are waler vapours present in the al, then rate of evaporation decreases. However ‘draught above the surface of liquid increases evaporation. 4. Inorease of wind speed: ‘When air moves across a liquid surface it caries away escaped molecules above the lquid and reduces their chances of returning back, so evaporation increases. '5, Decrease of atmospheric Prossut Decreasing the aimaspheric Pressure increases the rate of evaporation, because more ‘molecules escape the surface of liquid, inthe presence of less almospheric Pressure, 6, Decrease the boiling point: The lower the boling point of a liquid, the higher the rate of evaporation. The volatile liquids evaporate fast than non-volatile quid COOLING EFFECT OF EVAPORATION: “Oe ‘escape and take alot of energy with them. Hence the average kee of the ems During the evaporation, molecules gain heat energy from surroundings. mG eferbetic molecules nd the temperate fal, causing te colin tie.uat-8 « Pryece OL! UNIT9 Syllabus 2016 - 18 Measurement of Temperature ‘Heat and Temperature Fed Points ina Thermometer Determination of Fixed Points Thermomevic Property (Choice of iqui in thermometer Types of Thermometer The advantages of thermocouple thermometer are Measurement Of Temperature O Level Physies Teacher’s Notes M. A. Chaudhary Cell: 0300-9412902unt-9 0 Pryece OL! Unit-9 MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE HEAT AND TEMPERATURE: ‘+ Heat is aform of energy which flows from a body at high temperature to @ body at ow temperature. ‘+ Temperature is a measure of degree of hotness or coldness ofa body. FIXED POINTS IN A THERMOMETER: 1. Lower Fixed Point or loe Point: itis the temperature at which pure ice melts, at constant atmospheric pressure. It is assigned a value of 0°. 2. Upper Fixed Point or Steam Point: itis the temperature at which pure water bol, at constant atmospheric pressure, Iti assigned a value of 100°C DETERMINATION OF FIXED POINTS: 1. Determination of Ice Points: Immerse the bulb of thermometer into ice cubes, contained i a funnel. The mercury level of thermometer keeps on decreasing and after sometime it becomes steady at a lixed poin This point is marked as O°C and called as ice point ernameter 2 Determination of steam point: Immerse the thermometer bulb into steam, above the boling water. The mercury level of thermometer keeps. on increasing and ater sometime it becomes steady at a fixed point ‘Tris point is marked as 100°C and called as steam point, Manometer ‘THERMOMETRIC PROPERTY: Itis the property of @ substance, which varies continuously with teM@ppvatyre EAAnge. A thermometer is constructed on the basis ofthermometric property ofa subsignoe’Exzmpe¥9l properties ae: ss Volume of liquid Libis og Beer Electromotve force opaupt@ Thermemeter. Resistance Resistahd Thermometer. Pressure of gas ‘Constant volume gas Thermometer.unt-9 5 Pryscs Oto Calibration a temperature scale: “Tho marking of divisions of temperature on a thermometer i called its calibration. The stops involved for ‘constructing a temperature scale ae: > Choose a thermametric substance. > Dotaxmine two ixe points |e ice point and steam point. Divide distance between fixed points into 100 equal divisions. Each dhsion is marked as 1° ‘To determine temperature on an un-calibrated thermometer: ke 5 Ico (0) Steam (100°C) Unknown body ( “The unknown temperature on an un calibated thermometer is determined by the formula: Eai00 where b path of mercury column at ce point O°. jo = length of mercury column at steam point 100°. be path of mercury column at unknown temperature 8° 8 = Unknown temperature fo be calculated in *c. CHOICE OF LIQUID IN THERMOMETER, Advantages of Mercury © Ithas a wide range of temperature from -39°C to 357°. [tls a good conductor of heat + It.d028 nat stick to the walls of tube of thermometer. + Its siver shiny liquid, easily visible + 11-6096, evaporate Disadvantages of Mercury: ‘© Itcan not measure temperature below -39°C, of extremely cold region. ‘+ Its poisonous. + tis expensive. ‘+ Is expansibiity is ow. oe S Advantages of Alcohol: e aia redng po 15°, 2 can measur, samo rag ‘© Itexpands uniformly @ ‘+ tis cheap as well as sae liquid. © A ‘© ts expanstvityis high be 3 Se Disadvantages of Alcohol: ‘+ is boling point i ust 78°C, cannot measure high Cn ‘+ Mstioks tothe walls of tube, ‘tis colourless Equi, not easily visibleunt-9 2 Prysce OL ‘+ Itcan evaporate at room temp, sie terms of thermometer ‘© Sensitivity = Range ‘+ Responsiveness, = Linearity 1. Sensitivity: [tis increase in mercury length of thermometer, per degree rise in temperature. ie. Sensitivity = Where aL = increase in mercury level. '36 = increase in temperature. ‘The sensitivity is measured in mm°C. ‘The sensitivity ofa thermometer can be increased! By using a capilary tube, of narrow bore. > By using a large glass bulb or inreasing volume of mercury. > By using aliquid of high expansitvty 2 Range: The minimum and maximum temperature that a. thermometer can measure, detarmines its range, The range varies with the type of thermometer. The range of a thermometer can be increased: > By using a capilary tube of wide bore. > Byusing a smaller bub. > Byusing a Iquid of low expansion 3. Responsiveness: Its the ability of a thermometer to respond quickly to register the changes in temperature. The responsiveness of a thermameter can be increased > By using a glass bulb of thin surace. > By sing @ liquid of high expansibiy 4. Linearity: ‘The increase in mercury length is dzectly proportional to the increase in temperature of thermometer. This property of thermometer is called linearity and its scale is said to be linear. ‘The linear scale can bo achieved >” By using a quid which expands uniformly > By using a capllary tube of uniform bor. ‘TYPES OF THERMOMETE! ‘The olinioal Thermometer: Hg. in bub Conarcion ——Capitary tube —Stom No Ha hereunt-9 59 Prysce OL Parts Purpose or working Bub Tris made up of @ Thin glass, for rapid conduction of heat. The bulb contains mercury. 2) Capilary tube ‘Atube with narrow bore, in which mercury rises on expansion. It's one end is. Closed and other is open in bub. 3) Constition itis bend in capillary tube. It stops backward flow of mercury into bulb, for a while. 