2.

PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROL (PLC)

PLC is universally called the “work horse” of industrial automation. PLC is important because
all production processes goes through a fixed repetitive sequence of operation that involves
logical steps and decision

A PLC is used to control time and regulate the sequence. Examples of production processes
that are controlled using PLCs are; metal machining sequences, product assembly lines, batch
chemical processes etc

Logical control has been used to control sequences of action in automatic manufacturing
system for many years. Originally logical control system was “hard wired” using electronic
relays, timers and logic units.

These systems were inflexible. Once hard wired logical system had been constructed, then if
machining schedule was altered for another type of product the logical controlled system had
to be manually re-wired for the new application. This was inflexible and time consuming and
restricted the production schedule of a factory and made changing of product difficult. This
situation began to change in 1970 when the mini-computers became available. It is easy to
perform switching time relay and logic in computer programs. A computer program is also
easy to change when the control problem changes and allows many more logic functions than
are possible with hard wired logic control.

When reliable micro-processor became available in 1980’s with cheap memories and flexible
input/output features then the modern generation of PLC begun to emerge. Today the micro-
computer based PLC is a robust and reliable instrument with many functions and features.

A large PLC system is capable of running entire factory automation.

A PLC has four main units namely;

(i) Data memory – The status of switches interlocks, past values of data and other working
data is stored here.

(ii) Programme memory – The instruction for the logic control sequence are stored here.

(iii)The output device – These are the hardware/software drivers for industrial process
actuators such as solenoid switches, pneumatic valves, hydraulics

(iv) The input device – These are the hardware/software drivers for industrial process
sensors such as status sensor, proximity detector, switch status, interlock settings etc

1
A PLC in a minicomputer can be specifically designed for industrial and other applications
such as;

i) Pneumatic
ii) Hydraulic machine
iii) Robots
iv) Production process
v) Packaging lines
vi) Traffic lights and signal system
vii) Refining process etc

PLCs are similar to computers but whereas computers are optimized for calculation and display
tasks PLC are optimized for control tasks and industrial development. Thus PLC;

(a) Are rugged and are designed to withstand noise, humidity, temperature and vibrations

(b) Have interfacing for inputs and outputs already inside the controller

(c) They are easily programmed and have easily understood programming language that is
primarily concerned with logic and switch

A block diagram of a PLC system (Hardware)

Typically a PLC system has a basic functional component of CPU, memory, power supply
unit, input/output interface section, communication interface and the programming device.

A basic arrangement of the hardware is as shown;

2
1) Processor unit (CPU)

This is the unit containing micro processor. This unit interprets the input signal and carries
out the control action according to the programme stored in its memory, communicating
the decision as action signal to the output section

2) Power Supply Unit (PSU)

This is needed to convert the a.c mains to a low d.c voltage typically 5V necessary for the
processor and the circuit in the input and output modules

3) Programming device

It is used to enter required programme code into the memory of the processor. The
programme is developed in the device (programming device such as personal computer
handheld programmer circuit) and then transferred to the memory unit of the PLC. (A
programme is a set of instructions which are written down to achieve a given task).

4) Memory unit

This is where the programme containing the control action to be exercised by the
microprocessor is stored and where the data is stored from input for processing and for the
output.

5) Input/output section

These are the section where the processor receives information from external devices and
communicates information to external devices. Input might be things like switches, sensors
such as photoelectric cells used in counter mechanisms, temperature sensors, flow sensors
etc

Outputs may be motor starter coils, solenoid valves etc.

Input and output devices can be classified as giving signal in digital or analogue form. The
devices giving digital signal are the ones which are either ON or OFF (HIGH or LOW).
Thus a device like a switch gives a discrete signal which is either a voltage or no voltage.
Analogue devices give signals of which the size is proportional to the size of the variable
being monitored. For example, a temperature sensor will give a voltage proportional to the
temperature of controlled environment.

6) Communication interface

It is used to receive and transmit data in communication networks from or to the other
remote PLC.

