CHDX1182
MODULE - 3
BATTERIES
Dr. S. Bhagavathy
Department of Chemistry
September 2024
ELECTROCHEMICAL DEVICES
Electrochemical and electrolytic cell
Batteries: types (primary, secondary and flow cell)
Primary batteries: dry cell, alkaline battery
Secondary batteries: nickel cadmium cell – lead acid storage cell
- lithium battery:
primary and secondary type - PN junction solar cell, thin film
solar cell.
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ELECTROCHEMISTRY
Electrochemistry deals with the interactions between
electrical energy and chemical energy.
These interactions are of two types
i) Conversion of electrical energy into chemical
energy (reaction) – Electrolytic cell
ii) Conversion of chemical energy (reaction) into
electrical energy – Electrochemical Cell
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ELECTROLYTIC CELL
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ELECTROCHEMICAL CELL
(VOLTAIC OR GALVANIC CELL)
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BATTERIES
• They are electrochemical cells connected in series
• Batteries are store houses of electrical energy
• They are used as a source of direct electric current
at constant voltage.
Three main types
Primary Battery: These are non rechargeable & are
meant for single use& discarded after use.
Secondary Battery: Voltaic cells whose electrochemical
reactions can be reversed by a current of electrons
running through the battery after the discharge of an
electrical current.
Flow Battery or Fuel cell: materials
(reactant/product/electrolyte) flow or pass through a
battery to convert chemical to electrical energy
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PRIMARY AND SECONDARY BATTERY
Primary cells Secondary cells
1. These are non- 1. These are rechargeable and
rechargeable and meant meant for multi cycle use.
for a single use and to be
discarded after use.
2. Cell reaction is not 2. Cell reaction can be
reversible. reversed.
3. Cannot be rechargeable. 3. Can be rechargeable.
4. Less expensive. 4. expensive.
5. Can be used as long as the 5. Can be used again and
materials are active in again by recharging the
their composition. cell.
Eg: Leclanche cell, Eg; Lead- acid cell, Ni-cd
alkaline Cells. cells.
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DRY CELL – LECLANCHE CELL
In this cell the reactions are irreversible
It is also known as Dry cell
Anode- Zinc container
Cathode- Carbon/graphite rod
Anode reaction
Zn→ Zn2++2e-
Cathode reaction
2NH4++ 2MnO2 + 2e- → Mn2O3 + 2NH3 +H2O
Overall Cell reaction
2MnO2 + 2NH4Cl + Zn → Zn(NH3)2Cl2 + Mn2O3 + H2O
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DRY CELL – LECLANCHE CELL - DESCRIPTION
The anode of the cell is zinc can (or
container) containing an electrolyte
consisting of NH4CI, ZnCl2 and MnO2 to
which starch is added to make it thick
paste-like so that it is less likely to leak.
A carbon (graphite) rod serves as the
cathode, which is immersed in the
electrolyte in the centre of the cell.
Essentially, it involves the reduction of
MnO2 to a series of compounds having
Mn in +3 oxidation state.
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ALKALINE CELL
This is also a primary cell
Here, NH4Cl is replaced by KOH
Anode- Zinc container
Cathode- graphite rod
Alkaline battery is an improved form of the dry cell, in which the
NH4Cl is replaced by KOH as the electrolyte. In this battery, zinc in
powdered form is mixed with KOH to get a gel. Graphite rod is
surrounded by a paste containing MnO2. The outside body is made of
zinc. The cell reactions are:
Anode reaction
Zn + 2 OH- → Zn(OH)2 + 2e-
Cathode reaction
2MnO2 + H2O + 2e- → Mn2O3 + 2 OH-
Overall Cell reaction
Zn + 2MnO2 + H2O → Zn(OH)2 + Mn2O3 10
DRY CELL OR ALKALINE CELL
Uses: all the use and throw
batteries for toys, watches,
etc
Advantages of alkaline battery
1. Zn does not dissolve in
basic medium (KOH)
2. Maintains better voltage
3. Longer life as no corrosion
of Zn
Comparison
Dry cell: NH4Cl and ZnCl2
For alkaline cell: KOH
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ASSIGNMENT-2
Batteries – Single A3 sheet
Dry cell
Alkaline Battery
Lead Acid Storage Battery
Nickel Cadmium Battery
Science and Technology
[Link] Rahman Crescent Institute of
Lithium Battery
Submit on or Before 10th October 2024
Description required for each battery
Picture / Diagram
Type of battery (pri / sec, any special features)
Anode, Cathode and electrolyte
Chemical reaction – anodic, cathodic and overall
Working – Explanatino in 2-3 lines
Applications / Uses
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A STORAGE CELL OR BATTERY
A storage cell is one that can operate both as a voltaic cell and
as an electrical cell. When operating as a voltaic cell, it
supplies electrical energy and as a result eventually becomes
"run down".
Science and Technology
[Link] Rahman Crescent Institute of
It must then be recharged. When being recharged, the cell
operates as an electrolytic cell.