4) Stom Itis outor casing of thermometor normally made up of glass or plastic. tis ‘often ova in shape to magniy the reading, 5) Scale “The tomperature divisions marked on stom is the scale of thermometer. The ‘scale is limited from 36°C to 42°C on a clinical thermometer. ‘Thermocouple Thermometer: millvameter wre 8 (ron) AA thermocouple thermometer consists of two wires of diferent metals. The ends of wires are joined together to form junctions. One junction is kept at steady low temperature and other one at high unknown temperature. Due to temperature diference of two junctions an m4 ~ electromotive force is set up. The value of emt is measured wih mill voltmeter and then converted to temperature scale. ‘THE ADVANTAGES OF THERMOCOUPLE THERMOMETER ARE: [Link] measure a wide range of temperature from -200%C to 1500°C itis highly responsive thermometer ican measure rapid changes in temperature. [tis very sensitive thermometer.ust-10 55 Pryece OL! UNIT 10 Syllabus 2017 - 18 ‘Transfer of Thermal Energy ‘+ Applzatons of Conduction ‘+ Appleaons of Convection + Applications of aciaon Transfer Of Thermal Energy O Level Physies Teacher’s Notes M. A. Chaudhary Cell: 0300-9412902ust-10 6 Prysce OL |Unit-10 TRANSFER OF THERMAL ENERGY There are theee methods of heat transfer. ‘* Conduction = Convection ‘+ Radiation ‘The detail of each method is described below: ‘+ Conduction: Conduction isthe transfor of heat mainly through soli. When heat is supplied to ‘one end of a solid, then its molecules gain heat energy and vibrate vigorously. The ke of Vibrating molecules is passed on to the neighboring molecules and so on. In this way heat is ttansferted throughout the sold by vibration of molecules from one end to the other. + Convection: Convection isthe transfer of heat through fluids (liquid and gases). When heat is supplied to a liquid, then liquid expands and becomes less dense, The less dense liquid rises Upwards and more dense liquid atthe top sinks downwards. Therefore a cyclic process of quid ‘movernent takes place due to density ference and heat is transferred throughout the laud + Radiation: Radiation the transfer of heat mainly through vacuum. Unlie conduction and convection, raviation does not require any medium for heat transfer. The heat is transfered in the form of electromagnetic radiations (mainly intra red), which do nat require any medium. e.g. heat {energy rom the sun reaches the earth by the process of radiation. Experiments to demonstrate conduction, convection and radiation. Exporimentd 1: To Investigate the thermal conduction through diferent solids. Four rods of diferent materiale but of the same size, coated with wax are ingested in a metal tank. Pour boling water into tank, so thatthe ends of rods are submerged. The level to which wax melts on diferent ‘ods, determines the conduction [Link] solid. ° Expr #2 Tmo tri pronto (ESS > e” © Place the ice cube at the bottom of test tube whi i i wat. Cover the ice cube with wire Uupper end. it has been observed that gauze, otha ie cube may nt loa. Hea! the ies abe ahs ‘water bols a the top but ice does not melt atthe bottom. I shows that waler is a poor conductor of heat.ust-10 w Prysce OL Experiment #3: To demonstrate convection through the liquid. Fill the flask with water. Koop few crystals of Potassium Pormanganato (KMnO,) atthe bottom of flask. Heat the flask from botiom. The water atthe bottom being less dence rises upwards, along wih crystals of KMnO,. The purple stroaks moving upwards and then downwards are observed in the flask, which show the presence of convection current. convection potassium pormargarae Experiment # 4: To demonstrate convection through alr. <—. Koop the buming candle at the botlom of chimney A and smoldering paper atthe tp of ( Shimney The net ar’ aoove cance res | ( 47 ( Spwares and more dense a lng wh sake oven fmtors tom. chinney Band. tavels towards oun chimney A. The path of smoke indicates presence of convection curent. Experiment 8: To demonstrate that black surtace absorbs more infer red radiations than white surface. Blac Shining polished surface Melted wax. Wax wer Take two métal plates of same size, ond ls dll black and other one smooth shiny. Sick SEs with wax ‘on opposite sides ofthe plates. Heat the plates equally It has been observed that to black plate mets adits Cork falis down earlier than that of white plate. OS Experiment #6: To demonstrate that black surface emits more infra-red is than white surface. o ‘Take a moll tank and fil i with hot water. Make ‘one side of container dull black and ‘ther shiny white. Keep two metal plates holding wax and Cork at equal distances on both sides of tank. It has been observed that wax melts earlier and Cork falls down, from the plate facing black side of tank.ust-10 0 Prysce OL APPLICATIONS OF CONDUCTION Good Conductors: ‘The substances wich can conduct heat easily €.9. all metals are good conductors. The uses of good ‘conductors are: 42) Cooking utensils ike kettles, saucepans, boilers etc are made up of stainless ste 'b). Mercury, a good conductor of heat, is used in thermometer. ©) Soldering iron rods are made of iron, with tip made of Copper, as copper is much better Conductor of heat than iron Bad Conductors: “The substances which do not conduct heat, are called bad conductors or insulators, eg. glass, wood, plastic, cubber and materials containing trapped alr Eke woo), ber glass ele. The uses of Bad conductors 4) Handles of cooking utensils are made up of insulator. b) Fiber glass and polystyrene foam which trap air are used in the walls of houses and retigerators 2s insulator. ©) Birds have feathers and animals like cals or polar bears have fur to trap aif, which act as insulator. APPLICATIONS OF CONVECTION a) Formation of sea breeze and land breeze, ea tan ea land During day, hot air above the land expands and becomes less dense and rges upwards. The cool alr from sea being more dence moves towards land, called as sea broeze. At night reverse process occurs i.e. more dense air rom land moves towards sea, called as land brooze. b)_ The coo! air produced by 2.c, being more dense sinks downwards and warm air, boing loss dense in ho soom, rises upwards. The warm aicis [Link] ac and se-circulated, meyagreanecten ) The heating