3
 It is concerned with such actions such as device verification, data acquisition,
synchronization between user application and connection management.

Figure below represents a basic communication model;

Internal Architecture of a PLC

The figure below shows a basic internal architecture of a PLC. It consists of CPU, containing
the system microprocessor, memory, input/output circuitry.

4
i) The CPU

The CPU controls and processes all operation within the PLC. It is supplied with a
clock that has a frequency typically between 1 and 8MHz.

This frequency determines operating speed of the PLC and provides the timing and
synchronization of all elements in the system.

The internal structure of the CPU depends on the microprocessor used. In general CPU
has the following;

(a) An Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

It is responsible for data manipulation and carrying out arithmetic

calculation/operation for addition and subtraction and logic operation such as AND,
OR, NOT, EXOR, EXNOR etc

(b) Register (Memory)

Register is located within processor and is used to store information involved in

programme execution.

(c) Control Unit

It is used to control timing operation of the processor

ii) The Buses

They are paths used for communication within the PLC. The information is transmitted
in binary form i.e. a group of bits indicating the ON and OFF state. The term word is
used for the group of bits consisting of certain information. The system has four buses;

(a) Data bus

It carries data used in the processing done by the CPU. An 8-bit microprocessor has
an internal data bus that can handle 8-bit number thus can perform operation
between 8-bit number and delivered result is 8-bit value.

(b) Address bus

It is used to carry address of memory location so that each word can be located in
the memory. Every memory location is given a unique address. It is the address bus
that carries the information indicating which address is to be addressed. If the
address bus consists of 8 lines then the number of discrete address that can be
accessed is 28 = 256 location.

5
 (c) Control bus

It carries signal used by CPU for control such as to inform the memory devices
whether they are to receive data from input or output data and to carry timing signal
that are used to synchronize the action.

(d) System bus

It is used for communication between input/output port and in the input and output
units.

iii) Memory

To operate the PLC there is need for it to access the data to be processed and instruction
i.e. programme which informs it how the data is to be processed. Both are stored in
PLC memory for access during processing. There are several memory elements in a
PLC system;

(a) System Read Only Memory (ROM)

This gives permanent storage for operating system and fix data used by CPU

(b) Random Access Memory (RAM) and Read Write Memory (RWM)

It is used to store the user programme. RAM is also used to store data.

This is where information is stored on the status of the input and output devices and
the values of timers and counters and other internal devices. The Data RAM is
sometimes referred to as Data Table or register.

(c) Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM)

It is used to store programmes permanently.

iv) The Input/output unit

The input/output unit provides an interface between the system and outside world
allowing for connection to be made through the I/O channel to the input devices such
as sensors and output devices such as motors and solenoids.

It is through the I/O unit that programmes are entered from a programme panel. Every
input/output point has a unique address that can be used by the CPU. The input/output
channel provides isolation and signal conditioning functions so that sensors and
actuators can often be directly connected to them without the need for other circuitry.
The electrical isolation from external world is usually by means of up to isolator or
opto coupler.

6
 Outputs are specified as being relay type, transistor type or TRIAC type;

(a) Relay type

In the relay types the signal from PLC output is used to operate a relay and is able
to switch current in the order of few amperes in an external circuit. The relay not
only allows a small current to switch a large current but also isolate the PLC from
external circuit. Relays are however relatively slow in operation. They are suitable
for both a.c and d.c switching and can withstand high surge current and voltage
transient.

(b) Transistor type

The output uses transistor to switch current through the external circuit. This gives
a considerable faster switching operation however, strictly for d.c switching and is
destroyed by over current and high reverse voltage.

For protection either a fuse of a built in electronic protection is used. Opto isolators
are used to provide isolation.

(c) TRIAC type

Output with opto isolation can be used to control external loads that are connected
to the a.c supply. It is strictly for a.c operation and is easily destroyed by over
current. Fuses are virtually included to protect such output.

