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com

Introduction
Network is the interconnection of a set of devices capable of
communication.
There may be 2 kinds of devices in the network
1. Host:- also called end system. (desktop, laptop, cell phone)
2. Connecting Devices:- connects to other devices(modem, router, switch)
Network Criteria
1. Performance(evaluated by throughput and delay)
2. Reliability(evaluated by frequency of failure)
3. Scalability(Adding processing capacity)
4. Security(protecting data from unauthorized access)

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Introduction
Application of Computer Networks
1. Business Application
a) Resource Sharing
b) High Reliability
c) Saving Money
2. Home Application
a) Access to Remote Information(WWW)
b) Person to Person communication
c) Interactive Entertainment(Live TV, Games)

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Merits
• Allows File Sharing/ Resource Sharing
• Inexpensive System
• Flexible to be Used
• Increase in Storage Capacity of the Software

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Demerits
• Security Difficulties(Hacking)
• Presence of Computer Viruses and Other Malwares
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Network Models
• There are several classification for networks
• Classification based on Scale(size)
• Classification based on Topology
• Classification based on Architecture

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Network Models : Based on Scale

• According to the scale(size) of the networks is classified into following
1. PAN (Personal Area Network)
2. LAN (Local Area Network)
3. CAN (Campus Area Network)
4. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
5. DAN (Desert Area Network)
6. CAN* (Country Area Network)
7. WAN (Wide Area Network)
8. GAN (Global Area Network)
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Personal Area Network(PAN)

• Used for data transmission among devices such as computers, mobile
phones, PDA etc.
• Within few meters like 10 meters only
• Medium : Bluetooth, Infrared
• Only very few connections will be available

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Local Area Network(LAN)

• It is a computer network that spans a relatively small area
• Most LANs are confined to a single building or group of buildings
• One LAN can be connected to other LANs over any distance via
telephone lines and radio waves (WAN)
• Medium: optical fibers, coaxial cables, twisted pair, wireless.
• Low latency (except in high traffic periods).
• High speed networks (0.2 Mb/sec to 1Gb/sec).
• Speeds adequate for most distributed systems

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Campus Area Network(CAN)

• Computer network that links the buildings and consists of two or
more local area networks (LANs) within the limited geographical area
• It can be the college campus, enterprise campus, office buildings,
military base, industrial complex
• CAN is one of the type of MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) on the
area smaller than MAN
• The Campus networks usually use the LAN technologies, such as
Ethernet, Token Ring, Fibber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI), Fast
Ethernet, Gigabit Ethernet, Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
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Metropolitan Area Network(MAN)

• Metropolitan Area Network, are data networks designed for a town In
terms of geographic breadth
• MANs are larger than local area networks (LANs), but smaller than
wide-area networks s)
• MANs are usually characterized by very high-speed connections using
fiber optical cable or other digital media
Features:
• Generally covers towns and cities (50 kms)
• Medium: optical fibers, cables.
• Data rates adequate for distributed computing applications.
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Metropolitan Area Network

• MAN is usually not privately owned by an organization (Like banks,
MNC)
• Access to a MAN is usually trough a network provider who sells the
service to the users
• MAN often acts as a high speed network to allow sharing of regional
resources
• It is also frequently used to provide a shared connection to other
networks using a link to a WAN

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Country Area Network(CAN*)

• It’s wide area network which is limited to country
• It consist of more than one MAN
• It may be extended up to thousands kms
• It is more public network owned by some public organization or
governments
• Example: In Nepal NTC have CAN*
•

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Wide Area Network(WAN)

• A computer network that spans a relatively large geographical area
• WAN consists of two or more local-area networks (LANs).
• Computers connected to a wide-area network are often connected
through public networks, such as the telephone system
• They can also be connected through leased lines or satellites
• The largest WAN in existence is the Internet

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Global Area Network(GAN)

• A global area network (GAN) refers to a network composed of
different interconnected networks that cover an unlimited
geographical area.
• The term is loosely synonymous with Internet, which is considered a
global area network.