col ofan electric Kettle is placed a the bottom ofthe ket Ck botiom Daler eupeeteiatnaee ea eat ae aire pees APPLICATIONS OF RADIATION Cv 8) Shiny teapots: g The shiny teapots can keep tea warm fr longer ti ck eg asthe shiny surfaces are tad emis of heat radiations © b) Green House o © The tadiations from sun pass through th d glass rot of green house. The radiations are absorbed by the sol and pants The pions emted by contents of green house being weaker are unable to escape fom green house. This causes the {green house to rise, which is good for growth of plans. perature inside theunt 10 ° Prysce OL ©) Vacuum Flask: ‘A Vacuum flask reduces the heat losses by four ways. hotow plastic + Conduction a © Gonvecton ‘ope Radiation 1 appear Evaporation | vacuum 1 thin sivered wale of gas Mak hr place > The heat lost by conduction is minimized by vacuum, rapped air and plastic stopper. > The heat lost by convection is minimized by vacuum and plastic stopper. > The heat last by radiation is minimized by polishing the walls of glass sivered. “The heat lost by evaporation is minimized by plastic stopper and plastic cup. Heat transfer in or from a room or building The heat can be transferred into building or room: > By conduction through the walls and root. The atoms or molecules of walls and root gain heat {energy and pass on io neighboring atoms and so on, tl the heat is conducted inside. > The heat radiations can pass into bulking through the glass windows, The hot roof and walls emit infra-red racations into room, which keep the room warm. the het canbe wasted toma bug: Se rte Cai ated ct by was dol det vn of ms or rates tne cae acy corsacet coe ee ten tea anes in ete win et, becomes hat Seyi > Hott fot han sue emt mS ‘Thermal insulation of a building: SES ‘The eat energy ost om abuldng canbe prevented by folowing methods, Fitting carpets onthe floor. Insulating the root Using cavity wal Using wooden floors. Painting walls and roof white Using double glazed windows. Using fiberglass and polystyrene in walls and root.unt ts 6 Prysoe OLeve Rotor UNIT 11 Syllabus 2017 - 18 ‘Thermal Properties of Matter ‘eternal Energy Diference between boing and evaporation ‘Speci latent heat of usin Thermal Shea ue pet fvporan Muon ogra trot Properties Of nen cain Matter Process ‘Appleatons of Thermal Expansion Etec of temperature changes on volume O Level Physics Teacher’s Notes M. A. Chaudhary Cell: 0300-9412902unt ts @ Prysoe OLeve Rotor Unit-11 THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER INTERNAL ENERGY: Itis the sum ofthe Kinetic energy and potential energy of molecules ofa substance. The internal energy {depends on the temperature Le. higher isthe temperature the more is the k.e and P.e of molecules of a ‘substance and higher isis internal energy. Heat Capcty: Mh Ret Shor required ie he ampere of ay mas of substance ough 1K ie azcis Where @ = Heat energy supplied (4) ‘30 = increase in temperature (Kor °C) (C= Heat Capacity The Heat capacity is measured in JK" or JC Specitic Heat Capacity: Iti the heat energy required to raise the temperature of 1Kg of a substance through 1K. ‘mass of substance (Kg) increase in temperature (K or °C) © = specifc heat Capacty. ‘The Unit of specie heat capacity is JKq"K" or JKg"*C" ‘+ Melting and Solidification + Bolling and Condensation 8), Melting and Solidification: ‘+ Moting is the change of state trom solid to liquid. The change occurs at a fixed or ‘constant temperature. This partcular temperature is called as mating pont. + The reverse process of changing a liquid to a solid is called soliication. A pure substance solidifies at a temperature equal to is meting point. During solitication ‘temperature remains constant and heat is released by the substance, ») Bolling and Condensation: ao ‘© Bolling is the change ot state from a liquids a vapour. The chang ps at a fixed or Constant iemperature. This particular temperature is called as bol G ‘= Condensation isthe process whereby vapour changes into Ii temperature. Heat is given out during condensation DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BOILING AND EVAPORATION; fee Oerusata red temperaure 2 Ouck process 2 Seep Takes lace nin ra Raa 3. Takeo plage SY on Ho enone oT a Raa “4 Bubbles are Tormed in tw quid al Webubblse re formed in the lqul 5 Temperate ona cela Goma bomma fey Verte ray change Heals supped by an energy sours Hogs lesetod tom be Suoundings Detineunt ts © Prysoe OLeve Rotor + Latent Heat. Specific latent heat of fusion. Specific latent heat of vaporization. Latent Heat: The amount of heat energy required to change the substance from one state 10 the ‘ther, ata constant temperature is called latent heat. SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT OF FUSION: “The amount of heat eneray required to change 1Kg soli into liquid and vice versa, without change in temperature ie where Q = Quantity of heat energy (J) 1M = mass of substance (K9) 1 latent heat of fusion, ‘The SI Unit of specific latent heat of fusion is JK SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT OF VAPORATION: ‘Tho amount of heat energy required to change 1Kg liquid into vapours and vice versa, without change in temperature. te Where Q = Quanity of heat energy (J) ‘m= mass of substance (Kg) IL. latent heat of vaporization The SI Unit of specific stent heat of vaporization is JK" MOLECULAR EXPLANATION OF LATENT HEAT: Since there is strong force of attraction between sold as well as quid molecules, energy is required to ‘overcome the song inter-molecular forces ofatraction inthe solids and in liquids, The amaunt of energy require for this purpase Is called latent heat. The latent heat changes the substance from one state to the other at constant temperature GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF HEATING PROCESS: ‘When ice at 10°C is heated, it fst converts into water and then info steam. The temperature changes ‘occurring with time are recorded. A graph between temperature and time is then plotted. This graph is called heating curve, > From 10% to 0%, ‘Temperature °C tomporature af ico increases. > The temperature of lee omaing constant at 0°c. The 100 ice is converting into water. The heat used during this slate converts ino latent heat