PLC Systems Styles

There are three main styles;

i) Unitary

The unitary PLC contains every feature of a basic system in one box. They are also known
as single box type or the brick type. They are attached to a machine being controlled. They
are commonly used for small programmable controls and supplied by an integral compact
package complete with power supply, processor, memory, and input/output units.

Typical PLC may have 6, 8, 12 or 24 inputs and 4, 8, 16 outputs and a memory of about
300 to 1000 instructions.

ii) Modular

This use a range of modules that slot together to build up a system.

7
 The basic modules are the power supply, main module containing the CPU, the input and
output modules. Other modules such as A/D converters may be added. The main advantage
of this is that the input and output terminals can be expanded to cope with changes of the
hardware system.

Modular PLC may be designed to fix directly on a back panel and usually they are arranged
on a rack and mounted inside a large cabinet for protection and security.

iii) Rack mounting

This is a similar concept to the modular design but modules are on standard cards that are
slot in a standard rack inside a cabinet. They are flexible and allow expansion of the system.

Programming PLC

A programming device can either be a handheld device, a desktop console or a personal

computer only when the programme has been designed on the programming device and is
ready is transferred to the memory unit of the PLC. The desktop console can either be a video
programming unit or a graph programming unit.

a) Handheld Programming Unit

They are calculator type hand set and they have a range of keyboard characters dedicated to a
particular PLC system. The keyboard character depends on programming language involved.
Most keys are functional keys although there are other keys like programme elements keys,
alphanumeric keys, cursor control keys.

Video Programming Unit / System Programming Unit

It is more sophisticated / complicated than handheld unit and has a cathode ray tube display
and a comprehensive keyboard. The unit provides the user with uninterruptive programming
feature and enables a complete ladder diagram to be drawn on the screen. The unit also has a
disc drive enabling the stored programme to be rapidly downloaded to the PLC.

Graphic Programmable Unit (Visual Display Unit)

These are complex visual display unit involving a keyboard, monitor and a clock system and
allow the user not only views a large section of the programme but also to study colour graphic
display that provide sophisticated diagnostic and monitoring features. Graphical units can also
provide statistics relating to system being controlled together with plant mimic diagram, stock
levels, process parameters etc

b) Personal Computers

8
They can have a special programme written for it to enable it replace graphic programming
unit.

Personal computers are widely configured as a programme development workstation. Some

PLC require the computer to have appropriate software, others require special communication
cards to interface with PLC. A major advantage of using a computer is that programme can be
stored on a hard disk or CD and copies can be made easily.

Programming Languages

1) Ladder diagrams programmes (LDP)

2) Functional block diagrams (FBD)
3) Sequential function chat programming (SFC)
4) Instruction List (IL)
5) Structured text program (ST)

PLC Ladder diagram programming (LDP)

It is a commonly used method of programming a PLC. Writing programme is equivalent to

drawing a switching circuit. The ladder diagram consists of two vertical lines representing
power rails. The circuit are connected as horizontal lines i.e. rung of the ladder between the
two vertical lines.

In drawing the ladder diagram certain convention are adopted.

i) Vertical lines of the diagram represent the power rails between which circuits are
connected. The power flow is taken to be from left hand vertical rails across a rung.

ii) Each rung on the ladder defines one operation of the control process.

iii) A ladder diagram is always read from left to right and from top to bottom.

iv) Each rung must start with an input or inputs and must end with at least one output / outputs.

v) Electrical devices are shown in their normal condition thus a switch open until some objects
close it will be shown open on a ladder diagram and vice versa.

vi) A particular device can appear in more than one rung of a ladder e.g. we might have a relay
that switches one or more devices, the same letters or numbers used to label devices will
appear more than once.

vii) The inputs and outputs are all identified by their... The notation used depends on the PLC
in operation.

