MODULE 3: ADAPTATION OF ANATOMICAL PRINCIPLES FOR BIOENGINEERING DESIGN:

Brain as a CPU system, Eye as a Camera system, Heart as a pump system, Lungs as purification system,
Kidney as a filtration system.

BRAIN AS A CPU SYSTEM

The human brain can be thought of as a highly sophisticated and complex information processing
system, similar to a computer's Central Processing Unit (CPU). Both the brain and CPU receive and process
inputs, store information, and perform calculations to produce outputs. However, there are significant
differences between the two, such as the way they store and process information and the fact that the human
brain has the ability to learn and adapt, while a computer's CPU does not. Additionally, the human brain is
capable of performing tasks such as perception, thought, and emotion, which are beyond the scope of a
computer's CPU.
 In the human brain, information is processed in a distributed manner across multiple regions, each with
specialized functions, rather than being processed sequentially in a single centralized location. Just like how a
computer's CPU has an arithmetic logic unit (ALU) to perform mathematical calculations, the human brain has
specialized regions for processing mathematical and logical operations. The prefrontal cortex, for example, is
responsible for higher-level cognitive functions such as decision making and problem solving.
Similarly, a computer's CPU also has memory units for storing information, and the human brain has
several regions dedicated to memory storage, including the hippocampus and amygdala. While the comparison
between the human brain and a computer's CPU can provide useful insights, it is important to note that the
human brain is a vastly more complex and capable system, with many functions that are still not fully
understood.

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS) AND PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS)

The nervous system as a whole consists of two principal divisions called the
 Central nervous system and
 Peripheral nervous system
Because the brain and spinal cord occupy a midline or central location in the body, they are together called the
central nervous system or CNS. Similarly, the usual designation for the nerves of the body is the peripheral
nervous system or PNS. Use of the term peripheral is appropriate because nerves extend to outlying or
peripheral parts of the body. A subdivision of the peripheral nervous system called the
 Autonomic nervous system (ANS) consists of structures that regulate the body's autonomic or
involuntary functions (for example, the heart rate, the contractions of the stomach, and intestines, and
the secretion of chemical compounds by glands).
 Somatic nervous system: involves voluntary control of the body movements via the use of skeletal
muscles.
BRAIN AND SPINAL CORD: Brain is protected in the cranial cavity of the skull, and the spinal cord is
surrounded in the spinal column. In addition, protective membranes called meninges cover the brain and spinal
cord. The brain, one of our largest organs, consists of the following major divisions,
 Forebrain comprises cerebrum, thalamus and hypothalamus.
Cerebrum: Consciousness, thinking, memory, sensations, emotions, and willed movements, general
sensations, vision, hearing, and normal speech.
Hypothalamus: maintaining body temperature, body's water balance, secrete chemicals called releasing
hormones, sleep cycles, and the control of appetite and many emotions involved in pleasure, fear, anger,
sexual arousal, and pain.
Thalamus: It helps produce sensations accompanied by a feeling of some degree of pleasantness or
unpleasantness.
 Midbrain is located between the thalamus of the forebrain and pons of the hindbrain.
 Hindbrain comprises pons, cerebellum and medulla oblongata: The general functions of the cerebellum
are to produce smooth coordinated movements, maintain equilibrium, and sustain normal postures. The
cardiac, respiratory, and vasomotor centers (collectively called the vital centers) are located in the
medulla. Impulses from these centers control heartbeat, respirations, and blood vessel diameter (which is
important in regulating blood pressure).
The spinal cord lies within the vertebral canal. The cord is about 45 cm long. It is cylindrical in shape,
flattened slightly antero-posteriorly. The spinal cord has a small, irregular shaped internal section that consists
of gray matter (nerve cell bodies) and a larger area surrounding this gray part that consists of white matter
(nerve cell fibers). The gray matter has two pairs of columns, called the dorsal and ventral horns, give the gray
matter an H-shaped appearance in cross section. In the center of the gray matter is a small channel, central canal
that contains cerebrospinal fluid, the liquid that circulates around the brain and spinal cord. The white matter
consists of thousands of nerve cell fibers arranged in three areas external to the gray matter on each side.
The spinal cord is the link between the spinal nerves and the brain. It is also a place where simple
responses, known as reflexes can be coordinated even without involving the brain.
The functions of the spinal cord may be divided into three categories:
 Conduction of sensory impulses upward through ascending tracts to the brain
 Conduction of motor impulses from the brain down through descending tracts to the efferent neurons
that supply muscles or glands
 Reflex activities. A reflex is a simple, rapid, and automatic response involving very few neurons.
FUNCTIONS: The Central Nervous System is responsible for receiving, processing, and integrating sensory
information and transmitting commands to the rest of the body. The brain acts as the command center, receiving
and processing sensory inputs and generating motor outputs, while the spinal cord acts as a relay center,
transmitting information between the brain and peripheral nerves.
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
The nerves connecting the brain and the spinal cord to other parts pf the body constitutes the peripheral
nervous system (PNS). This system includes cranial and spinal nerves that connect the brain and spinal cord,
respectively, to peripheral structures such as the skin surface and the skeletal muscles.
Cranial Nerves - 12 nerves - nasal cavity, retina, face and head, the eye, the upper jaw, lower jaw, internal ear,
tongue, the thoracic and abdominal cavities.
Spinal Nerves - 31 pairs - The spinal nerves are a mixture of motor and sensory fibers.
FUNCTIONS: The Peripheral Nervous System, on the other hand, consists of all the nerves that lie outside the
brain and spinal cord. It is responsible for transmitting sensory information from the periphery of the body (such
as the skin, muscles, and organs) to the CNS, and transmitting commands from the CNS to the periphery.