allusion, > From X to ¥, the temp-erature lof water in-creases from 0°C to 100%. Timeimin Boe sa 8 > From ¥ to Z, the temperature of water remains cofglantcThe water is converting into vapours. The heal energy used during he sate converts int latent fia of vaporization GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF COOLING PROCESS:unt ts 6 Prysoe OLeve Rotor ‘When liquid Naphthalene at 90°C is cooled, it extracts heat out and solidifies. The temperature changes occurring with time are recorded and then a graph between temp- ‘erature and time is ploted, called as cookng cue. > From A to B, the temperature of liquid falls from 90°C to 78°C: The heat extracted out is the heat capacity offquid. > From B to C, the temperature of Naphthalene remains constant al 78°C. The liquid is soliilying and heat lost during his state isthe latent heat of fusion. > From C to D, the temperature of solid Naphthalene falls futher and heat given out is the heat capacity of soi ‘Thermal Expansion: ‘The increase in the volume of a substance on heating is called thermal expansion. When a substance is. heated, its molecules gain heat energy and move apart from each other. The average gap between ‘molecules increases and substance expands ‘Order of Expansion: ‘The amount of expansion depends on the intermolecular forces of a substance. The stronger the intermolecular forces, the least the expansion and vice versa, For the same quantity of heat supalied, the following isthe order of expansion. Expansion of gases > expansion of liquids > expansion of solids. “The relative order of expansion of solids, liquids and gases is [Link]. APPLICATIONS OF THERMAL EXPANSION ‘+ Abimetalic stip is made up of two different metals. On heating, stip bends dus to different rate of expansion, of given metals. On cooling, stip becomes straight again. A bimetallic strip is used in thermostats to maintain the temperature steady. oe ied cer, = Sn A bimotali ti is straight at room renee Bors ‘on ‘emporature. Ko ope ’ + Railway tacks can be bent and damaged on a very hot ns ee oe ‘expansion ofthe als a + The overhead powerlines expand and sag in summéCapgRoonract and ght in wictr. Concrete blocks of pavements. and road surface so material, which can be Salasted when Hogs expandin summer. jw & ~ ©unt ts os Prysoe OLeve Rotor pitch pavement ‘The process of fixing a metal tyre on the wheel ofa ralway train is another application of thermal expansion, On heating, tyre expands and passes over the wheel. On cooling, tyre contracts to {9 a tight it on the whet tye woe! the tyr is oo small when old theyre is too big when hot__the yes tight ft when cold again EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE CHANGES ON VOLUME: When a substance is heated, then is volume inoreases with increase In temperature > In solids the increase in volume is extremely small with change in temperature so the effect on the density of sold is negligible. > In liquids, the increase in volume is large enough, with increase in temperature so there will be appreciable effects on density of liquids |e. as temperature increases, volume increases and Since the increase in volume of gases is much greater so the density of gases is greatly affected vith rise of temperature e.g. formation of sea and land breezes isthe result of this efoct.Physics OLevet Notesnt 12 @ Physics OLeve! UNIT 12 Syllabus 2017 - 18 Reflection and Refraction of Light ‘+ Rotecton of Light Retracton of ght Crital angle are Total internal Relecton Reflection And ® wricscns is iis reteson Refraction Of Light O Level Physies Teacher’s Notes M. A. Chaudhary Cell: 0300-9412902nt 12 os Prysce OL |Unit-12 REFLECTION AND REFRACTION OF LIGHT REFLECTION OF LIGHT ‘When a ight falls on shiny surface, it bounces back in the same medium. Ths effect is called reflection of light M, ° Me Wheee MM = mittor Point © = Point of Incidence ‘ON = normal 08 = reflected ray. 1 Zangle of inckience rangle of reflection Detine: = Normal ‘+ Angle of Incidence ‘= Angle of reflection + Normal ‘The perpendicular drawn at the point of incidence. + Angle of incidence: ‘The angle made between incident ray and the normal. + Angle of Retlection: > ‘Te angle ace betwech reed Hy ad the AL NG Laws of Reflection: Qe ‘2) The angle of incidence is equal to angle of ctlection b) The incident ray, the elected ray and the normal ali in the sament 12 ° Prysce OL Experiment: To verity that angle of incidence is equal to angle of retlection. ‘ue ine show itor ‘ior postion mak positon o tofected incident ray ne tomsouce N draw rolectod tay by fing aine tough the 2 marked points ‘Support a plane mirror vertically on a sheet of white paper and draw a line ON normal to the micror from a point © near the middle of the micror. + Place aray-box such that a single thin ray follows a drawn line such as AO. + Mark the reflected ray OB with two crosses. A straight in is dawn through these two crosses to ©. ‘+The angle of incidence, i) and the angle of reflection, rare both measured using a protractor. +The experiment is repeated several times for a wide range of values for | and the readings axe record in a table shown below. Tegres | degree Experiment: To locate position of image in plane mirror. Apparatus: M Mirror stip, Drawing board, Paper, Paper pins, 1 Pencil, Protracor, ruler. Procedure: ‘+ Fix the paper on drawing board. Insert a paper pin P on paper, betore ‘+ Draw two incident rays from Pin, on mirror. ‘+ Draw the reacted rays from mirror obeying laws of retloction ek ap ‘+ Extend the reflected rays backwards. The point of intersection lines gives the position ofimage ot Pi oS Cars tape: ena pn pens Tong characterises: mage ses eal jet So. op Image distance is equal to object distance. Image is upright. Image is vitual Image is laterally inverted g eant 12 7 Prysce OL REFRACTION OF LIGHT When a ray enters from one medium to the N ‘other, then its speed as well as_ direction | ‘changes. This effect is called refraction of Fgh. tL 8 N Where AO = incident ray Point © = Point of Incidence. NN «= Normal (0B «reflected ray 1 angle of incidence, 1 = angle of retraction ‘The angle between the normal and incident ray ‘+ Angle of Refraction: ‘The angle between the normal and retracted ray “+ Refractive Index: The ratio of sine of angle of incidence to sine of angle of refraction is called refractive index. esa a 0 Sin Laws of Retraction 2) The rao of sine of angle of incidence to sine of angle of retraction, for wo speciic mediums is alway constant (SNELL's LAW). 