Instruction Function Description Semi-Graphic Full Graphic

Mnemonic Form Form

9
 LD Load Start rung or string
with a signal
corresponding to the
logical state of the
contact
LD NOT Load inverse Start rung or string
with signal
corresponding to the
logical inverse of the
state of the contact
AND Logical AND AND state of contact
with previous state
AND NOT Logical NAND the state of
NAND contact with the
previous state
OR Logical OR OR the state of
contacts with the
parallel connected
contacts
OR NOT Logical NOR NOR the state of
contacts with the
parallel connected
contacts
OUT OUTPUT OUTPUT data via
relay, timer or counter

Timer, Marker and Counter

1) Timer

A timer circuit is specified by starting the interval to be timed condition or event that can start
or stop the timer. Consider an example of a timer that is required to switch ON some output 5
sec after receiving a start signal. The figure below shows a ladder circuit consisting of three
rungs of such a timer.

This uses a delay ON timer T450. The timer is represented as an output that has its delay period
specified by a constant k. This specifies the number of unit of the smallest time interval that
constitutes the delay period thus when the smallest time interval is 0.1 sec (threshold) then we
have k = 50 i.e. the delay time is 5 sec.

10
Line 1
When contact X400 is closed then output Y430 is energized.

Line 2
The closing of associated Y430 contact starts the timer T450 which will close the normally
open contact after a delay of 5 sec.

Line 3

The opening of timer contact turns ON the output X431. The instruction sequence will thus be;
Step Instruction
0 LD X400
1 OUT Y430
2 LD Y430
3 OUT T450
4 K50
5 LD T450
6 OUT X431
Step 4 gives the time relay as k = 50. This is representing 50 times the smallest relay.

Timers can be linked in cascade (series) to give a large delay than is possible with one time.

2) Marker / Internal Relay / Flip flop / Flag

The term marker, M1, or internal relay or auxiliary relay is used for what is considered as an
internal relay of a PLC. This marker behaves like relay with associated contacts, but in reality
they are not actual relay but simulation by software of PLC.

Some markers have battery backup so that they can be used in circuits to safeguard shutdown
of a plant in the event of power failure.

Markers or internal relay are very useful tools in the implementation of switching sequence.
Consider a situation where excitation of output depends on two different input arrangement.
The figure below shows how we can draw a ladder using internal relays.

11
An output controlled by the two input arrangement

The 1st rung shows one output arrangement being used to control the coil of the internal relay
M100

The 2nd rung shows the other input arrangement controlling the coil of the internal relay M101

The contacts of the two relays are then put in an OR situation to control the output Y430

The instruction sequence of the ladder is;

Step Instruction
0 LD X400
1 OR X401
2 OUT M100
3 LD X400
4 AND X401
5 OUT M101
6 LD M100
7 OR M101
8 OUT Y430

Markers / internal relays are used in resetting a latch

3) Counters

Counters are used when there is need to count specified number of operation e.g. when items
passes along a conveyor into a box and when specified number of items have passed into a box
the next item is diverted into another box.

Counter circuit are supplied as internal feature of a PLC. Most cases the counter operates as a
down counter. This means that the counter counts down from present values to zero i.e. events
are subtracted from a set of values. When zero is reached, the counter contact changes state.

The figure below shows a basic counting circuit;

In the ladder diagram the counter is represented by a rectangular box spanning two lines. On
one line is the reset used to reset the counter and on the other line is the output line and
K = 10 indicates that the counter contact will change state on the 10th pulse.

12
When the contact X400 momentarily closes the counter is reset to the set values. The counter
will then count number of pulses until the contact X401. When this reaches the set value in
this case 10, the counter (C460) contact closes thus giving an output Y430.