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Topology
Topology :- Physical inter connection between different node
Node:- End device in computer network(Laptop, mobile, desktop, PDA,
tablet etc.)
Various Topologies are:-
• Bus
• Ring
• Star
• Mesh
• Tree
• Hybrid
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Bus
• In this system there are 8 nodes Figure : Bus Topology
connected to network using 2
1 3 4
common connection also called
bus Bus

• All communication is done with

help of bus. 5 6 7 8

Advantage: Consider if node 1 is

Less expensive communicating with 5 other node
have to wait for data transfer till
Disadvantage 1-5 finished the communication is
Only one connection at a time completed

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Ring
• Data travels in circular fashion from
one computer to another on the 1
network.
• Typically FDDI, SONET or Token Ring 2 3
technology are used to implement a
ring network
• Data access based on token 4 5
• Only one way data transfer
• Data passed through intermediate
nodes to destination Consider if data transfer from
node 1 to 2, It will pass through
3,5,4 and reaches 2
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Ring
Advantages Disadvantage
• A central server is not required for • Failure of a single node in the network
the management can cause the entire network to fail.
• Traffic is unidirectional and the data • Less secured because of intermediate
transmission is high-speed. nodes
• Comparison to a bus, a ring is better
• Lower speed because of intermediate
at handling load.
nodes
• Easier configuration and fault
detection
• Less expensive than a star topology.

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Star
• All computers/devices connect
to a central device called hub or 1
switch.
• Each device requires a single
4 Hub/Switch 2
cable
• Point-to-point connection
between the device and hub. 3
• Most widely implemented
• Hub/Switch is the single point of
failure

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Star
Advantages Disadvantage
• Due to its centralized nature, the • Network operation depends on the
topology offers simplicity of functioning of the central hub. Hence,
operation central hub failure leads to failure of
• Isolation of each device in the the entire network
network • Also, the number of nodes that can be
• Adding or removing network nodes is added, depends on the capacity of the
easy, and can be done without central hub
affecting the entire network • The setup cost is quite high.
• Due to the centralized nature, it is
easy to detect faults in the network
devices
• As the analysis of traffic is easy, the
topology poses lesser security risk
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Mesh
• Each computer connects to
every other.
1 2
• High level of redundancy.
• Rarely used
• Wiring is very complicate
• Cabling cost is high 3 4

• Troubleshooting a failed cable is

tricky

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Mesh
Advantages Disadvantages
• Possible to transmit data from one • Many connections serve no major
node to many other nodes at the purpose
same time • Lot of cabling is required
• Failure of a single node does not • Costs incurred in setup and
cause the entire network to fail as
there are alternate paths for data maintenance are high
transmission • Administration of a mesh network is
• It can handle heavy traffic, as there difficult
are dedicated paths between any two
network nodes
• Point-to-point contact between every
pair of nodes, makes it easy to
identify faults

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Tree
• Hierarchical structure like
inverted tree 1 Level 1

• Top node (node 1) is the root Level 2

2 3
node
• It should at least have 3 levels 4 5 6 7 Level 3
• Ideal for nodes that are grouped
for some specific job

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Tree
Advantages Disadvantages
• Expansion of nodes is possible • Heavily cabled
and easy • Costly
• Easily managed and maintained • If more nodes are added
• Error detection is easily done maintenance is difficult
• If one node fails all nodes under
it will be out of the network

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Hybrid
• Two or more different types of Advantages
topologies which is a mixture of • Effective
two or more topologies
• Scalable
• For example if in an office in one
department ring topology is • Flexible
used and in another star Disadvantages
topology is used, connecting • Complex in design
these topologies will result in
Hybrid Topology (ring topology • Costly.
and star topology).