'b) The incident ray, the reracted ray and the normal ali in the sone Erect of medlum on retraction: Shanon aay eter om Soneer tre (46 nue medium by nota and booed of ray ncease, ant 12 7” Prysce OL ‘+ When a ray enters from rare to denser medium, it bends towards normal and speed of ray decreases fi | Experiment: To find refractive index n= Sin V Sin of a glass block. ‘Apparatus: Glass block, drawing board, paper, pencil, ruler, Paper pins, Proactor. Procedure: Incident ray PP pe ‘+ Place the glass biock on paper and mark ts boundary. ‘+ Insert 2 pins P' and P2 on one side of glass block, making incident ray + Ingort 2 more pins P3 and P4 on the other side of glass block, in tho straight line of image of Pt and P2. ‘+ Remave the pins and complete the Fig by drawing incident, refracted and emergent rays ‘+ Measure angles and r with prottactor and use formula n » Sin Sin CRITICAL ANGLE AND TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION: ‘+ When a ray enters from denser (glass) to rare {aiffnedi, it bends away from the normal, The angle of retraction in rare medium depends or he ange of inegence in denser medium. As the angle of incidence is increase, the angle of eracior Keeps On increasing as shown in Figsnt 12 n Prysce OL ‘+ When angle of refraction in rare medium becomes 90°, then angle of incidence in denser medium is called crtical angle. je inc) i r= 90° ‘The formula for erica angle is whore n = reactive index = Critical angle. For glass, value of critical angle cis 42°, ‘+ When angle of incidence is increased beyond the ccal ange, the ray bounces back in the same ‘medium, This effect scaled as total inernal reflection, bere glass ‘+ The conditions of total internal reflection are: 1. Aray enters trom denser to rare medium. 2. The angle of incidence is greater than eaeal angel ie. ¢>. Experiment: To demonstrate the total internal reaction. Apparatus: Ray box, semi cicular glass block, paper drawing board, pencil, Protractor. Procedure: =e Keep these mica glass block on paper, ied on crawing boat Fal the ight ay from ray box, onthe ereulr sie o lass Keep on increasing the angle o incidence of ray, such that hyaf bout back into glass ‘The reflection of ight ray fom straight se of glass block aoe he ta eral eflecbon © ’ 6?nt 12 n Prysce OL APPLICATION OF TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION: 41) Periscope: ‘A periscope consists of two right angled prism inclined in a tube. When the rays from ‘object enter into prism, then they undergo {otal internal reflection, ‘since “angle of c inaldence (| = 45) ls greater than critical angle (C = 42" ofgass. Due 10 total internal elections from both the prisms, the rays emerge out from lower end ‘of periscope 10 an observer, which observes. the image of object. The image ‘characteristics produced. by Prism Periscope Fightangled prism i. vitual ‘observer Upright jmage ‘+ Image is upright Image is vital 2)_ Optical Fibers: “The optical fiber is made up of glass or plastic of high refractive index. Light entering at one end, undergoes total internal reflections, since angle Of incidence remains greater than cxtical angle. Even though the optical flber may be bent, the light wil sill be internally reflected. Optical fibers ‘are used for telecommunicaton purposes due to {allowing advantages. Optical fibers carry much more information than copper wires. (Optical fibers transter information, atthe quick rate. (Optical fibers are cheaper than Copper wires. Optical fibers are very lighter, easy to handle (Optical fibers transfer information without any interference.ust 19 75 UNIT 13 Pryece OL! Syllabus 2017 - 18 Lenses and Dispersion of Light Lenses And Dispersion Of Light O Level Physies Teacher’s Notes M. A. Chaudhary Cell: 0300-9412902 ‘Convo and Concave lenses Convex ens Concave lens Image Charactrises wih respect o object stance Linear Mapeication Dispersion of Light Feason for dispersion of ight Uta Volt (UV) and Ina Red OR) radiationsust 19 78 Prysce OL Unit-13 LENSES AND DISPERSION OF LIGHT ‘Alens is transparent curved surface, made up of glass or plastic. CONVEX AND CONCAVE LENSES: Convex lens Concave lens, parallel rays CONVEX LENS: + Itis thn at the edges and tick at the centre i.e, curved outside + Itconverges (focuses) the light rays at a pont, so also called as converging lens. CONCAVE LENS: + Itis thn at the centre and thick at the edges i.e, curved inside, + Itiverges (spreads) the ight rays, so also calad as diverging len. Basie Terms of Convex Lens: + Optical Centre + Principal Axis * Principal Focus + Focal Length + Optical Centre: itis the midpoint between the surfaces of a convex lens, through which rays pass straight + Principal axis: ° ‘A horzoatel ne padsing thvcigh opal canta of conve ion &. + Principal Focus: The point at which parallel cays falling on a corwex lens focus. ees a + Focol length: The distance between Principal focus and optical centre, ‘enable us to find the postion of the image formed by the ‘incr cewig ray dare, ve can choose any two ne tmst impo rays to & Kount 19 7 Pryscs Oto ‘An incident ray through the optical centre C passes without bending ‘An incident ray passing through Fis rofracted parallel to the principal ais. IMAGE CHARACTERISTICS WITH RESPECT TO OBJECT DISTANCE: Object distance Ray dlagram Type otimage | Uses w) wo et Tveredraal | cbt ens o@ fmeton ‘Srmanod. |“ wowtope oes |g . = aa camera aye fans? SS = sreoseper raking egal seoocy raat projector photograph rater7 Prysce OL st ‘pright To produce magnified vitual | parallel beam of fight, asin a ‘spotlight, ut Upright magriving Tass magnified vitual LINEAR MAGNIFICATION: Itis the rato of image height tothe object height. OF Se dione Linear magnification has no unis. Uses of Convex lens in a: 4. Magnifying glass 2. Camera 3. Projector ‘4. Photographic enlarger. 