The instruction sequence for this ladder diagram is below;

Step Instruction
0 LD X400
1 RST C
2 LD X401
3 OUT C460
4 K10
5 LD C460
6 OUT Y430

Draw the ladder diagram for this instruction list

LD X500
OR Y530
ANI X501
OUT Y530
OUT Y531
LD X502
ANI T1
OUT T0

Logical gate symbols used in PLC

13
14
Commissioning of a PLC

i) Checking that all cable connection between PLC and plant being controlled are complete,
safe to the required specification and they meet local standards
ii) Checking that the incoming power supply matches the voltages setting for which the PLC
is set
iii) Checking that all protecting devices are set to their appropriate trip setting
iv) Checking that emergency stop button works
v) Checking that all input/output devices are connected to the correct input/output points and
giving the correct signals
vi) Loading and testing the software

Simulation

Many PLC are fitted with a simulation unit that reads and writes information directly into the
I/O memory and so simulates the action of input/output

The installed programme can thus be run and inputs and outputs simulated so that they are all
preset value can be checked. To carry out this type of operation the terminals have to be placed
in the correct mode

For Mitsubishi it termed as monitor, for Siemens the test mode and for Telemecanique the
debug mode

Fault Finding

With any PLC control plugged, the greater percentages of fault are linked to be with sensors,
actuators, and the wiring rather than with the PLC itself. Of the fault within PLC most likely
will be the input/output channels or the power supply rather than the CPU. Many PLCs
provides built in fault analysis procedure that carry out self testing and display fault codes
possibly with a brief message that can be translated by looking up the code in a list which gives
the source of the fault and possible methods of recovery.

For example, the fault code may indicate that the source of the fault is in a particular module
with method of recovery given as replace the module or perhaps switch OFF the power and
then ON.

15
Fault Detection Techniques

a) Timing checks

The term “watch dog timer” is used for timing check that is carried out by the PLC to check
out that some functions have been carried out within normal time. If a function is not carried
out within normal time, a fault is assumed to have occurred and the watch dog timer trips,
setting out an alarm and perhaps closing down the PLC. As a part of internal diagnostic of a
PLC watch dog timers are used to detect faults.

The watch dog timer is preset a time slightly longer than scan timer.

b) Last output set

This technique involves the use of status lamp to indicate the last output that has been set
during a process that has come to a halt/stop. Such lamps are built into a program so that when
each output occurs a lamp comes ON. The lamps that are ON thus indicate that the outputs are
occurring.

The programme can be designed to turn OFF a previous status lamp and turn ON a new status
lamp whenever a new output is turned ON. Such a technique can be cumbersome in a large
system with many output and in such a case the output might be grouped into sets and the
status lamp used for each set.

c) Replication

Where there is concern regarding safety in the case of a fault developing checks may constantly
be used to check fault. Replication checks involve duplicating i.e. replicating the PLC system.
This could mean that the system repeats every operation twice and if it gets the same result it
assumes that there is no fault. A more expensive alternative is to have duplicate PLC systems
and compare the results given by the two systems. In absence of a fault the two systems should
be same.

d) Expected value checks

Software errors can be detected by checking whether an expected value is obtained when
specific input occurs.

If the expected value is not obtained a fault is assumed to be occurring

System Documentation

The documentation is the main guide used by everyday users including for trouble shooting
and fault finding PLC thus, need to be completed and in a form that is easy to follow.

16
The documentation for a PLC installation includes the following;
i) Description of the plant
ii) Specification of the control requirement
iii) Details of the PLC
iv) Electrical installation diagrams
v) List of the inputs and outputs connections
vi) Application program with full commentary on what it is achieving
vii) Software backups
viii) Operating manuals, including details of all the start up and shut down procedures
and alarms

Example;
For the PLC code given below, draw a ladder diagram.

Address Code Element

0 LD X1
1 OR Y1
2 AND T0
3 OUT Y0
4 LD X2
5 OR Y2
6 AND X3
7 OUT T2
8 OUT C0
9 LD X4
10 OR Y3
11 ANI X5
12 ANI X6
13 ANI Y4
14 END

KNEC 2012
An alarm system is used in conjunction with an automated bottling system in a milk bottling
branch. A conveyor belt carries empty bottle that are to be filled with milk. The alarm must
sound if any of the conditions occurs

(i) Milk tank is empty and bottles are in conveyor belt

(ii) There is milk bottles in the conveyor belt and there is milk in the tank
(iii)There is milk in the tank, no bottles on the conveyor belt and electric power is OFF

a) Write down a Boolean expression for the alarm system

b) Draw a logic circuit to implement the system
c) Implement this using a PLC

17
Program Development

Whatever the language in which programme is to be written, a systematic approach to the

problem can improve the chance of high quality programme in as short time as possible.