NEURONS
Neurons are nerve cells, sensitive to various stimuli. It converts stimuli to nerve impulse. They are the structural
and functional unit of the nervous system. They are the cells in charge of receiving sensory information from
outside the body, sending motor commands to the muscles, and transforming and relaying electrical signals at
each stage along the way. It contains 3 basic portions. These are cell body, axons and dendrites.
Dendrites: These are branch-like thin fibers that extend from the cell that receive messages from other neurons
and allow the transmission of messages to the cell body.
Cell Body: Each neuron has a cell body which carries out most of the neuron’s basic cellular functioning with a
nucleus, Golgi body, endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria and other components.
Axon: Axon is a tube-like structure that carries electrical impulse from the cell body to the axon terminals that
pass the impulse to another neuron.
Synapse: It is the chemical junction between the terminal of one neuron and the dendrites of another neuron.
Neurons do not physically touch—there is always a gap between them, called a synapse.
EYE AS A CAMERA SYSTEM: Human eye is a specialized sense organ capable of receiving visual images.
It collects light from the visible world around us and converts it into nerve impulses. The optic nerve transmits
these signals to the brain, which forms an image so thereby providing sight.

The human eye can be analogized to a camera system, as both the eye and a camera capture light and
convert it into an image. The main components of the eye that correspond to a camera system include:

Shutter:
 Eye: The eyelid acts like a shutter, opening and closing to protect the eye and regulate the duration of
light exposure. Blinking helps to keep the eye moist and remove debris.
 Camera: A camera has a shutter mechanism that opens and closes to control the duration of light
exposure, measured in fractions of a second.

Aperture
 Eye: The iris, the colored part of the eye and the pupil functions as an adjustable aperture. The iris
controls the size of the pupil, which is the opening that lets light into the eye. In bright light, the pupil
constricts to reduce the amount of light entering the eye; in dim light, it dilates to allow more light in.
 Camera: A camera has an aperture that can be adjusted to control the amount of light reaching the sensor
or film.

Lens:
 Eye: The eye's lens is a transparent, flexible structure that changes shape to focus light on the retina,
much like a camera lens. The ciliary muscles adjust the lens's curvature to focus on objects at different
distances, a process known as accommodation.
 Camera: A camera has a lens that can be adjusted manually or automatically to focus light onto the
sensor or film.

Sensor:
 Eye: The retina at the back of the eye functions as the sensor. It is lined with photoreceptor cells (rods
and cones) that detect light and convert it into electrical signals. Rods are sensitive to low light levels
and help with night vision, while cones detect color and fine detail.
 Camera: Modern digital cameras use an electronic sensor to capture light and convert it into digital data.
Film cameras use photosensitive film to record images.