4. Magnitying glass: o” a agi oe ah cogent naar ae Fe ‘The image produced is: @ OS a é © Upright 2 eat © 2 Onto same sie as objet o Yeunt 19 ~ Prysce OL ‘The camera uses convex lens to produce a real, inverted and diminished image on film. Focusing |s done by varying the distance ofthe lons from film. Object distance vari from infinity to slightly tagger that 3) Projector: object FF The image produced in a projector is real, inverted and magnified. Focusing of image is done by ‘moving the convex lens so that object fais between f and 21. Since the image Is inverted both vertically and lattery, hence the side is placed upside down and flipped 180°, so thatthe image wil be projected right way. 4) Photographic enlargor ‘The working principle of a photograph enlarger is basically the same as that of projector. The fm ina photograph enlarger is placed Between {and 2 ofthe locusing lens. The image produced is + Real + averted + Magnified ‘The ray diagram s same, as shown inthe wokhig of projector” Image formation in Eye: Like a camera, the eye uses a convex lens system to produce real, inverted and ‘object. The ‘screen’ inthis case is called retina ght beam eSunt 19 % Prysce OL ‘Short-sighted Eye: ‘A short-sighted person can see near objects clearly but not far abject. In shortsightecness, the focal length of lens is too small, such thatthe rays focus before reaching the screen. So image produced Is not ‘lear. This effect can be removed by using a concave lens infront of eye. rays fron ——> rays from far object far object > Fig: Short-sightedness Fig: Removal of shor sightedness Long-sighted Eye: ‘Along-sighted parson cannot see close objects cleary. In long-sightedness, the focal length of lens is too large, such that rays tend to focus, after the sceeen. Again image is not clear butt is blurred. This effect ‘can be removed by using convex lens in font of eye. rays from: rays trom far obect far object DISPERSION OF LIGHT Dispersion of ight isthe spliting up ofa ight beam into its component colours. whit ight Th colours produced ae > Vala ag é& b= ous 6=Green Qe YaVeton O-Orange aq Rone Se @ Troma toast depen otionttveugna premare: _G) ee +The claur range prouced is cal spectum, & “The red light is deviated least and volt ights devi ao + The vonaroas eons says ovadp as 1 Enthenor rave raped tight + The wanelongh reuse fom volt war oP le. shortest wavelength = violet colour Longest wavelength = red colourunt 19 a Prysce OL ‘+The frequency increases from red towards violet colour. ie. least frequency = red colour Maximum frequency = violet colour REASON FOR DISPERSION OF LIGHT: ‘The white ight consists of seven radiations each having diferent wave-length. The speed of light through the glass prism is diferent for diferent wavelengths. Due to diference in speed, each wavelength bends differently passing through a glass prism and spectrum of colours is produced. ULTRA VIOLET (UV) AND INFRA RED (IR) RADIATION: uv: Beyond the violet end of spectrum isthe invisible UV-radiatons. These racations can be detected by: ‘© Biackening of photographic fm. ‘+ Fluorescence e.g. curency notes usually have certain marks, which glow under UV-lamps. IR: Beyond the red colour of visible spectrum isthe invisible IF radiation. These radiations can be detected by ‘Thermopile Le. galvanometer delacts by sensing the IR-radiations. qos ) galvanometer ‘+ By placing thermometer, since IR radiations cause heating elect.nt 14 © Prysce OL UNIT 14 Syllabus 2017 - 18 Waves Transverse wave Longtudinal wave Base Terms of waves Fipple Tank COoservations and Condusions locromagnetc waves ‘Common Characteristic o electromagnet Crigin and Detection of Elecromagnate Waves O Level "+ Speci properties of Electromagnete Physics Teacher’s Notes | i". Uses of Electromagnetic Waves Waves M. A. Chaudhary Cell: 0300-9412902nt 14 w Pryece OL! UT Se WAVES ‘Waves are mechanism by which transfer of energy occurs, without transfer of matter. oes Motion of particles IY particles of medium vibrate up and down or perpendicular to wave direction then such a wave is called transverse. e.g. waler waves, waves on rope or string, electromagnetic waves. LONGITUDINAL WAVE: Wave => te to Motion of particles It particles of medium vibrate horizontally or parallel to wave direction then such a wave is called longitudinal e.g. sound waves, waves on a slinky spring. BASIC TERMS OF WAVES: Crest and trough ‘Amplitude Wavelength Time period Frequency Phase Wave front Wave speed DisplacementDisplacement ” 3) 4 5 ® 8) co Prysce OL Mean level Crest and Trough: ‘The part of a wave above the mean level is Crest and below the mean level is rough. Amplitude(a): ‘The max. displacement above or below the mean evel Wavelength (A): The distance between two consecutive crests or troughs. Time Period (7) Time required 10 complete one cycle ofa wave. Frequency (0 Frequency is number of cycles per second. is equal to reciprocal of time period. i. ‘8.1 Unit of frequency is Hertz (2). Phase: The points on a wave are in phase if they are at the same displacement and moving in the same diedton, Wave front: ‘A wave front isan imaginary line on a wave that joins all points which are in the same phase. Wave Speed (V) Distance moved by a wave per unit time is called wave speed. ‘The wave speed (V), frequency (). and wavelength (A) are related by wave equation ven Where V = wave speed measured in ms fequeney measured in Hz wavelength measured in m.nt 14 % Prysce OL betbddde ipper— Ti white sereen RIPPLE TANK: ‘source of light ripple tank with water ‘The main parts of ripple tank are: ‘+ Glass tank Containing water. “+ Vibrator whichis used to produce water waves. ‘+ Lamp which is used to iluminate water waves. ‘+ Screen which is used to obtain image of water waves. OBSERVATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS: 4) To study that water waves are transverse: Keep the piece of paper on the surface of water in tank. Produce water waves with vibrator. The piece of paper vibrates up and down on its fixed positon, showing that water waves are transverse, b) To study reflection of water waves: straight barrier (rettector) Incident water waves Pace slg barr vit in water. Pocipe wae na@ th rar. The water wavs are ‘elected trom bare eying aus oft see fsnt 14 e Prysce OL incident waves ae Siectone Late woe oo ied First make water deep and shallow by keeping glass bck inside tank. When