A systematic design technique is likely to involve the following steps

1) A definition of what is required with inputs/outputs specified

2) A definition of algorithm to be used. An algorithm is a step by step sequence that defines

a method of defining a problem. This can often be shown by flow chart and can be written
in pseudo code which involves the use of words BEGIN, DO, END, IF, THEN, ELSE, and
WHILE DO.

3) The algorithm is then translated into instruction that can be put in the PLC. Because the
programme are often very long and can end up difficult to write as a long single block and
are even more difficult to later follow for fault finding and maintenance. It’s advisable to
break the programme down into areas that are further subdivided until manageable sized
block of program occur. This technique is known as top-down design

4) The program is then tested and debug

5) The program is documented so that any person using or having to modify the program at a
later date understands how the programme works

Processing Inputs

A PLC is continuously running through its program and updating it as a result of its input
signal. Each such loop is termed as a cycle.

A PLC could be operated by each input being examined as it occurs in the program. Its effect
on the program determined and the output correspondingly change. This mode of operation is
termed as continuous updating. The outputs then retain their status until the next updating.

The sequence can be summarized as;

1) Scan all the inputs and copy into RAM

2) Fetch, Decode and Execute all program instruction in sequence coping out instruction
to RAM.
3) Update all outputs
4) Repeat the sequence

18
 Scan all inputs

Repeat
Carry out the program
sequence

Update the inputs

The time taken to complete a cycle of scanning input and updating output according to
programme instruction i.e. cycle, time through relatively quick is not instantaneous and this
means that its inputs are not matched all the time but instead that sample of their state are taken
periodically. It also means that if a very brief input cycle appears at the rung moment in the
cycle it could be missed.

In general, any input must be present for longer than cycle time which have a typical value of
the order of 1050 msec

Special modules are available for use in such circumstances. The cycle or scanning time of a
PLC is determined by;

1) The CPU used

2) The size of the programme to be scanned
3) The number of inputs/outputs to be read
4) The system function that are in use i.e. the greater the number the slower the scanning time

Installation and Commissioning of a PLC

The control program written for the PLC should be designed systematically and should be error
free, low maintenance and cost effective

The procedure adopted for installation of a PLC can be illustrated by a flow chart

19
 Installation flow chart

Specification

Design

Realization

Commissioning

Documentation

Basically it should have the following steps (phases) in the installation procedure;

Specification – Description of the task

Design – Description of the solution
Realization – Implementation of the solution
Commissioning – Incorporate into environment and testing the solution
Documentation – Complete preservation of hardware and software details

A. Specification

In this phase a precise and detailed description of control task is formulated. The specific
descriptions of control system function are listed down. It review any conflicting requirement
misleading or incomplete specific. At the end of this process one can have the idea for
description of control task structure and micro structuring of the system or process and thus its
solution.

B. Design

The concept and its solution obtained after the first stage should be described in details the
method used to describe the solution must provide both a graphic and process oriented
description of the function and behaviour of the control system and it may be independent of
technical realization starting with a representation of the overall view of controller, the solution
can be defined step by step until a level of description is obtained which contains all the details
of solution.

20
C. Realization

The translation of solution concept into a control program using the programming language.
In this process the suitable programming language which is used in a particular PLC should be
studied and based on programming method, program is written for the system.

D. Commissioning

This phase tests about the actual working of the system. In this phase the complete machine
(the mechanical system) is first installed into the plant, then the program developed
corresponding to the different tasks by machine installed/downloading to the PLC hardware.