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Network Models : Based on Architecture

• Network architecture refers to how computers are organized in a
network and how tasks are allocated between these computers
• Two of the most widely used types of network architecture are
1. Peer-to-Peer(P2P)
2. Client/Server

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Peer to Peer(P2P) 1
P2P
2

• Tasks are allocated among all the members of the network

• No hierarchy(importance) -- All considered equal
• Does not use a central computer server that controls network activity
• All computer on the network has a special software running that
allows for communications between all the computers
• One – One(1:1) relationship
• Peer-to-peer is mostly used for file sharing
• One of the earliest peer-to-peer file sharing networks was Napster
• Now torrent uses this way to share files

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Peer to Peer(P2P)
Advantage
1. Easy to install and configure
2. All the resources and contents are shared by all the peers
3. P2P is more reliable as central dependency is eliminated
4. No need for full-time System Administrator(No central Admin)
5. Cost comparatively very less

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Peer to Peer(P2P)
Disadvantage
1. One person (user / administrator )cannot determine the whole
accessibility setting of whole network
2. Security in this system is very less viruses, spywares,trojans, etc
malwares can easily transmitted over this P-2-P architecture
3. Data recovery or backup is very difficult. Each computer should
have its own back-up system
4. Lot of movies, music and other copyrighted files are transferred
using this type of file transfer. P2P is the technology used in torrents

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Client/Server(Tiered)
• Computing system in which one powerful workstation serves the requests
of other systems
• Server :- Provides services to clients
• Client :- Accept services from server
• Server is central device for managing files , and other resources.
• If server is down all communication among the clients will be down
• Features of Servers :-
1. They have large storage capacity.
2. They are able to provide information to many computers simultaneously,
therefore have large RAM
3. Its processor speed is high, as it may have to execute multi-tasking too

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Client/Server
Advantages Server
1. Centralization
2. Proper Management
C1 C2 C3 Clients
3. Back-up and Recovery possible
4. Upgradation and Scalability in Client-server set-up
5. Accessibility
6. Security

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Client/Server
Disadvantages
1. Congestion in Network(Too many requests at same time)
2. Cost : It is very expensive to install and manage this type of
computing
3. Client-Server architecture is not as robust as a P2P and if the server
fails, the whole network goes down.
4. You need professional IT people to maintain the servers and other
technical details of network.

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Active Networks(ANTS)
• Allows packets flowing through a telecommunications network to
dynamically modify the operation of the network
• Dynamic modification is mainly for improving the performance of the
system
• Real time /Rapid changes in network is allowed
• Usually network packets consist of data only but in ANTS packets
consist of code and data
• Application customized code to be executed in network

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Internet, Intranet & Extranet

• Internet:- Connections between different network/LAN. There will be
outside connection. It is public network
• Intranet:- Connection inside a network/LAN. No outside connection
• Extranet:- Connects 2 or more intranet but not private. It is used to
connect between 2 branches of company or connection between
company and client.

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Reference Model
• 2 important reference models OSI reference model & TCP/IP
reference model
• Also called Protocol Architecture or Layered Architecture
• Mainly define the protocols of communication in layered architecture
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Protocol ???
• Protocol means rule
• In computer networking Protocol means rules for establishing
communication between 2 devices
• Consists of a set of rules that govern data communications
• determines what is communicated, how it is communicated and
when it is communicated
• Key Elements
1. Syntax
2. Semantics
3. Timing
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Syntax, Semantics and Timing

Syntax
• Structure or format of the data
• Indicates how to read the bits - field delineation
• Syntax should be same in sender and receiver for to communicate
Semantics
• Interprets the meaning of the bits
• Knows which fields define what action
• Interpretation of the syntax should be same
Timing
• When data should be sent and what
• Speed at which data should be sent or speed at which it is being received
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ISO/OSI Reference Model

• ISO- International Organisations for Standard
• OSI- Opens System Interconnections
• Stats developing in late 1970s
• Approved by 1984
• The term “Open” in Open System Interconnections denotes “to
communicate with any 2 systems”
• There are 7 layers in OSI Reference model
• It is also called OSI layered architecture /OSI Protocol architecture
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ISO/OSI Reference Model