Thus, storage cell has the great advantage of its ability to work
both ways, to receive electrical energy and also to supply it.
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LEAD-ACID STORAGE BATTERY
This is a Secondary battery
Acidic type storage battery
Needs to be recharged after run down
Anode- Pb plates
Cathode- PbO2 paste in lead
Electrolyte: H2SO4
The Lead-acid storage battery of 12V is commonly used
in automobiles consists of six identical cells joined
together in series.
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Pb-acid storage battery – construction and working
Science and Technology
[Link] Rahman Crescent Institute of
The common example of a storage cell is the lead-acid storage cell.
Its anode electrode is lead. And cathode electrode is made of a paste
of PbO2 is pressed into a grid, made of lead.
A number of lead plates (-ve plates) are connected in parallel and a
number of lead dioxide plates (+ve plates) are also connected in
parallel. The lead plates fits in-between the lead dioxide plates.
Various plates are separated from the adjacent ones by insulators
like strips of wood or rubber or glass fibre.
The entire combination is then immersed in approximately 20 to 21%
dil. H2SO4 corresponding to a density of 1.2 to 1.3 g/cc 15
Pb-acid storage battery – construction and working
Discharging: When the storage cell is operating as a voltaic cell, it is
said to be discharging. The lead electrode loses electrons, which flow
through the wire. Cell is operating as a voltaic cell supplying electrical
In this reaction, oxidation of lead takes place at the anode.
The electrons released from the anode (lead plate) flows to the PbO2
electrode. Here PbO2 gains electrons to form Pb2+ ions. In other words,
lead undergoes reduction at the cathode from oxidation state +4 to +2.
The Pb2+ ions then combine with SO42- ions.
Anode reaction
Pb + HSO4- → PbSO4 + H+ + 2e-
Cathode reaction
PbO2 + HSO4- + 3H+ + 2e- → PbSO4 + 2H2O
Cell reaction
Pb + PbO2 + 2H+ + 2HSO4-→ 2PbSO4 + 2H2O + Energy
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Operation of a lead storage battery
(1) Since the electrochemical reaction during discharge consumes
sulphuric acid, the degree to which the battery has been discharged can
be checked by measuring the density of fluid in it with a hydrometer.
The density of a "healthy" fully charged battery should be ≥ 1.2 g/cm3.
(2) People living in cold climates sometime have trouble starting their
cars, because the battery has "gone dead"! However, calculations for a
lead storage battery show that there is a decrease in voltage of 1.5 x 10 V
for every drop in temperature. Consequently, even for a 40 °C change in
temperature (30°C to -10°C) in hilly areas in cold weather, the decrease
in voltage = 6 x 10-3 V, which is only about 0.05% of 12 V (the operating
voltage). So lowering of temperature causes significant change in
voltage. So the real cause of breakdown is due to the increase in the
density of the fluid as temperature decreases. So appears DEAD
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LEAD-ACID STORAGE BATTERY
Applications
1. Automobile and construction
equipment.
2. Standby / backup system
3. For engine batteries
Advantages
Low cost
long life cycle
Ability to withstand mistreatment perform well in high
temperature.
Disadvantages
(1) Density, viscosity and temperature crucial for its
operation. These changes will not allow it to function.
(2) Lead is toxic to environment i.e. ecosytem. 18
NICKEL-CADMIUM BATTERY NICAD
This is a Secondary battery (NiCd)
It is an alkaline type storage battery
Needs to be recharged after run down
Anode- Cadmium
Cathode- NiO(OH) (KOH) paste Nickel oxyhydroxide
Electrolyte: KOH
Portable
Rechargeable
No gases produced during Satellite battery
charging and discharging
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NICKEL-CADMIUM BATTERY NICAD
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NICAD – CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING
The reaction can be readily reversed, because
the reaction products, Ni(OH)2 and Cd(OH)2,
adhere to the electrode surfaces.
Nickel-cadmium battery, fairly recently
developed, is a portable, rechargeable cell and
its cell voltage is fairly constant (about 1.4 V).
Like a dry cell, it can be packed in a sealed
container.
It can be left for long periods of time without
any appreciable deterioration, since no gases
are produced during discharging (or charging).
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NICAD BATTERY
Advantages
They are more resistant to temperature extremes.
They have a higher power density (they can store
more energy per unit of weight)
The components are solid paste and leak proof.
Hence it can be used in portable devices.
Longer life span
Disadvantages
Expensive
Cd is toxic like that of lead
Applications
Portable power tools
Photography equipment
Flashlights, emergency lighting
Portable electronic devices
Alarm systems
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LITHIUM ION BATTERY
Li-ion batteries are secondary batteries.
A lithium-ion or Li-ion battery is a type of rechargeable battery
that uses the reversible intercalation of Li+ ions into
electronically conducting solids to store energy.