Final step is testing the machine. If the entire task is working well, then all right otherwise
some modification is needed into the written program can simultaneously accept it at the same
time. This reduces the number of messages needed to be replaced on network and hence
increases network speed. This allows PLC Rack and their data to be shared equally among
several processors and not just to dedicate one. The network accessed is controlled by a timing
algorithm called concurrent time domain multiple access (CTDMA) which determines a mode
ability to transmit in the network.

E. Documentation

This is one of the very important and crucial components for system installation. This is
essentially required for maintenance and further expansion. Documentation is normally done
nowadays using floppy disk and CDs. The documentation consists of documents of individual
phases/printout of control program and if possible any addition concerning control program.

How a PLC does operates

These are the basic steps on the operation of all PLCs

(i) Input scan

(ii) Program scan
(iii)Output scan
(iv) House keeping

These steps continuously take place in a repeating loop.

21
 Start

House
Input
keeping
scan

Output Program
scan scan

Input scan - This detect the state of all input devices that are connected to a PLC
Program scan - It executes the user created program logic
Output scan - It energizes all the output devices that are connected to the PLC
Housekeeping - This step includes communicating with the programming terminals internal
diagnosis

When programming language is used to program PLC, the ladder logic is the most commonly
used programming language. It is not the only one. The following are some of languages used;

i) Ladder Diagram (LD)

Transitional ladder is graphical programming language. It programs with simple contacts that
simulate opening and closing of relays.

Ladder logic programming has been expanded to include such functions as counters, timers,
shift registers and mathematical operations. A typical ladder diagram is as shown below.

EN ENO

50B

Speed

22
ii) Functional Block diagram

This is a graphical language for depicting signal and data flows through function block.
Function block diagram is very useful for expressing the interconnections of control system
algorithms for logic

High pass
Alarm 112 overpass
#305
S Alarm
Q1 P12
Enable R1
Alarm AND
circuit

iii) Structured Text (ST)

It is a high level text language that encourages structural programming. It is a language

structure (syntax) that strongly resembles (PASCAL) and support a wide range of standard
functions of operations.

Examples

If speed is greater than >1000 then

Forward rate = 50.0 + offset flow rate
Else
Flow rate = 100.0 ste ON
END – 17

iv) Instruction List

It has a low level “Assemble” language that is based on similar instruction list language found
in a wide range of today’s PLC

LD R1
MPC Reset
LD Press 1
ST Max Press
RESET LDD
ST A – X43

v) Sequential Function Chart

23
It is a method of programming complex control system at a more highly structured level. A
sequential function chart is an overall of the control system in which the basic building blocks
are entire program files. Each program file is created using one of the other types of
programming languages. This SFC approach co-ordinates large, complicated programming
task into smaller more manageable task e.g.

Start N Pumps Raedy

Vacuum S DEPRESS CHECKS N/PRESS CHR

What to consider when choosing a PLC

There are many PLC systems in the market today. Other than cost you must consider the
following which will suit the needs of your application;

(i) Will they be powered by AC or DC

(ii) Does the PLC have enough memory to run my user program

(iii)Does the system run fast enough to meet my application requirements (speed of the system)

(iv) What type of structure is used to program PLC (programming language)

(v) Will the PLC be able to manage the number of input/output that my application require

(vi) If required by your application can the PLC benefit the analogue input/output only or may
be a combination of analogue and digital output

(vii) How am I going to communicate with my PLC (physical media to communicate –

e.g pribus, mod bus)

(viii) Do I need network connecting and can it be added to my PLC

(ix) Will the system be located in one place or spread out over a large area.

Commissioning of a PLC

- Checking all cable connections between PLC and plant being controlled

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- Checking that the incoming power supply matches the voltage setting for which the PLC
is set

- Checking that all protecting devices are set to their appropriate trip setting

- Checking that all input/output devices are connected to the correct input/output points and
giving correct signal

- Load and testing software

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