waves enter trom deep — shallow water then: > Frequency () remains same. Le. fe f > Wavelength (h) decreases ie. key > Speed (V) decreases Le. VacV) ‘The reactive index is calculated by the formula: ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES: “The main components of electromagnetic spectrum are 1. y-Gamma rays 2 X-rays 3. UV -Utrivicletiaye 4 Light rays 5. IR Intra red rays, 6. Micro ~ micro waves, 7. Radio — radio waves, +l for rio waves and Anis fry rays. Le. saveine beans from y-+ rao waves. ta B FY nis a0 waves 2 egy ones om yao Woesnt 14 Prysce OL COMMON CHARACTERISTIC OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE! > They aro all wansverse > They can pass through vacuum. They Wavel atthe spoed oflight Le. +10" ms" They do not carry any charge. They are not effected by electic and magnetic lds. They wransfer anergy trom one place to another. They obey laws of rellecton and refraction. ORIGIN AND DETECTION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES: o co * Radioactive nucle ‘© Photographic fim Y | + cosmi rays. *# Goiger — Muller (GM) tubo. x | xraynbes Freep cones Sun = Photographic fm UW |S Mercury vapour lamps. + Fluorescent chemicals = Sun = Photographie fll abt | 5 Lamps & lasers + Photocalls ma tose = Photographie im + Hot objects = UR = Microwave ovens = Astals Micro | * TVand radio tansmiters | + Microwave receivers Rado | * Radio and TV vansmiters |» Rerials connected to tuned elecic ares in radio and T.V sets. SPECIFIC PROPERTIES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES: cr Se 1) Very penetrating. y 2) Very dangerous. 3) _lonize gases. 1) Very penetrating x 2 pater 3° 3 ne tree ES {} Cause mary chemical reactions iS w 2 Sheds) cae 6 3 meen : Sr coil Taco =6 ght 2) _Retracted by olass. 2 my 8 2, tase star coed er potoganhy nina aon fs eoog tne Su Weomes | Sie hah eto! ae So pare pa fh micone 7) Have vary Figh wavelengths Radiowaves | 2 See 2 ©nt 14 % Prysce OL USES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES: am rE Ty ~fays can be used to kil cancer cals and to destroy brain Y tumors rays are used to sterilize surgical equipments. y= fays are used to find flaws in metal X= rays are used to dalectIractures in Bones: X-rays are used as scanners in airports X rays are used to study arrangement of atoms in crystal. UV lamps are used in sunbeds for arifcial tanning. LUV causes fluorescence which is used in washing powders. LUV are used for checking counterfeit notes and forgeries. w Lights used in optical fibers for tlecommurications. Lights used to make the tings visible. Lights used for photosynthesis process. Light IRs used in emote controls IR is used in burglar alarm systems. IRs used in mobile phones, ‘Micro waves are used in microwave ovens Tor healing and Micro ooking purpose Micro waves are used in satelite televisions. 3. Microwaves are used for radar detection of ships, aircrafts and missiles, Fadio waves are used in radio broadcasting, wireless Telegraphy, Radio telephone transmission, TV, radar and navigation systems.Pryece OL! Syllabus 2017 - 18 UNIT 15 0 Sound : O Level Physics Teacher’s Notes M. A. Chaudhary Cell: 0300-9412902 und ‘Basie Concepts Experiment o determine speed of sound in Loudness, pitch and Quality (timbre) of sound Utrasoundat 15 ea Prysce OL BASIC CONCEPTS: > Sound's a form af energy, which is anslerre from one point to other in the form of waves. > Sound's produced due to vibration. > Sound waves travel in tha form of compressions and raretactions e.g. the vibrating prongs of the tuning fork compress and rarely the a molecules and sound waves are sent out Vil + ovecton vs tae C C= compression R= Rarefaction RAG yl] — > A compression in a sound wave isthe region in which the molecules of medium are closer. A ‘faction isa rogion in which the molecules of medium are futher apart. > Since compressions and rarefactions travel horizontally or parallel o direction of sound wave, so Sound waves are longitudinal, Direction of wave motion. —> HPA > The rachogtet gapund weroriongtctes are joie detarce toms eeper of two consecutive compressions ofthe wave. ——aA——4 WT IML rx a ‘To demonstrate that medium Is required for transmission of Sound waves require @ medium in order to travel om one form of compressions and raretactions, if there is vacuum\ produced and sound energy is nat transierred rer. sound waves rave inthe ne geperessiors and artactons aeat 15 % Prysce OL ps oo) a air Ol Gong: Clapper } casiar = ‘Sound cant travel through vacuum Fix an electric bol ina glass jar. When current is passed, tho ringing boll is heard. The air in the glass jar is gradually pumped out with vacuum pump. The sound slowly becomes softer. When air is completaly pumped out, ne sound is heard rom the ringing bel ‘Speed of sound indifferent mediums: ‘The nature of mecium effect the speed of sound. The speed of sound depends on the density of medium Le. denser isthe medium, higher isthe speed of sound and vice versa. The approximate values of speed ‘of saund in diferent mesiums ara: ma ‘Approx. spe ‘Gases ‘200 me. guids 7500 ms: Solids "5000 ms" Factors effecting speed of sound In alr Gao Em "Temperature | Spee6 of sound noreases wi ise ol temporal. Density ‘Sound travels faster in denser medium. Humidity ‘Sound travels fasier when humidity rises Audible Frequency Range: “The range of frequencies which alstener can hear isthe ausibe frequency range. A normal person can hear the sound having frequency betwaen 20Hz — 20000HZ (20KHz). A sound with a-ffequency loss than 2012 ie called Infrasound and above 20000 Hz i called ultrasound. Goth Uicessund as well as infrasound are non-audible, EXPERIMENT TO DETERMINE SPEED OF SOUNDIN AIR Apparatus: Measuring tape, gun and stopwatch, Observer% Prysce OL "+ Mark two postions A and B, ata distance d apart tram each other. ‘+ _-Atpoint A, person fires the gun. At point B, person notes the time between observing the gun flash and listening the sound: ‘Observations & Caloulato Distance between positions A and B = 6 Time interval between flash and sound = ‘speed of sound = S85 Or Ve4=390 ms Precautions: "> Repeat the experiment and take average value formore accuracy. > Inorder to avoid eror due to wind direction Refectes sound ‘exchange