Image Processing:
  Eye: Once the retina converts light into electrical signals, these signals are transmitted via the optic
nerve to the brain. The brain processes these signals to create a coherent visual image, integrating
information about color, depth, and motion.
 Camera: In a digital camera, the sensor’s data is processed by the camera’s image processor, which
adjusts factors like color balance, sharpness, and exposure before storing the image in memory.

Optic Nerve:
 Eye: The optic nerve is a bundle of nerve fibers that transmits electrical signals from the retina to the
brain. These signals are processed by the brain to create a visual image.
 Camera: In a digital camera, after the sensor captures the image, the data is transferred via a data cable
(if connected to a computer) or stored on a memory card. This data transfer allows the image to be
processed, viewed, edited, and stored.

It's important to note that the eye is much more complex than a camera and has several additional functions,
such as adjusting for different levels of light and adjusting focus, that are not found in a camera. The eye also
has the ability to perceive depth and color, as well as adjust to movements and provide a continuous, real-time
image to the brain.

HEART AS A PUMP SYSTEM

The human heart is a four-chambered muscular organ, shaped and sized roughly like a man's closed fist
with two-thirds of the mass to the left of midline. The heart is enclosed in a pericardial sac that is lined with the
parietal layers of a serous membrane. The sac contains a thin serous fluid which acts as a lubricant for the
mechanical activity of the heart. An average heart beats maximum of 70-80 beats per minute and is considered
healthy. Heart consists of four chambers: the right atrium, the left atrium, the right ventricle, and the left
ventricle.
 The heart is a complex pump system that circulates blood throughout the body. It is a single organ,
which acts as a double pump. The organization of the vascular system consists of two type’s viz., the pulmonary
and the systemic circulation.

 The first pump carries oxygen-poor blood to your lungs, where it unloads carbon dioxide and
picks up oxygen. It then delivers oxygen-rich blood back to your heart.
 The second pump delivers oxygen-rich blood to every part of your body.

The deoxygenated blood first enters the right atrium from the body via two large blood vessels called the
superior vena cava and the inferior vena cava and is pumped into the right ventricle, through the tricuspid valve.
The ventricle pushes blood through the pulmonic valve into the pulmonary artery that carries blood to the lungs
where it gets oxygenated. Oxygenated blood returns to the heart through the pulmonary vein and enters the left
atrium, and then through the mitral valve blood enters the left ventricle. The left ventricle then pumps blood
through the aortic valve and into the aorta. The aorta is the artery that feeds the rest of the body through a
system of blood vessels.

To regulate the flow of blood within the chambers and between the chambers and blood vessels, there
are 4 one-way cardiac valves that ensure the blood flows in the correct direction and prevent backflow they are
pulmonic, tricuspid, mitral and aortic valves.

ELECTRICAL SIGNALING:

The heart's pumping action is controlled by a complex network of electrical and chemical signals, which
generate the rhythm of the heartbeat. Each beat of the heart (cardiac cycle) starts with electrical activation of the
atria then of the ventricles. The sequence is the same for the right and left chambers.
 An electrical stimulus is generated in a special part of the heart muscle called the sinus node. It's also
called the sinoatrial node (SA node). The sinus node is a small mass of special tissue in the right upper chamber
of the heart (right atrium). In an adult, the sinus node sends out a regular electrical pulse 60 to 100 times per
minute. This electrical pulse travels down through the conduction pathways and causes the heart's lower
chambers (ventricles) to contract and pump out blood. The right and left atria are stimulated first and contract to
push blood from the atria into the ventricles. The ventricles then contract to push blood out into the blood
vessels of the body.

Kidney as a filtration system (architecture, mechanism of filtration, CKD, dialysis systems).

The kidney is a complex organ that acts as a filtration system for the body. The main role of the kidneys
is not only excretion, but they also assist in maintaining homeostasis. They manage fluid levels, electrolyte
balance, and other factors that keep the internal environment of the body consistent and comfortable. These
organs carry out a wide range of bodily functions. The key functions of kidney can be summarized as follows:
 Waste excretion: The kidneys remove various waste products and get rid of them in the urine.
 Maintains body’s electrolyte-water balance: both body fluid volume and composition of the body fluids
 Regulating blood pressure
 Secretion of hormones such as Erythropoietin, Renin and Vitamin D3
 Regulate pH of blood.