Anode : Lithium (dissolved as ions, into a carbon)
Cathode: material is made up from Lithium liberating
compounds, typically the three electro-active oxide
materials,
• Lithium Cobalt-oxide (LiCoO2 )
• Lithium Manganese-oxide (LiMn2O4 )
• Lithium Nickel-oxide (LiNiO2)
Electrolyte : Dry solid polymer (PEG/PAN/PMMA) with LiPF6
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LITHIUM BATTERY
Lithium battery is made up of an anode,
cathode, separator, electrolyte, and two
current collectors (positive and
negative).
The anode and cathode store the
lithium.
The electrolyte carries positively charged lithium ions from the anode
to the cathode and vice versa through the separator.
The movement of the lithium ions creates free electrons in the anode
which creates a charge at the positive current collector. The electrical
current then flows from the current collector through a device being
powered (cell phone, computer, etc.) to the negative current collector.
The separator blocks the flow of electrons inside the battery.
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LITHIUM ION BATTERY
Advantages
➢ They have high energy density than other rechargeable
batteries
➢ They are less weight
➢ They produce high voltage out about 4 V as compared with
other batteries.
➢ They have improved safety, i.e. more resistance to over
voltage.
➢ No liquid electrolyte means they are immune from leaking
➢ Fast charge and discharge rate
Disadvantage
➢ They are expensive
➢ They are not available in standard cell types.
➢ Durability depends on temperature
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APPLICATION OF LI BATTERY
➢ The Li-ion batteries are used in cameras, calculators
➢ They are used in cardiac pacemakers and other
implantable device
➢ They are used in telecommunication equipment,
instruments, portable radios and TVs, pagers
➢ They are used to operate laptop computers and mobile
phones and aerospace application
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FUEL CELLS / FLOW CELLS
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SOLAR CELLS
Solar cells are semi-conductor devices which use sunlight to
produce electricity. They are manufactured and processed in a
similar fashion as computer memory chips.
Solar cells are primarily made up of silicon which absorbs the
photons emitted by sun's rays.
Works on the principle of photovoltaic cell i.e. generation of
voltage across the PN junction in a semiconductor due to the 28
absorption of light radiation
SOLAR CELL - CONSTRUCTION
Solar cells consists of a n-type and p-type semi-conductor layers.
The two layers are sandwiched and hence there is formation of p-n
junction.
The surface is coated with anti-reflection coating to avoid the loss
of incident light energy due to reflection.
A proper metal contacts are made on the n-type and p-type side of
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the semiconductor for electrical connection.
SOLAR CELL - WORKING
When a solar panel is exposed to sunlight, the light energies are
absorbed by a semiconductor material.
Due to this absorbed energy, the electrons are liberated and
produce the external DC current.
The DC current is converted into 240-volt AC current using an
inverter for different applications.
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SOLAR CELLS
Advantages Disadvantage
➢ Clean and non-polluting ➢ Solar panels are very expensive
➢ It is a renewable energy ➢ Energy needs to be stored in
➢ Does not produce noise batteries
➢ Require little maintenance ➢ Weather condition crucial for its
➢ Have a long life time production
➢ No fuel required and (Works only during sunshine)
hence no fuel cost. ➢ Costly equipment
➢ Reliability depends on location
Application
Domestic power supply, electric generation in ISS, water heating,
electric power to satellites, solar water pumps, etc
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THIN FILM SOLAR CELLS
Thin-film solar cells are a type of solar
cell that are made by depositing thin
layers of photovoltaic material on a
substrate, such as glass, plastic, or
metal. They are much thinner than
conventional crystalline silicon solar
cells.
Thin-film solar cells are typically a few nanometers (nm) to a few
microns (μm) thick–much thinner than the wafers used in
conventional crystalline silicon (c-Si) based solar cells, which can be
up to 200 μm thick.
Made of cadmium telluride (CdTe), copper indium gallium
diselenide (CIGS), and amorphous thin-film silicon (a-Si, TF-Si).
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THIN FILM SOLAR CELLS
In a thin-film solar cell, the active
semiconducting layer is made much thinner
due to intrinsic property of the
semiconducting material used that allows it
to convert a particularly large number of
photons per thickness.
These thin-film materials have a direct
bandgap, meaning the conduction and
valence band electron states are at the same
momentum instead of different momenta as
in the case of an indirect bandgap
semiconductor like silicon.
Having a direct bandgap eliminates the need
for a source or sink of momentum
simplifying the two-step process of
absorbing a photon into a single-step
process. 33
THIN FILM SOLAR CELLS
Application
Photovoltaic cells on curved surfaces such as buses,
street lights, traffic lights, etc
Portable and wearable power sources (sensors,
telecommunication devices)
Advantages Disadvantage
➢ Light weight ➢ Low efficiency
➢ Inexpensive ➢ Less durable
➢ Flexible ➢ Toxic compounds (Like Cd, Te,
➢ Low carbon foot print etc)
➢ Quick back period ➢ More complex to make
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END OF MODULE – 3 BATTERIES
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