positions of persons A and 8 and repeat the experiment ‘out A ont 8 Reflection of Sound - Echo: ‘When sound is incident on a big surtace area, the part ‘of sound energy is reflected. The retlected sound waves heard after a silence, is called an echo. Reflected sound Suppose a person claps near clit A. The sound is cellected back trom eff B and an echo is produced. The distance between clliss For an echo, total distance travelled by soun Speed of sound = or ve Applications of Echo: There are many uses of echoes. The applications of echoes include the measuring of large distances or the detection of the location of objects that are not easily sighted.at 15 5 Prysce OL For example, by sending outa signal (a pulse of sound) and noting the time inlowval before the reflected signal (echo) aves, the depth of the sea or even the positon of ‘shoals of fish (Figure) can be found. — retuming echo soundgenerator sounding is used to detect the \ aise of sound a ieeoooes gS Oy Among animals, bats are known to use echoes to detect the presence of obstacles during fight. They ‘emit @ high frequency sound or ulasound thas reflected off objects in ther path. The echo is heard by the bats which can then pinpoint the postion of abstacles and thus avoid them, LOUDNESS, PITCH AND QUALITY (TIMBRE) OF SOUND. + Loudness Ite energy carried by a sound wave is larger, then sound is louder and vice versa. Loudness ‘depends on amplitude, the lager isthe amplitude, the louder isthe sound and vice versa Pitch: Pitch determines the sharpness of sound. It depends on frequency of sound wave. Higher is the frequency, more sharp is the sound and higher isthe pitch and vice versa, + Quality (timbre): The combined effect of diferent sound waves determines the timbre of sound. When sounds of higher frequencies are added to the fundamental frequency of an instrument, then different wavelorms are produced as shown in figs. Al The timbre or quality of sound depends on ‘= Waveform of sound wave. ‘© Fundamental frequency of sound. ‘+ Higher frequencies, called as harmonioe2at 15 6 Prysce OL ULTRASOUND: Ultrasound is sound waves with frequency greater than 20000Hz. Usrasound is inaudible to humans. Ulrasound is used for: 1. Pre-natal scanning: Ultrasound can be Used to obtain images of the internal parts of body. Ultrasound pulses are sent into body by means of a transmiter. The echoes reflected from any surfaces help in pre-natal ‘examination to examine the development ofthe foetus. 2. Cleaning: ‘The transmission of high ultrasound may result in the creation of cavitation bubbles, due to tarefacions. These cavitation bubbles may displace contaminant from ieregular surlaces or internal cavities 3. Quality contro: Due fo excessive use ceacks appear inthe interior of the moving pars of high speed heavy ‘machines such as turbines, engines of ships and aero planes. These cracks are not visible from ‘outside. Such cracks can be detected by urasound. A powerful beam of ultrasound is made to pass through these defective pars. The relleced pulses of ullrasound trom defective paris can {ive a clue of the existence ofthe cracks.unt 16 ” UNIT 16 Pryece OL! Syllabus 2017 - 18 Statle Static Electri ty O Level Physics Teacher’s Notes M. A. Chaudhary Cell: 0300-9412902 Electricity Basi Concopts Charging by Friction Eiecrostate induction Eating Charging an object by Eanthing ocr Fick ‘Appleaton of State Energy Elocrotate Precintatorunt 16 °% Prysce OL Unit-16 STATIC ELECTRI: ad BASIC CONCEPTS: > There are two types of charged particles ie. electrons which carry negative charges and protons which carry postive charge. > number of electrons on an object are larger than number of protons then that object carries negative charge. ie. gain of electrons mean negative charges. > number of elecrons on an object are less than numer of protons then that object caries positive ‘charge ie. loss of electrons mean positive charges. > Like charges repel one another and unlike charges attract one another. ‘The SI unit of charge is Coulomb (C). The charge on an electron or proton is 1.6x10""C ie, 6.25210'¥electrons or protons make one coulomb charge. > Conductors are substances that have tree elecons, and are able to conduct electricity e.g, metals lke siver, copper and Iron ete. > Ingulators are substances that do not have free electrons, and thus cannot conduct electricy e.g lass, plastic and wood ete CHARGING BY FRICTION: Due to rubbing of two objects, heating effect is produced by fiction. The electrons gain energy and may shift from one object tothe other. +The object from which electrons are shifted carries postive charge. + The abject on which electrons are shite carries negative charge. ‘The experimental results of charges by friction are given in the table below. o Positive Charge Negative Charge Glass rod ubbed wih ile Gass ‘Sik Ebonife od rubbed with fur Fur Ebon Plastic comb rubbed with halt Hale ‘Comb Perspex ruler rubbed with duster Perspex Duster Polythene stip rubbed with duster Duster Polyinano ELECTROSTATIC INDUCTION: "When a charged object is brought near a neutral one, then positve and negative charges on neutral ‘bject are separates. This effects called electrostatic induction.” Explanation: Step 1: Rub the ebonite rod with fur to make the rod negatively charged, Ebonite rod ‘Step 2: Keep the two metal spheres in contact with each other on ins Metal ‘Step 3: Place the negatively charged rod near sphere A. ThisSPausee tho eleorons tom A tobe repelled toright most of sphere B, leaving positive charges thereco Prysce OL ‘Step 4: Wi the negatively charged ro in place, the two spheres are separated. ‘Step 5: Now remove the negatively charged rod from spheres, The net charge on sphere A is positive ‘and on Bis negative. Such charges are called induced charges and the process to separate positive ‘and negative charges is called electrostatic induction, EARTHING: “Tris is process by which electrons flow to or from the earth. For an example, a lightening conductor can ‘serve aS an earth for lightening, The symbol for earth is CHARGING AN OBJECT BY EARTHING: ‘a). To make an object positively charged: ‘Step 1: Keep the negatively charged rod near a neutral sphere. The poslive and negative charges are i?