KIDNEYS: The kidneys are two bean-shaped organs, each about the size of a fist. They are located just below
the rib cage, one on each side of your spine. The right kidney is generally slightly lower than the left kidney to
make space for the liver. A tough, fibrous renal capsule surrounds each kidney and provides support for the soft
tissue inside, additionally there is a renal fat pad, protecting the kidneys from external force or damage.
 Inside the kidneys are a number of pyramid-shaped lobes. Each consists of an outer renal cortex and an
inner renal medulla. The kidney is composed of functional units called nephrons, which are the basic structural
and functional units of the kidney. Each kidney contains approximately one million nephrons, and each nephron
performs the functions of filtration, reabsorption, and secretion.
URETER: The kidneys excrete urine through the ureter, two thin tubes that lead to the bladder.
URINARY BLADDER: it stores urine
URETHRA: The urethra is a tube that connects the urinary bladder to the urinary meatus for the removal of
urine from the body

ARCHITECTURE OF NEPHRON: The nephrons are the functional units of the kidneys. The nephron is
comprised two different parts
RENAL CORPUSCLE
 Bowman's capsule: This is a cup-shaped structure that contains the vascular region
 Glomeruli: A network of tiny blood vessels within the Bowman's capsule. The Bowman’s capsule and
the glomeruli are together referred to as renal corpuscles.
RENAL TUBULES
 Proximal convoluted tubule: A segment of the renal tubule that reabsorbs important substances, such as
glucose, amino acids, and electrolytes, back into the bloodstream.
 Loop of Henle: A U-shaped segment (like a hairpin) of the renal tubule that is critical for the
reabsorption of ions and water.
 Distal convoluted tubule: A segment of the renal tubule that regulates the levels of electrolytes and other
important substances in the bloodstream.
 Collecting duct: A series of ducts that collect the filtrate from the renal tubules and transport it to the
renal pelvis, where it drains into the ureter and eventually into the bladder.
The nephrons are surrounded by a network of blood vessels, including the afferent arteriole and the
efferent arteriole, which bring blood into and out of the glomerulus, respectively.

MECHANISM OF FILTRATION:

The mechanism of filtration in the kidneys is a complex process that involves multiple steps to remove
waste and excess fluids from the bloodstream. There are three stages involved in the process of urine formation.
They are-
1. Glomerular filtration or ultra-filtration: this takes place in the renal corpuscle region. The afferent
arterioles supplying blood to glomerular capsule carries useful as well as harmful substances. The
useful substances are glucose, amino acids, vitamins, hormones, electrolytes, ions etc. and the harmful
substances are metabolic wastes such as urea, uric acids, creatinine, ions, etc. The diameter of efferent
arterioles is narrower than afferent arterioles. Due to this difference in diameter of arteries, blood
leaving the glomerulus creates the pressure that results in filtration of blood. Water and other small
molecules like glucose, amino acids, uric acid, urea, electrolytes readily pass through the filtration slits
but blood cells, plasma proteins and other large molecules are too large therefore remain in the blood
capillaries.
 2. Selective reabsorption: As the filtrate passes to the renal tubules, useful substances including some water,
electrolytes and organic nutrients such as glucose, amino acids, vitamins hormones etc. are selectively
reabsorbed from the filtrate back into the blood in the proximal convoluted tubule. Much of the water,
sodium and chloride, is reabsorbed in the Henle’s loop. Reabsorption of some substance is passive,
while some substances are actively transported. Major portion of water is reabsorbed by Osmosis.
3. Tubular secretion: Tubular secretion is the transfer of materials from peritubular capillaries to the renal
tubular lumen. Excess K+ ion, hydrogen ions (H+), creatinine are actively secreted into the filtrate to be
excreted. Substances such as , e.g. drugs including penicillin and aspirin, may not be entirely filtered out
of the blood because of the short time it remains in the glomerulus. Such substances are cleared by
secretion from the peritubular capillaries into the filtrate within the convoluted tubules.
This process of filtration, reabsorption, and secretion helps to maintain the proper balance of fluids
and electrolytes in the body, as well as to remove waste and excess substances. The composition of
human urine includes Water – 95%, Urea – 2%, Uric acids, creatinine, pigments- 0.3% and Inorganic
salts – 2%.
LUNGS AS PURIFICATION SYSTEM:
The lungs are the prime organs of the respiratory system that facilitate gas exchange between the
environment and the bloodstream. The oxygen we inhale diffuses across the thin alveolar and capillary walls
into the bloodstream in the lungs, and carbon dioxide diffuses in the opposite direction, from the bloodstream
into the alveoli to be exhaled. This process ensures that the bloodstream is supplied with fresh, oxygen-rich air,
while waste carbon dioxide is removed from the body. In addition to gas exchange, the respiratory system
performs other important roles like:
 Filtration: The nose and mouth serve as a first line of defense against harmful substances in the air, such
as dust, dirt, and bacteria. The tiny hairs in the nose, called cilia, and the mucus produced by the
respiratory system trap these substances and prevent them from entering the lungs.
 Moisturization: The air is also humidified as it passes over the moist epithelial cell lining of the
respiratory tract, which helps to keep the airways moist and prevent them from drying out.
 Warming: warming up of air, as the temperature of air reaching the alveoli should be brought back to
body temperature, for better diffusion of gas.
 Balancing pH Levels: By regulating the levels of carbon dioxide in the blood, the lungs help maintain
the body's acid-base balance. Excess carbon dioxide is converted into carbonic acid, which dissociates
into hydrogen ions and bicarbonate. By exhaling carbon dioxide, the lungs help reduce acidity in the
blood, keeping the pH within a narrow, healthy range.
 Overall, the lung serves as a vital purification and air filtering system, filtering out harmful substances, and
adding oxygen to the bloodstream, and removing waste carbon dioxide. It plays a critical role in maintaining the
body's homeostasis and supporting life.

ARCHITECTURE
The respiratory system includes a network of organs and tissues that help us breathe. The system helps the body
absorb oxygen from the air, eliminate the carbon dioxide. The major organs of the respiratory system are the
pair of lungs, each lung houses structures of both the conducting and respiratory zones.
The conducting zones includes the part starting with the external nostrils up to the terminal bronchioles,
 External nostrils: Pair of external nostrils opens out above the upper lips. It leads to a nasal chamber
through the nasal passage. The nasal chamber opens into the
 Pharynx: common passage for food and air. The pharynx opens through the larynx region into the
trachea.
 Trachea: The pharynx opens through the larynx region (sound box) into the trachea. Trachea is a
straight tube extending up to the mid-thoracic cavity, which divides at the level of 5th thoracic vertebra
into a right and left primary bronchi. It is lined with cilia and mucus-secreting glands that help to filter
out harmful substances and trap them in the mucus.
 Bronchi and bronchioles: The trachea branches into two main bronchi, one for each lung. Each
bronchus undergoes repeated divisions to form the secondary and tertiary bronchi and bronchioles
ending up in very thin terminal bronchioles. The tracheae, primary, secondary and tertiary bronchi, and
initial bronchioles are supported by incomplete cartilaginous rings. Each terminal bronchiole gives rise
to alveoli.
The respiratory or exchange part of the respiratory system includes the alveoli and their ducts
 Alveoli: are the structural and functional units of respiratory system, they are very thin, irregular-walled
and vascularized (lined with a network of capillaries), bag-like structures. Exchange part is the site of
actual diffusion of O2 and CO2 between blood and atmospheric air.
 Lungs: The branching network of bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli comprise the lungs. The lungs are
pyramid-shaped, paired organs that are connected to the trachea by the right and left bronchi and
situated in the thoracic chamber which is anatomically an air-tight chamber. The lungs are the major
organs of the respiratory system, and are divided into sections, or lobes. The right lung has three lobes
and is slightly larger than the left lung, which has two lobes. The lungs are separated by
the mediastinum. This area contains the heart, trachea, esophagus, and many lymph nodes. The lungs are
covered by a protective membrane known as the pleura and are separated from the abdominal cavity by
the muscular diaphragm.