• The process of breaking up the functions or tasks of networking
into layers reduces complexity.
• Each layer provides a service to the layer above it in the protocol
specification.
• Each layer communicates with the same layer’s software or
hardware on other computers.
• The lower 4 layers are concerned with the flow of data from end to
end through the network
• The upper Three layers of the OSI model are orientated more
toward services to the applications
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ISO/OSI Reference Model- 7 Layers

• Layer 7 –Application Layer
• Layer 6 –Presentation Layer
• Layer 5 –Session Layer
• Layer 4 –Transport Layer
• Layer 3 –Network Layer
• Layer 2 –Data Link Layer
• Layer 1 –Physical Layer
# OSI Consider a receiver system hence Layer 1 at bottom
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ISO/OSI Reference Model- 7 Layers

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ISO/OSI Reference Model- 7 Layers

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Application Layer (Layer 7)

• The application layer is responsible for providing services to the user
• The layer relates to the services that directly support user
applications, such as software for file transfers, database access, and
e-mail, web browsers
• A message to be sent across the network enters and exits the OSI
reference model's a at this layer.
• Protocols works in this layer are HTTP,FTP,DNS..
• HTTP(HyperText Transfer Protocol)
• FTP(File Transfer Protocol)
• DNS(Domain Name System)
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Presentation Layer (Layer 6)

• Defines the format used to exchange data among networked
computers
• Acts like translator (interpreter)
• When computers from dissimilar systems—such as IBM, Apple, and
Sun—need to communicate, a certain amount of translation and byte
reordering must be done
• Within the sending computer, the presentation layer translates data
from the format sent down from the application layer into a
commonly recognized, intermediary format
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Presentation Layer (Layer 6)

• At the receiving computer, this layer translates the intermediary
format into a format that can be useful to that computer's application
layer
• The presentation layer is responsible for converting protocols,
translating the data, encrypting the data, changing or converting the
character set, and expanding graphics commands.
• The presentation layer also manages data compression to reduce the
number of bits that need to be transmitted.
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Session Layer (Layer 5)

• Session is a logical connection between 2 systems
• Layer is responsible creating managing and termination of session
• Also responsible for dialogue management
• 3 Types of Dialogue
1. Simplex : 1 Way Communication(Radio)
2. Half Duplex : 2 Way Communication, But One at a time (Walkie-Talkie)
3. Full Duplex: 2 Way Simultaneous Communication (Telephone)
• Also Provide Security and Check points in data
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Transport Layer (Layer 4)

• Provide a reliable mechanism for the exchange of data between two
processes in different computers.
• Data from above layer is converted into smaller Data Units called
segments
• Segments consist of Port number , Acknowledge number, Sequence
number
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Transport Layer (Layer 4)

• Ensures that the data units are delivered error free, delivered in
sequence, there is no loss or duplication of data units.
• Provides connectionless(UDP) or connection oriented service(TCP).
• Provides for the connection management.
• Multiplex multiple connection over a single channel.
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Transport Layer (Layer 4) TCP vs UDP

TCP( Transmission Control Protocol ) UDP ( User Datagram Protocol )

• Connection Oriented • Connectionless
• Reliable • Unreliable
• Have Acknowledgement • No Acknowledgement
• Have Retransmission • No Retransmission
• Have Sequence Delivery • No Sequence delivery
• Have Handshaking • No Handshake signal
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Transport Layer (Layer 4) - 2 Way Handshaking

• 3 way handshaking signal
establish logical connection
between 2 computers before
data transfer
• Steps involved are:-
1. TCP Connection Request(Syn A
to B)
2. TCP Connection Reply(Ack B to
A)
3. Data Transfer (A to B)
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Network Layer (Layer 3)

• Data units from the Transport layer is converted into packets(IP
Packets)
• Each packet consist of IP Header
• IP header consist of Source IP, Destination IP and several other details
regarding Packet
• IP(Internet Protocol) address helps packet to navigate from source to
destination between different network(internetwork)
• Implements routing of packets through the network
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Network Layer (Layer 3)

• Defines the most optimum path the packet should take from the
source to the destination
• Handles congestion in the network.
• Facilitates interconnection between heterogeneous networks
(Internetworking).
• The network layer also defines how to fragment a packet into smaller
packets to accommodate different media
• Protocol in this layer is IP(Internet Protocol)
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Data Link Layer (Layer 2)

• Packet from network layer is converted to Frames
• Frame consist of frame header
• Frame header consist of source and destination MAC(Media Access
Control) Address
• Data link layer attempts to provide reliable communication over the
physical layer interface
• Create and detect frame boundaries
• Implement flow control, Error control(Parity, Hamming Code)
• Supports points-to-point(unicasting) as well as broadcast communication
• Supports simplex, half-duplex or full-duplex communication
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Physical Layer (Layer 1)

• Convert the frames into bits (0/1) and transmit through medium
• Provides physical interface for transmission of information
• Defines rules by which bits are passed from one system to another
• Covers all - mechanical, electrical, functional and procedural - aspects
for physical communication.
• Such characteristics as voltage levels, timing of voltage changes,
physical data rates, maximum transmission distances, physical
connectors, and other similar attributes are defined by physical layer
specifications.
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OSI Layer Working

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TCP/IP Reference Model

• Also called Internet Reference model
• Consist of 4 layered Architecture
1. Application Layer
2. Transport Layer
3. Internetwork Layer(Internet Layer)
4. Network Access Layer (Network Interface Layer)
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TCP Layer
Application Layer
• Similar to Application Presentation and Session layer in OSI
• Application programs using the network
Transport Layer (TCP/UDP)
• Similar to Transport Layer in OSI
• Only TCP protocol works
• Management of end-to-end message transmission,
• error detection and error correction
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TCP Layer
Internetwork Layer (IP)
• Similar to Network layer in OSI
• IP Address
• Handling of packets : routing and congestion
Network Access Layer
• Similar to Datalink and physical layer in OSI
• Management of cost effective and reliable data delivery,
• access to physical networks
• Physical Media
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TCP/IP vs OSI

Application
Presentation Data Application Data
Session
Transport Segment Transport Segment
Network Packet Internetwork Packet
Data Link Frames Network Frames
Physical Bits Access & Bits
OSI TCP/IP
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TCP/IP Vs OSI

OSI TCP/IP
• 7 Layered architecture • 4 Layered architecture
• Designed for General Network • Internet only
• Supports TC and UDP • Supports only TCP
• Designed both Functionalities of layer • More based on protocols than
and protocol functions
• Defines functionalities of all layer • Only protocol
• Protocols are hidden in OSI model • Difficult to change the protocol in
and are easily replaced as the future
technology changes.
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Connection Oriented Services

There is a sequence of operation to be followed by the users of connection oriented service.
These are:

1. Connection is established.
2. Information is sent.
3. Connection is released.

In connection oriented service we have to establish a connection before starting the

communication. When connection is established, we send the message or the information and
then we release the connection.
Connection oriented service is more reliable than connectionless service. We can send the
message in connection oriented service if there is an error at the receivers end. Example of
connection oriented is TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) protocol.

Connectionless Services
It is similar to the postal services, as it carries the full address where the message (letter) is to be
carried. Each message is routed independently from source to destination. The order of message
sent can be different from the order received.
In connectionless the data is transferred in one direction from source to destination without
checking that destination is still there or not or if it prepared to accept the message.
Authentication is not needed in this. Example of Connectionless service is UDP (User Datagram
Protocol) protocol.

Difference: Connection oriented and Connectionless service

1. In connection oriented service authentication is needed, while connectionless service

does not need any authentication.
2. Connection oriented protocol makes a connection and checks whether message is
received or not and sends again if an error occurs, while connectionless service protocol
does not guarantees a message delivery.
3. Connection oriented service is more reliable than connectionless service.
4. Connection oriented service interface is stream based and connectionless is message
based.